Identification of the specifics of the literary translation of stylistic means from English into Russian
graduate work
1.2 STYLISTIC MEANS OF ARTISTIC SPEECH
translation artistic text stylistic
In a work of fiction, the functions of the word are not limited to the transmission of certain information. Often the word is used for an aesthetic impact on the reader, which becomes possible thanks to artistic images. The brighter and more truthful the image, the stronger its impact on the reader Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G. "Business Rhetoric". Publishing center "March", 2002.
Often, in their works, writers refer not only to the vocabulary of the literary language, but also to obsolete dialect words, as well as to vernacular.
It should be noted that the emotionality of artistic narration is very different from the emotionality of colloquial and journalistic styles. In a literary text, it performs an aesthetic function. This style involves a careful and reasonable selection of language means. hallmark literary text is the use of special figures of speech that add brightness and imagery to the narrative.
Artistic means of expression very varied and numerous. These include tropes: comparisons, personifications, allegories, metaphors, metonymies, synecdoches, and the like. Also, the means of artistic expression include stylistic figures: epithets, hyperbolas, litotes, anaphoras, epiphora, gradations, parallelisms, rhetorical questions, omissions, and the like.
The artistic style is characterized by the use of a large number of tropes (turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense). Ibid
The path is based on the transfer of signs of one object, phenomenon to another. The transfer of signs in the paths is due to various reasons, according to which the paths are divided into simple ones - epithets, comparisons; and complex - metaphors, allegories, ironies, hyperbole and others.
An epithet (from other Greek - “attached”) is a definition of a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love passionately”), a noun (“fun noise”), a numeral (“second life”). Nikitina S. E., Vasilyeva N. V. Experimental system dictionary stylistic terms. M., 1996.
The epithet is also defined as a figurative or poetic definition, thereby emphasizing its opposite to the logical definition of the subject, the task of which is also to concretize the idea of the subject.
Comparison (Latin “comparatio”) is a verbal expression in which the representation of the depicted object is specified by comparing it with another object, such that it contains the features necessary for concretizing the representation in a more concentrated manifestation. For example, “Like the core to the leg, the globe is chained to the foot” (M. Voloshin), in which a sign of shape and heaviness the globe figuratively revealed in a "concentrated" form. Comparison has a trinomial structure: what is compared, or the “subject” of comparison (lat. comparandum), what is compared with, the “image” (lat. comparatum), then, on the basis of which they are compared with each other, a sign, according to to which the comparison takes place (lat. tertіum comparatіonіs).
A group of complex tropes is formed by metaphor, metonymy, as well as irony and sarcasm with their components.
A metaphor (from the Greek “transfer”) is a word whose meaning is transferred to the name of another object associated with the object that this word usually points to by similarities. This is a figurative expression in which the signs of one object or action are transferred to others.
Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) takes place when there is a comparison of certain objects with a little man or living beings and their properties.
Allegory or allegory (Greek allegoria,) - a way of two-level artistic image, which is based on the concealment of real persons, phenomena and objects under specific artistic images with the corresponding associations with the characteristic features of the hidden. For example: “The word says - it will give a ruble” (folklore).
An oxymoron or oxymoron is a kind of metaphor that consists in combining words of opposite meaning, similar to a negative comparison. Ibid
In general, different forms of grammatical expression of metaphor are possible. Most often, it is expressed by a verb and its forms or by an adjective (a metaphorical epithet), as a result of which, in particular, a metaphor expressed by a noun is perceived better. Losev A.F. The problem of artistic style. Kyiv. 1994
Metonymy is the second large group of complex tropes, which includes figurative expressions in which an object or phenomenon is described by replacing the name of another object or phenomenon associated with the first external or internal connection. For example, such an expression as "the whole theater applauded" contains the metonymy expressed by the word "theater". This word is used here not in a direct, but in a figurative sense, since, speaking in this way, we do not mean that the theater applauded, but the audience who were in it. At the same time, the concepts of "theatre" and "spectators" are in close relationship, acting as close by their very nature, real, and not conditional, as is the case in the metaphor. Metonymy is often identified with metaphor, or considered as a variation of it. However, they must still be distinguished. In this case, the metonymy of place, time, space and belonging can be used.
Synecdoche, paraphrase, hyperbole, and litotes act as varieties of metonymy itself.
Synecdoche - one of the most common types of metonymy - a figurative expression based on a quantitative comparison of objects, phenomena; on the replacement of a part of the whole, one object - their totality.
Paraphrase (Greek “description, retelling”) is a figurative expression in which the name of an object or phenomenon is replaced by a description of its features. For example: instead of A. Pushkin, you can say - the author of the poem "Eugene Onegin."
Hyperbole (Greek "exaggeration") is a figurative expression that represents an artistic exaggeration of the size, strength, meaning of an object, phenomenon. Many examples of hyperbole catchphrases: “have not seen each other for a hundred years”, “fast as lightning”, etc.
Unlike hyperbole, litotes, on the contrary, provide for an artistic reduction in signs, for example. Hyperbole and litotes are always based on an element of a certain absurdity, a sharp opposition to common sense.
Irony as a trope is a figurative expression in which a word or group of words takes on the opposite meaning of the main one. And sarcasm is an evil, bitter irony.
Ironic or sarcastic intonation reveals itself in the context, more or less close proximity to other statements of the author, the general tone of which makes it possible to catch in each individual case an ironic intonation that is not directly revealed. Sometimes antiphrasis (opposition), for example, "this Croesus" (regarding the poor). Less often there are expressions that have the form of so-called asteism, i.e. approval in the form of condemnation. Nikitina S. E., Vasilyeva N. V. Experimental systemic explanatory dictionary of stylistic terms. M., 1996.
Figurativeness and expressiveness of artistic narration, along with paths, are also provided by various stylistic figures. These means are turns of speech and syntactic constructions used to enhance the expressiveness of the utterance.
So, such a technique as inversion (lat. “rearrangement”, “turning over”) is the arrangement of the members of the sentence in a special order that violates the traditional (direct) word order in the sentence in order to strengthen and emphasize the expressiveness of speech.
Parceling occurs when a sentence is divided, in which the content of the statement is realized not in one, but in two or more intonation-semantic speech units, following one after another.
Unionlessness is a stylistic figure representing an unionless relationship homogeneous members a simple sentence or parts of a complex sentence, while polyunion, on the contrary, is an intentional increase in the number of unions in a sentence, usually to connect homogeneous members.
Syntactic parallelism as a stylistic figure is characterized by the same construction of neighboring sentences or segments of speech.
It is also worth noting such stylistic figures as alliteration and assonance. Their function is to repeat consonants and vowels respectively.
Historical pastiche in Arthur Golden's novel "Memoirs of a Geisha"
In his novel, the author often uses stylistic means such as metaphor, metonymy, similes, hyperbole and litotes: - metaphor (personification): It stood near a cliff where the wind off the ocean was always blowing. The ocean nearby always breathed with a whistle. His own face any longer...
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History of high pronunciation style
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New phenomena in the Russian language, 1990-2000
The use of foreign words by Russian writers reflects their attitude to the problem of lexical borrowings. 18th century satirists an evil parody of the jargon of secular society, saturated with French (often distorted) words. So, at D.I ...
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Features of the use of adjectives in the texts of modern media, in the materials of the regional press
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Stylistics of fictional languages in J.R.R. Tolkien's "The Lord of the Rings"
But Tolkien's archaization has as its task not only a stylistic opposition to modern literature. He also opposes the cultures themselves: archaic and modern - in their relation to the word, to the name ...
Stylistic coloring of words and their translation in the work of Fitzgerald F.S. "The Great Gatsby"
Stylistic features the genre of litigation in a legal thriller (based on the novel by J. Grisham "The Runaway Jury")
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Stylistic figures as a means of richness of speech
Obsolete words and neologisms in various speech styles
Artistic style is used in works of fiction, refers to book speech. The task is to paint a picture with words, to express an attitude towards what is being depicted, to influence the feelings and imagination of the reader...
The functional and stylistic role of description in the novel by Fr.S. Fitzgerald "The Great Gatsby"
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Functional features of the use of Old Slavonicisms in modern oral and written speech
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Linguistic embodiment of the image of Paris in the novel by V. Hugo "Notre Dame Cathedral"
Introduction
Russian language, like everyone else modern language, which has a long cultural tradition, provides speakers with the richest expressive possibilities, including stylistic ones. However, mastering these language resources requires knowledge, a developed linguo-stylistic sense and skills in using language units.
The stylistic means of the language and the methods of their use are formed gradually, representing a historically changing phenomenon. Accordingly, therefore, they continue to be studied by researchers, scientists, writers and cultural figures from ancient times.
Among the figures of speech since antiquity, tropes (the use of words in a figurative sense) and figures in the narrow sense of the word (methods of combining words) have been distinguished - although the problem of clearly defining and distinguishing between both has always remained open.
Stylistic figures have been known in linguistics since ancient times as the most important ways to increase the expressiveness of speech, and such great researchers as Aristotle, Cicero, M.V. Lomonosov, D.E. Rosenthal and others.
The relevance of the research problem of the provided topic is due to the need to study the use of stylistic figures in the Russian language, since they are indicators of the richness of speech.
The object of this study is stylistic figures.
The subject is stylistic figures as a means of richness of speech.
The purpose of this work is to give a comprehensive description of the system of stylistic figures that are actively used by poets and writers, as well as to identify the features of their functioning in the everyday communication of the Russian-speaking population. To achieve our goals, we need to complete the following tasks:
to study the functioning of stylistic figures in the Russian language.
to study their formation, structure and ability to master and enrich speech with the help of stylistic means of expression, as well as to identify the specifics of their functioning in the poetic texts of Russian poets.
Research methods: analysis, classification, generalization.
Work structure
The course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. Also, the work used the works of famous scientists, philologists and linguists in the field of studying the modern Russian literary language.
Stylistic means of expression
The concept of a figure of speech
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics devoted to the study of the expressive means of language, thus occupying a special place among other disciplines of linguistics. Stylistics is the study of the use of units and categories of language to convey thoughts. She explores the problems of "linguistic use", which is the subject of her attention. This is its meaning and essence as an independent science among other branches of linguistics.
Stylistic figures are special turns that go beyond the practically necessary norms and enhance the expressiveness of the text. Since the figures are formed by a combination of words, they use certain stylistic possibilities of syntax.
One of the richest means of expressiveness of speech is the means of verbal figurativeness, primarily stylistic figures of speech - pictorial turns of speech that serve to convey words and expressions in a figurative sense, giving them expressiveness, figurativeness, as well as emotional coloring. Figures of speech are used to convey mood or enhance the effect of a phrase. At the same time, they are used in works of art, taking place both in lyrics and in prose.
Ancient rhetoricians considered rhetorical figures as some deviations of speech from the natural norm, “ordinary and simple form”, some kind of artificial decoration. Modern look, on the contrary, proceeds rather from the fact that figures play an important role in human speech.
The modern Russian language consists of 5 styles: colloquial, scientific, official business, journalistic and fiction style.
Each functional style is a complex system that includes all levels of the language: morphological means, syntactic constructions, pronunciation of words, lexical and phraseological structure of speech.
Each of these styles has its own characteristics that distinguish it from other styles, for example, for formal business style characterized by standardization, the inclusion of abbreviations and abbreviations in the text, for the scientific - saturation with terminology.
The expressiveness of speech refers to such features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener (reader). The main source of enhancing expressiveness is the lexical composition, which provides a number of stylistic means.
Unlike colloquial, all book styles are used mainly in writing that basically unites them. Book styles are characterized by strict observance of norms at all language levels.
The colloquial style, on the other hand, has a bright originality to a greater extent and can be strong evidence that the colloquial stylistic norm is fundamentally different from the literary one.
At the same time, in the style of fiction, linguistic means are used that, along with logical meaning, also have an expressive-emotional connotation. Since the birth of literature, there have been a variety of classifications and definitions of various stylistic figures, and their number in the works of some researchers exceeded a hundred.
The lexical system of the language is complex and multifaceted. Therefore, a complete typology of lexical means has not been developed, since it would have to recreate the entire diverse range of human feelings. However, there are three main groups by which expressive means can be classified: phonetic, lexical and syntactic. The lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, the paths are used by the authors of works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.
Trope (from the Greek. tropos - turn, turn of speech) - a pictorial technique, which consists in using a word or expression in a figurative sense. The trope is largely based on the same semantic mechanisms that form the figurative meaning of the word. In addition, the purpose of the path is not only to create a new meaning, but to decorate, enrich speech, make it more expressive. Tropes include simile, metaphor, hyperbole, personification, epithet, and paraphrase.
The figure of speech is a special syntactic construction, which serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech. Figures of speech include antithesis, gradation, oxymoron, rhetorical question, rhetorical exclamation, rhetorical address, lexical repetition, syntactic parallelism and ellipsis.
The expressiveness of speech refers to such features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener (reader). A complete typology of expressiveness has not been developed by linguistics, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades.
The main source of enhancing expressiveness is vocabulary, which gives a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymy, synecdoches, hyperbole, litotes, personifications, paraphrases, allegory, irony. Significant opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of speech have syntactic means, the so-called stylistic figures of speech: antithesis, anaphora, union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), oxymoron, polyunion, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, epiphora, silence, ellipsis. In addition, the design of the statement as a narrative, interrogative or incentive, in accordance with the tasks of communication in a particular situation, has a certain stylistic and expressive meaning.
D.E. Rosenthal argued: “First of all, when characterizing language means, it is important to remember the opposition of book and colloquial speech. It is practically permissible to talk about bookish-written styles (scientific, professional-technical, official-business, public-journalistic) and oral-colloquial styles (literary-colloquial, everyday, colloquial), taking into account that book speech can take the form both written and oral, that colloquial speech is connected not only with the oral form, but also with writing, etc., as for the styles of fiction, then, due to the originality of the linguistic means used in it, one should approach their stylistic characteristics differently. For practical stylistics, it is not important whether there is a special artistic-fictional style, but that it uses elements of both bookish, colloquial, and non-literary (colloquial, dialect, etc.) ”
Classification of stylistic means
Stylistically, the figures are diverse and often arbitrary, because the figures are divided on the basis of assessments - as "pleasant to the ear", "captivating the senses", etc.
There are three fundamental groups by which expressive means can be classified: phonetic, lexical and syntactic.
Phonetic means:
Alliteration is the repetition of consonants. It is a technique for highlighting and fastening words in a line. Increases the harmony of the verse.
We grow up to a hundred years without old age.
Year by year our courage grows.
Praise, hammer and verse, the land of youth. (V.V. Mayakovsky. Good!)
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds.
Our ears are on top!
A little morning lit up the guns
And forests blue tops -
The French are right here. (M. Yu. Lermontov)
Lexical means:
Antonyms are words that belong to the same part of speech but are opposite in meaning. The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit.
Hyperbole is a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon, properties to an unusual size for an object. Used to enhance the artistic impression: I've said it a hundred times already. Haven't seen each other for a hundred years.
Litota is an artistic understatement, a weakening of the properties of a feature to sizes that do not exist in reality. Used to enhance the artistic impression: A boy with a finger, two steps away.
Individual-author's neologisms - due to their novelty, they allow you to create certain artistic effects to express the author's point of view on a topic or problem. The use of literary images helps the author to better explain any position, phenomenon, or other image.
Metaphor is a hidden comparison, which is based on the comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature, a similarity between distant objects and phenomena. In artistic speech, the author uses metaphors to enhance the expressiveness of speech to create a picture and convey the inner world of the characters. The author describes the image of the hero with the help of a metaphor, and the reader has to understand and catch the semantic connection on which the similarity between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based.
Poets and writers often form interesting, deep images with the help of metaphors. The most beautiful and multifaceted images become when the metaphor unfolds, when the whole fragment of the text is built on continuous figurative meanings. Sometimes, with the help of a detailed metaphor, not only a sentence is built, but also a significant part of the text or even the entire text. For example, the following poem by M.A. Kuzmin is completely built on a metaphor:
With a dry hand he will indicate a flask,
I'll drink, lie down on the bed,
She will sit right next to
And sing
And embrace
Rustle gray outfit.
With friends became now divorced,
And I don't live free.
I don't know how to get out of the circle:
Everyone is driven away
Into the dead of night
My jealous friend.
I'm lying, I'm lying... my soul is empty.
Hand in hand will stiffen.
The sadness itself will hardly go away ...
And day by day
We live, we live
Like prisoners in a blind cellar.
At the same time, it should be remembered that not every metaphor is capable of building an image. There are many so-called obliterated metaphors in the language that are not used as a pictorial device. Their task is simply to name an object, phenomenon or action, for example: a horse meaning “sports equipment”, a dog meaning “a trigger in a hunting rifle”, a peephole meaning “a small round hole in something (usually for supervision, observation )", mouse in the value of "a device for controlling the cursor on a computer monitor", the clock is running in the value of "working".
Metonymy is the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them, on the basis of adjacency:
Between the object and the material from which it is made: Crystal is already on the table.
Between content and containing: Eat another plate. I've already drunk two cups
Between an action and its result, place or object: Received five for dictation.
Between the action and the instrument of this action: The trumpet called for a campaign.
Between a social event and its participants: the Congress decided.
Between the place and the people in that place: The audience listened intently.
Between the state and its cause: My joy is still at school.
Synecdoche is a lexical device by which the whole is expressed through its part (something less included in something more). It is a kind of metonymy: My feet will not be here
Personification is a lexical term that consists in transferring the sign of the living to the inanimate. In personification, the depicted object is outwardly likened to a person. Also, inanimate objects are attributed actions that are permissible only to people.
Evaluative vocabulary - the use of a direct author's assessment of events, phenomena, objects.
Paraphrase - the use of description instead of own name or names; descriptive expression, turn of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition.
Proverbs and sayings are special stable lexical constructions that give speech figurativeness, accuracy, expressiveness.
Comparison is a lexical means that consists in comparing objects or phenomena. Comparison helps the author to evaluate, express his point of view, create whole artistic pictures, give a description of objects by comparing one object with another. Comparison is usually joined by unions: as, as if, as if, exactly, etc., but serves to figuratively describe various features of objects, the nature of actions and deeds.
The comparison can be expressed in various ways. The most common are the following:
1. Sentences with comparative conjunctions like, as if, as if, as if, exactly; These conjunctions are used as part of comparative turnovers, and in complex sentences with a relative clause, for example:
And life is already tormenting us, like a smooth path without a goal, like a feast at a strange holiday (M. Lermontov); The ice is not strong on the icy river, as if like melting sugar, lies (N. Nekrasov) (comparative turns);
2. Comparative or superlative forms of adjectives and adverbs: My light, little mirror! tell me Yes, tell the whole truth: Am I the sweetest in the world, All blush and whiter? (A. Pushkin)
3. Instrumental case with the meaning of comparison: to sing like a rooster (= like a rooster), to flood like a nightingale (= like a nightingale), It is sad in the soul - even howl like a wolf (= howl like a wolf).
Phraseologisms are stable turns of speech used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality: a black crow. Phraseological turns make speech more vivid, figurative, expressive: to beat the buckets (to mess around).
Epithet - artistic definition, highlighting in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. Anything can be an epithet. meaningful word, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition to another:
1) noun;
2) adjective;
3) adverb and participle: eagerly peers; listens frozen.
Reminiscence - features in a work of art, suggestive of a memory of another work.
Syntactic means:
Of the total mass of stylistic figures, 13 main ones are:
inversion
gradation
antithesis
oxymoron
parallelism
default
ellipsis
rhetorical question
rhetorical appeal (exclamation)
asyndeton
polyunion
Anaphora (unity) is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. Used to enhance the expressed thought, image, phenomenon: How to talk about the beauty of the sky? How to tell about the feelings that overwhelm the soul at this moment?
Epiphora - the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.
Syntactic parallelism - the same construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author seeks to highlight, emphasize the expressed idea.
Antithesis - a turn, which consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.
Softly spreads, but hard to sleep;
The smart one will teach, the fool will get bored;
And we hate, and we love by chance,
Sacrificing nothing to either malice or love (M. Lermontov)
An auxiliary means of creating an antithesis is syntactic parallelism, since the identical or similar construction of structures sets off words that are opposite in meaning. Antithesis can also be built on speech antonyms, for example:
They agreed.
Wave and stone
Poetry and prose, ice and fire
Not so different from each other (A. Pushkin)
Sometimes the antithesis can be expressed by stylistic synonyms. In these cases, semantic and stylistic differences between synonyms come to the fore, for example:
She had not eyes, but eyes;
He does not sleep, namely, he is sleeping!
Oxymoron (Greek Oxymoron - witty-silly) is a bright stylistic device for speech formation, consisting in creating a new concept with a combination of words that are contrasting in purpose in order to shade their logically incompatible meanings and create a complex and vivid image, for example: cheerful sadness; smart fool; black whiteness.. This figure, like an antithesis, is a "meeting place" of antonyms. The combination of antonyms in a "pure form" in an oxymoron is rare (Beginning of the end - title), "Bad good man" - name. Film.
In most cases, words that have the opposite meaning are combined as defining and defining ["Large little things", "Dear cheapness" - headings] (adjective - noun), so they cannot be considered one hundred percent antonyms, since the latter must belong to one part of speech. Bright oxymorons were created by Russian poets: I love the lush nature of wilting. (A.S. Pushkin);
And now the wordless one enters,
Self-confident, embarrassed
Desirable, always lovely
And, perhaps, a little in love ... (I. Severyanin).
An oxymoron is often found in the titles of works of art: the novel "Hot Snow" by Y. Bondarev. Also, this figure is used in a journalistic style (often in headlines to attract attention): “Cold - hot season” “Retreat forward”
Gradation is a stylistic figure that consists in the consequent injection or, conversely, the weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech. In addition, the emotional and expressive emphasis of words is enhanced when these words are repeated in one or more adjacent sentences. The repetition of the same word in complex sentence often carried out for logical reasons - to clarify the expressed thought or to establish a more distinct semantic connection between the members of the sentence. For example: (And I also understood this, but I realized that I was drowning ... ”; “And on the canvas there is no longer a specific Uncle Vanya, but a right man, living freely and cheerfully in his land. Living a healthy and strong life, that life, about which the intellectual, dropping snot, dreams ... ".
But very often in artistic speech a word or several words are repeated not only in a complex, but even in one simple sentence. They are repeated in order to cause their emotionally expressive pronunciation. This syntactic technique is called verbal repetition.
Verbal repetition is especially expressive when the same word is at the beginning of two or more adjacent phrases. Such a syntactic device is called an anaphora, or monophony. For example: “At least something is on the horizon. At least an asterisk. If only the whistle of a policeman would be heard. Nothing"
The stringing of synonyms often gives rise to gradation, when each next synonym strengthens (weakens) the meaning of the previous one. For example: “This is no longer just Semiraev, but something great, powerful, formidable ...”
Inversion is the reverse order of words in a sentence. In direct word order, the subject usually comes before the predicate, the agreed definition - before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition - after it, the addition after the control word, the circumstance of the mode of action - before the verb. And when using inversion, the words have a different sequence that does not correspond to grammatical rules. In addition, it is a rather strong expressive means, usually used in emotional, excited speech.
Ellipsis (Greek Elleipsis - lack, omission) - a syntactic means of expression, consisting in the omission of one of the main members of the sentence, or even both. Refers to destructive figures, that is, it destroys syntactic links. This figure suggests the "disappearance" of entire fragments of statements, while it is believed that the fragments can be restored according to the meaning of the whole. The usual norm for word gaps is one or two words, but in principle larger syntactic blocks can remain outside the sentence (especially if the ellipsis is accompanied by parallelism).
It should be noted that the construction itself requires the closest context, otherwise the reader may not adequately understand it or not understand it at all. Therefore, the ellipsis is such a means of expression, which consists in the omission of a certain implied member of the sentence: We sat down - in ashes, hailstones - in dust, swords - sickles and plows. (Zhukovsky)
The use of this figure gives dynamism to the statement, the intonation of lively speech, increases artistic expressiveness. Most often, the predicate is omitted to create an ellipsis: World - to people In writing, this figure is reproduced with a dash (-). As a stylistic device, ellipsis has become widespread in slogans.
Silence is a syntactic device consisting in the conscious use by the author of an incompletely expressed thought, leaving the reader to supplement it himself. In writing, silence is expressed by an ellipsis (...), behind which is hidden an “unexpected” pause, reflecting the speaker’s excitement. As a stylistic device, default is often used in colloquial style: This fable could be explained more -
Yes, so as not to tease the geese ... (I.A. Krylov "Geese")
Rhetorical appeal (rhetorical exclamation) - a specific appeal to someone (something). Rhetorical appeal serves not only to name the addressee of the speech, but also to express the attitude towards the object, to characterize it: Flowers, love, village, idleness , field! I am devoted to you in soul. (Pushkin)
Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations are a pictorial technique that consists in creating an expression of the author's position, in making a statement in the form of a question: “But didn't I have the right to express my attitude? And I spoke."
D. E. Rosenthal on this occasion speaks as follows: "... interrogative-rhetorical sentences do not require an answer and are used as a means of expressiveness." . For example: “Why is life so short? As soon as you train yourself for her - you have to leave ... "
Polyunion is a rhetorical figure consisting in the intentional repetition coordinating conjunctions for logical and emotional selection of enumerated concepts.
Unionlessness is a stylistic figure consisting in the intentional omission of connecting unions between members of a sentence or between sentences: the absence of unions gives the expression swiftness, richness of impressions within overall picture: Swede, Russian - stabs, cuts, cuts, drumming, clicks, rattle, thunder of cannons, stomping, neighing, groaning ... (A.S. Pushkin.)
These figurative and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, help him to acquire the individuality of style.
Bookish, colloquial and colloquial linguistic elements can be correlated with neutral (N), which are not assigned to any particular area of communication and have zero stylistic coloring, which stands out only in comparison with stylistically marked units of the language. Yes, the word deception is neutral when compared with the book hoax and colloquial sell; really when compared with the book truly and colloquial really.
Neutral language means, entering into synonymous relations with stylistically colored ones, form a stylistic paradigm: (simultaneously simultaneously, together collectively artelno) Paradigms containing all three members are exceptionally rare; paradigms with two members are more common in the language. . The stylistic paradigm is based on the identity or proximity of the main meaning of its members and the difference in their functional-stylistic and emotionally-expressive coloring. Yes, verb forms jumped and jump (He jumped into the ditch He jumped into the ditch) have a common lexical and grammatical meaning, but differ in functional and stylistic coloring (H and P), as well as the absence of expression in the first form and the presence in the second. The words prevail and dominate, included in the same paradigm, coincide in lexical meaning`occupy in some respect the main, leading place, position ", but differ in stylistic coloring (H and K).
Members of the stylistic paradigm (stylistic synonyms) are the main resources of stylistics. For the stylistics and culture of speech, since they deal with the functioning of the language, an expanded understanding of synonymy is relevant: the definition of synonyms on the basis of the interchangeability of language units in the context. It is the possibility of interchangeability that is consistent with one of the basic principles of stylistics and culture of speech - the principle of choosing the most successful language means for a given situation. Providing the opportunity to choose, stylistic synonyms allow you to express an idea in a different stylistic tone. Compare: I don't want to read I don't want to read; How did you know about it? How did you get wind of this?; If only I had known sooner! Know this before!
Outside the stylistic paradigm, there are many terms (T) and commonly used language units (O), which, unlike neutral ones, do not have stylistic synonyms. The commonly used ones are stylistically unmarked language units used without any restrictions in various areas and situations of communication. For example: house, paper, book, white, wide, walk, work, fun, in Russian, mine, ours, all. Terms represent a stylistically closed category of vocabulary and stable combinations assigned to certain areas of communication (scientific and official business).
The basis of the modern Russian literary language is made up of commonly used and neutral language units. They unite all styles into a single language system and act as a background against which stylistically marked means stand out. The latter give the context a certain functional and stylistic shade. However, in the context, the nature of the stylistic coloring can change; for example, the assessment of endearment becomes ironic ( Sissy), swear words can sound sweet (robber you are my dear) etc. Functionally fixed language units in the context are able to acquire an emotionally expressive coloring. Yes, the words praise, ornate, loud, named, exude, marked in dictionaries as book obsolete, newspapers acquire an ironic coloring in the language.
Depending on the meaning and peculiarities of use, the same language unit can have several different stylistic connotations: The hunter shot the hare(H) In winter, the hare changes its color(scientific) He rode the bus as a hare(R, disapproved).
Polysemantic words in one meaning (usually in the direct) are stylistically neutral, and in the other (usually in the figurative) they have a bright emotionally expressive coloring: Behind the door, a dog scratched and whined(K. Paustovsky) "Why does he need your hare coat? He will drink it, dog, in the first tavern"(A. Pushkin), On the edge of the road stood an oak(L. Tolstoy) "You, oak, are not going there"(A. Chekhov). Compare also the use of words fox, bear, rooster, elephant, croak, growl, snort, coo in direct and figurative meanings.
Stylistic means are not only linguistic units that have a constant stylistic connotation, i.e. the ability to express stylistic coloring out of context, but also the elements of the language that acquire it in specific acts of speech activity, in certain syntagmatic relationships. For example, pronouns that do not have stylistic connotations any and each and context can acquire a disapproving expression: Everyone else should be accountable. Everyone will be to me make comments! Almost every language unit is capable of acting as a stylistic means, which is achieved by the nature of the organization and the methods of using it in a particular utterance. This significantly expands the stylistic resources of the literary language.
The existence of styles in language and speech is ensured by the presence stylistic means.
Stylistic means of a language are any language units that have the ability to adequately realize their semantic, emotional, expressive and functional capabilities in the process of serving various areas of communication. Stylistically neutral means are such linguistic units that do not have a stylistic coloring, and therefore can be used in various areas and conditions of communication, “without introducing a special stylistic feature into the statements” (M.N. Kozhina).
Stylistically colored(emotionally expressive and functional) means are the main fund of stylistic means of the language.
The stylistic coloring of a language unit is those functional and expressive properties that are additional to the expression of the main lexical and grammatical meaning, which carry stylistic information about the possibility of using this unit in a certain area and situation of communication. So, the words “fool”, “loaf”, “sensation”, “Decembrist”, “proton”, “banner”, “future” not only name objects, phenomena, facts, events, etc., but also contain clearly pronounced emotional (fool, fool, banner, future) layers and functional indicators (sensation, Decembrist, proton), referring these words to the corresponding area of use.
Usually, two types of stylistic coloring are distinguished: emotionally expressive and functional.
Emotionally expressive elements of language transmit emotional condition the speaker or his attitude to the subject of speech (actually expressive means of language) or characterize the speaker himself from a linguistic point of view.
Emotionally expressive shades appear in units of all levels: sun, handkerchief (suffixes of emotional evaluation); cudgel (about a person), beats the buckets (lexicon, phraseology); “Well, he said!” (syntactic constructions).
Expressive elements of language should be distinguished from neutral words containing evaluation elements in their meaning; emphasizing character, property, assessment of action, state, fact (genius, beauty, love, hate). They can become expressive under certain conditions. Compare: she is beautiful; even though she is beautiful, it does not touch me.
The expressive properties of a language unit are used consciously in the process of communication, taking into account its content, conditions and circumstances in which it occurs.
Characterism manifests itself regardless of the intentions of the participants in the communication: their use of certain words, phrases may indicate their social and professional affiliation, level of culture, erudition, etc.
Functionally colored language facilities carry information about the typical areas of use of the language unit. These are:
1. Words, word forms and phrases, “which are limited in their use only by certain types and forms of verbal communication (D.N. Shmelev). So, words like “the above”, phrases like “as it is quite obvious” are characteristic of scientific and official business speech; nonsense, rubbish business - for colloquial, etc.
2. Words and constructions that oppose neutral ones and are stylistic synonyms in relation to them: now - now - now; head - head - head.
3. Language means outside literary norm(dialectisms, jargon, etc.).
Thus, the colored units of the language perform various expressive and stylistic functions, which often intersect, interact with each other, combine in the process of use, overlap each other, complementing each other.
It is obvious that the existence of styles is ensured by the presence in the language stylistic synonyms.
Stylistic synonyms are words, phrases, syntactic constructions that have the same meaning, but differ in stylistic coloring and, therefore, in the nature of use in various functional styles.
The following rows of words can serve as an example of stylistic synonyms at the level of vocabulary:
To broadcast - to utter - to speak - to report - to interpret.
Examples of stylistic synonyms at the following levels:
declare - make a statement; open the window - would you open the window; he pushed me - he will push me; he jumped out onto the road - he take it and jump out onto the road.
The possibility of replacing one unit with another in the process of formulating an utterance, the presence in the language system of various ways of expressing the same content poses a choice problem for the speaker or writer: which of the options available in the language most fully and accurately corresponds to the tasks and conditions of verbal communication.
Therefore, in order to provide good level communication, it is necessary to have in stock (in memory) a variety of language tools and update them in accordance with the norms for the design of statements of various stylistic colors.
The stylistic structure of the language, the presence of stylistic synonyms in it create the possibility of selecting linguistic means in real life. speech communication taking into account those norms and requirements that have developed in the speech practice of a given people (society).
Thus, the scientific style is characterized by the use of specific language means in it that most fully implement its style features. The norm in this case excludes the use of colloquial words and phrases, therefore, “if someone writes in a serious book “phagocytes gobble up microbes”, it will be stupid and inappropriate.” (L.V. Shcherba), will lead to a violation of the stylistic norm.
Violation of the stylistic norm leads to stylistic errors.
Stylistic mistakes - a variety of speech defects, which are based on the unsuccessful use of expressive, emotionally colored means of the language, the use of other style words and expressions.
Stylistic errors are manifested in the inconsistency of the chosen word or syntactic construction with the conditions of communication, their inappropriate use, which leads to the destruction of the corresponding stylistic structure, to the violation of the stylistic norm. According to L.V. Shcherba, “... any inappropriate use of words from a stylistic point of view destroys the stylistic structure of the language, and a language with a destroyed stylistic structure is the same as a completely out of tune musical instrument, with the only difference that the instrument can be immediately tuned, and the stylistic structure of the language has been created for centuries” .
Stylistic errors include:
one). The use of words of a different functional and stylistic coloring, violation of the stylistic coloring of the text. So, according to K.I. Chukovsky, one of the translators brought to the publishing house such a translation of a romantic fairy tale: “For lack of a red rose, my life will be broken.” It is obvious that the form “for lack of” with a pronounced belonging to the official business (or scientific) vocabulary is unacceptable in a literary text (an example of B.N. Golovin);
2). Inappropriate use of emotionally charged words.
Errors of this kind are often found in students' essays, for example: "Pugachev's friends betrayed him." The emotional coloring of the word “friends” makes it inappropriate to use it in this context.
Knowledge of the stylistic norms of the Russian literary language, the rules for the design of statements of various stylistic coloring, as well as a deep knowledge of the language itself, which provides the ability to choose, select (and understand) linguistic means in the process of communication, will help to avoid stylistic errors. (Quoted by: Ippolitova N.A. Russian language and culture of speech)
Section 3. Influence of the form of speech (oral / written) on the stylistic parameters of the text
Undoubtedly form of speech - written or oral- largely determines the choice of language means: many words and syntactic constructions unambiguously bear the imprint of their respective application. At the same time, it is quite obvious that the different content of speech is not equally related to oral or written transmission. So, for example, it is difficult to doubt that scientific topics focus on the written form of expression, while everyday topics are the sphere of predominantly oral communication. But it is natural that scientific discussion can also be oral, and everyday topics can be presented in writing. It is interesting to note that, while the transition from written to oral form in such cases does not entail a conscious restructuring of speech (some features inherent in oral speech, are perceived as “deviations” from the norm, caused by the inability to prepare an utterance in advance), the transition to writing is usually associated with a conscious reorientation to other norms of expression than it would be during oral communication.
This is quite understandable, since the idea of the norms of the literary language is mainly associated with the written form of its existence, while the properties of colloquial speech - especially those that are not reflected in works of fiction, that is, they again did not receive written fixation - usually are simply not noticed by the speakers; speakers, owning practically "colloquial speech", in written speech, i.e. when there is a need for a conscious choice speech means, focusing primarily on language norms, which received written consolidation - even in cases where the content is connected precisely with "everyday colloquial speech".
But the following is also significant. Conversational speech implies the direct presence of both the sender of the message and the addressee, and in accordance with this, speech contact, and the situation of communication is the same for both. Written works related to scientific or fiction have as their addressee an indefinite and, of course, a multitude of readers unknown in advance. The relationship between persons (as well as the ways of their actual linguistic expression) changes significantly. But this ratio also changes in a certain way in different types of written speech; for example, it is different in artistic and scientific works. Thus, a work of art always, in a certain sense, includes the addressee in the narrative itself. The point, of course, is not in possible (but by no means obligatory) appeals to the reader, but in the very development of the narrative: the reader immediately or not immediately learns about certain actions of the characters, he seems to be involved in guessing the motives of some actions, the very way of naming the characters (by name, by surname, by position, etc.) puts him in a certain relationship to the people portrayed; a work of art presupposes an emotional perception of what is described, i.e., a certain “empathy” of the reader, his sympathy or his antipathy for various characters. Scientific texts or official business documents are based, of course, on a completely different relationship between persons. The correlation between the participants in linguistic communication (real or "constructed"), including the "third party", i.e., "what is being said", predetermines the choice of means of expression - it is clear, for example, that special topics (scientific, industrial -technical) requires special designations, official business relations are regulated with the help of stable formulas, etc. - the “opportunity to choose” is clearly limited here. (Quoted by Shmelev D.N. Stylistic differentiation of language means).
Section 4. Types of speech culture
Thus, in the levels of manifestation of the culture of speech, we see that they depend on the level of the general culture of the speaker. Therefore, O.B. Sirotinin actively describes in recent times it is the types of speech culture, and not the levels of speech culture. The researcher explains it this way: “When highlighting the criteria for classifying a person as carriers of a particular type of speech culture, it is necessary to remember that we are talking about the type of culture, and not about the speech of a person. Speech, of course, reflects the type of speech culture (and it, in turn, reflects the type of general culture), but this is still a reflection, and not a direct correspondence.
ABOUT. Sirotinin allocate full-functional, non-full-functional, average literary, literary jargon and everyday types of speech culture.
Characterizing carriers full-featured type speech culture, the researcher notes that they are characterized by “the most complete possession of all the riches of the Russian language (knowledge of the literary language and other social components of the Russian language, all the features and characteristic features all functional varieties literary language), the active use of synonyms, taking into account all the nuances of their meaning and use, the free activation of the expedient use of any word from its extensive lexicon with the inclusion in it and foreign words(but very cautious and only expedient).
The carriers of a fully functional type of speech culture are characterized by:
1. Possession of exactly all (albeit to varying degrees) functional styles of the literary language, which is manifested not only in the knowledge of their features, but also in the ability to build texts of the style needed in a given situation.
2. Compliance with the norms of the literary language (spelling and punctuation, orthoepic and intonation, stylistic, lexical compatibility norms, etc.).
ABOUT. Sirotinin notes with regret that absolutely error-free speech is an extremely rare phenomenon, but a carrier of a fully functional type is characterized by a minimum of violations of norms, their unsystematic nature, and randomness. And, no less important, “the person’s lack of excessive self-confidence, the developed habit of checking himself in everything (in relation to the correctness of speech - according to dictionaries and reference books)”.
That is why the role of a fully functional type of speech culture, despite the relatively small number of its speakers, in the fate of the literary language, the preservation of its existence and its development is very great.
Significantly more people are carriers non-full-functional type, in many respects close to fully functional, but, as it were, did not take place for one reason or another. Among these reasons, the main one is the lack of efforts of the person himself in the pursuit of self-education and self-development. Other reasons are childhood in an uncultured environment, the lack of a home library, and the low quality of school (and sometimes university) teachers in terms of their speech culture. Plays a role and character professional activity a person (lack of communicative multi-role, professional need to master the skills of only one form of speech, one functional style, etc.). Part of the acquired knowledge about language and speech is therefore forgotten without application, and what is used is limited by professional and everyday needs, does not require great creative effort.
In general, a non-full-functional type of speech culture can be characterized by the word less: less knowledge, less effort to expand it, less skill level, etc. The most striking indicator that distinguishes this type from a fully functional one is the possession of only one, maximum two functional styles in addition to colloquial speech. In the speech of speakers of a non-full-functional type, there is always a noticeable bias towards either oral or written forms of speech, and when using a less familiar form, the actual substitution of its usual form (the constructions of written speech in their oral speech are especially typical, since the written form of speech seems to them to be a priority compared to oral).
The role of people with a non-full-functional type of speech culture, on the one hand, is much less than the role of people with a fully-functional type, since they cannot serve as a standard for good speech, but, on the other hand, their role is quite significant for the state of the speech culture of the population, since it is to This type of speech culture includes most people with higher education, including school teachers, university teachers, journalists and writers whose speech they are guided by. It is the speech of carriers of a non-full-functional type that in the eyes (and ears) of many takes the place of the reference. And there are reasons for this: authority higher education, a small number of carriers of a fully functional type (very many have never heard or read them in their lives), a fairly good speech of such people in their professional field and a relatively small number of deviations from codified norms, which does not allow the population to doubt the standard of their speech.
The most widespread is literary type speech culture, its carriers are primarily people with secondary and incomplete secondary, but often there are people with higher, especially narrowly professional (not university classical) education. They are characterized by a very superficial knowledge of the norms of the literary language, and therefore systematic deviations from them in pronunciation (funds BUT, n Ah at, pr And take), shaping ( go, go, read) fashion on foreign words, used out of place, and in the wrong meaning, and with the wrong pronunciation ( compromise, odious in the sense of laudatory. indigo - the name of the shoe store). Ignorance of the differences between oral and written forms of speech leads such people to focus on a "more prestigious" written speech (abuse of book elements, the desire to use participles and participle turns without taking into account the norms for their use, etc.).
The main reason for the formation of the average literary type of speech culture is the low level of general culture, the lack of desire to expand one's horizons, and an inattentive attitude to the language, starting from school. Hence the complete absence of the habit of checking the correctness of one’s speech, the orientation, at best, to television speech (as a rule, in its far from its best manifestations: television games like “Field of Miracles”, programs like “Full House” and often poorly translated action movies). As specially conducted experiments have shown, representatives of the average literary type of culture read special texts and texts of entertainment literature (detective stories, science fiction, etc.), and also most often orient themselves to exemplary speech in the media, and people are a model for them, whose speech is often far from exemplary.
Representatives of the average literary type of culture do not know how or do not want to use euphemisms, as a result, their speech is full of rude and swear words. Often there is disrespect for people, there are even direct insults. Stamps dominate in speech, there is no necessary self-control and preliminary preparation for speech. Representatives of this type of culture do not have the habit of checking their knowledge in reference books and dictionaries.
The main and unifying feature of the medium literary type is the incomplete knowledge of the literary language, with obvious confidence in the completeness of mastery of it.
No less dangerous, according to O.B. Sirotinina, and the literary jargon type that has been developing since the end of the 20th century and intensively implanted in the media. The specificity of this type lies in the conscious imposition of reduced, often even illiterate speech. The desire for “human language”, which manifested itself as a reaction to the Soviet officialdom of the media, led to the fact that people who did not have any linguistic training came to journalism.
The danger of this type of speech culture lies in its perception by readers of newspapers and magazines and TV / radio listeners as a standard of good speech.
Among the poorly educated population, there is another type of speech culture, called by the linguist everyday, since its carriers have only the skills of everyday, that is, colloquial speech: they are not able to produce either official monologue or written speech, although they can comply with all orthological norms (not make neither spelling, nor spelling, nor punctuation errors, etc.).
To the conclusions of O.B. Sirotinina, it is necessary to add that the highest, fully functional type of speech culture is also accompanied by highly developed skills to communicate, as well as to create various texts, that is, communicative speech and rhetorical skills.
The most popular and realizable among young people is the average literary type of speech culture, which is also characterized by clips, abruptness in the perception of the world and understanding it; the predominance of informing rather than persuading; content and structural incompleteness of texts, abuse of jargon. (Quoted by Savova M.R. Russian language and culture of speech)
Section 5. Conversational style of speech
Indeed, at all stages of the development of the literary language, even when overcoming one way or another the alienation of the language of writing, when the halo of just literacy and mastery of a special bookish language is dimmed, speakers in general never lose the feeling of difference between “how can one say” and “ how to write."
Everyone is well aware of Pushkin's often-remembered words that “to write in the only spoken language means not to know the language ... Can a written language be completely similar to a spoken language? No, just as spoken language can never be exactly like written language. Not just pronouns this and this, but participles in general and many necessary words are usually avoided in conversation. We don't say: a carriage galloping over a bridge, a servant sweeping a room; We are speaking: who jumps, who sweeps etc., replacing the expressive brevity of the participle with a sluggish turnover. It does not yet follow from this that in the Russian language the participle should be destroyed. The richer the language in expressions and turns, the better for a skilled writer. Written language is animated every minute by expressions born in conversation, but should not renounce what it has acquired over the centuries. According to many writers, it was sometimes not easy for them to put into writing what had already been said orally. Vandries noted: “Among the French, the written language and the spoken language are so far from each other that one can say: French is never spoken as it is written, and rarely written as it is spoken. These two languages differ, besides the difference in the choice of words, also in the different arrangement of words. The logical word order inherent in a written phrase is always more or less disturbed in an oral phrase. If we remove the categorical “never” in this statement, then all this can be attributed to the Russian language.
A number of works have convincingly shown that the concepts of "colloquial speech" and "oral speech" should be differentiated. As N. Yu. Shvedova wrote, “far from everything written refers to written speech, just as far from everything oral, pronounced (and even embodied in conversation) refers to colloquial speech.”
The book “Russian Colloquial Speech” notes: “In modern linguistic literature, the term “colloquial speech” is assigned different meanings. The main objects that are called by this term can be briefly described as follows: 1) any speech that manifests itself in oral form (scientific report, lecture, speech on radio, television, everyday speech, urban vernacular, territorial dialects), 2) any oral speech of an urban population, 3) the everyday speech of the urban and rural population, 4) the relaxed speech of native speakers of the literary language.
Already from this brief enumeration it is clear how diverse the objects named above are and how much it is necessary to evaluate their linguistic content and distinguish them terminologically. We propose to accept the term oral speech for the first object, urban (oral) speech for the second, everyday speech for the third, literary colloquial speech (or: colloquial speech) for the fourth.
This terminological distinction seems both necessary and justified. Naturally, it does not predetermine either the linguistic characteristics of the selected varieties of the national language, or the possibilities of one or another of their association as an object of study. But it is necessary because it allows terminologically to differentiate what is already in itself delimited extralinguistically. It seems justified because the linguistic data that have been obtained to date indicate significant linguistic differences between the named types of speech. The possibility is not ruled out that further study of the language in all its varieties will introduce some corrections into the indicated distinction.
Thus, in the composition of the literary language, such a variety, delimited from others, as colloquial speech can be distinguished.
The cited study noted that "three features of the extralinguistic situation necessarily entail" its use. It:
“unpreparedness of the speech act;
ease of speech act;
direct participation of the speakers in the speech act.
Conversational speech outlined in this way is opposed by certain types of both written and oral speech. Their identification and characterization are also largely controversial to this day.
O. A. Lapteva correctly notes that “the topic obliges the use of a certain speech set,” she cites interesting examples in support of this position: “Here is a phrase from the most informal setting, but on a serious topic: - Well, will you speak out on the questions I have posed? Two friends, talking about science in a trolley bus, use expressions like associated with knowledge. The father, explaining to his little daughter the structure of the human body, says: Blood enters the body. Wed more from everyday business speech: Ultrasonic drilling is being researched; The process of passing the number through the printing house. It is further noted that "if two friends, talking on a scientific topic in an informal setting, show a serious attitude to the plot they interpret, their speech will in many ways approach the written one, paying tribute only to some of the requirements of the oral form."
O. A. Lapteva cites these observations, trying to prove that the sign of “informality” cannot serve as a characteristic of “oral speech”, and thus objects to the definition of “colloquial speech” given by E. A. Zemskaya. However, objections of this kind do not seem justified. After all, the phrases and phrases cited by O. A. Lapteva clearly go back to those types of speech that not only “approach”, but also received their development and consolidation precisely in writing. It would be strange to think that oral speech is impervious to such constructions. However, apparently, there is no reason to believe that, since they were recorded in oral (and "unofficial") speech, their differentiation from other manifestations of oral speech is impossible or unnecessary. In the speech of people who know the literary language, we will inevitably meet (and can fix in unlimited quantities) phrases for which written texts serve as a model, as well as more or less direct "quotation" from these texts when it comes to scientific truths learned from school or related to the range of interests of the speakers. In the same way, under the pressure of advertising, household instructions, official documents, etc., phrases designed in accordance with the requirements of “business style” constantly penetrate into oral speech. (Quoted by Shmelev D.N. Stylistic differentiation of language means).
The colloquial style prevails in oral speech, which depends on the situation and therefore is direct and unprepared. Colloquial vocabulary is characterized by stylistic marking (marking) of a wide semantic spectrum, as well as expressive-emotional assessments. Used mainly in the field of oral communication, colloquial vocabulary has the character of ease, reduction and familiarity. In the composition of colloquial vocabulary, two groups are usually distinguished:
1) literary and colloquial vocabulary used in various areas of human communication: hold out"delay, slow down the execution of something until a certain time", bring down"carelessly throw, randomly pile in a large number of smb.", debtor"one who has a debt, debt";
2) colloquial vocabulary used in everyday life: clean"entirely, wholly, completely" put on airs"to assume importance, to assume an imposing air, to act arrogantly", daughter"in the address of an elderly or adult person to a young woman, girl, girl."
Colloquial vocabulary is rich in expressive and emotional-evaluative connotations (swearing, jokes, irony, caresses, surnames, etc.): modern(approved or disapproved), swallow(in the meaning of treatment - diminutive-caress.), peanut(joking).
Colloquial vocabulary is outside the literary language and is used for a reduced, rude and / or rude assessment. The words of colloquial vocabulary have expressive-stylistic connotations (rude, swearing, neglecting and DR.): businessman(simple, disrespectful) henchman(simple, scornful) net("lazy, loafer" - simple., joking.).
The periphery of vernacular is made up of vulgarisms - abusive and socially obscene words: bitch, creature, slut, steal
Under the colloquial-everyday, or simply colloquial, style, they usually understand the features and color of the oral-colloquial speech of native speakers of the literary language; at the same time colloquial style manifests itself in writing (notes, private letters).
Although the typical sphere of manifestation of the colloquial style is the sphere of domestic relations, however, apparently, communication in the professional sphere (but only unprepared, informal and, as a rule, oral) is also characterized by the features inherent in the colloquial style.
Common extralinguistic features that determine the formation of this style are: informality and ease of communication; direct participation of the speakers in the conversation; unprepared speech, and therefore automatism; the predominant oral form of communication, and at the same time usually dialogic (although an oral monologue is also possible). The most common area of such communication is everyday, everyday. The content features and the specific nature of thinking are associated with the latter, which are reflected in the structure of colloquial speech, primarily in its syntactic structure. For this sphere of communication, an emotional, including evaluative, reaction (in dialogue) is typical, which is also embodied in the speech features of the conversational style. Among the conditions for the manifestation of colloquial speech are such as the great role of gestures, facial expressions, situations, the nature of the relationship of the interlocutors and a number of other extralinguistic factors that influence the characteristics of speech.
Such a peculiar extralinguistic basis of colloquial speech determines its special position among other stylistic and speech varieties of the literary language.
The most common specific stylistic features of the colloquial style of speech are the relaxed and even familiar nature of speech (and individual language units), deep ellipticity, the sensually concretized (rather than conceptual) nature of speech, its discontinuity and inconsistency from a logical point of view, emotional and evaluative information content and affectivity. Typical (but not specific) style features of colloquial speech are idiomatic and well-known standardization, the personal nature of speech, and some others. All this finds a bright and consistent reflection in the composition of the language units used in this area and the features of their functioning.
Among the most common linguistic features of colloquial style are the following: a large activity of non-bookish means of the language (with a stylistic coloring of colloquialism and familiarity), including the use non-literary (colloquial) elements at all language levels; incompletely structured formalization of language units (at the phonetic, syntactic, and partly morphological levels); the use of language units of a specific meaning at all levels and, at the same time, the uncharacteristic nature of means with an abstract generalized meaning; weakening of syntactic links between parts of the sentence or their lack of expression, unformedness; the activity of linguistic means of subjective evaluation (in particular, suffixes), evaluative and emotionally expressive units of all levels - from phonetic to syntactic; activity of speech standards and colloquial phraseological units; the presence of occasionalisms; activation of personal forms, words (personal pronouns), constructions.
When characterizing colloquial speech by language levels, such linguistic functional features are especially distinguished that are not characteristic of other styles or are of little use in them. Only the dialogic speech of the characters in fiction and dramaturgy are close to colloquial speech, but stylization is manifested here and, moreover, the function changes. Some means of colloquial speech are used in journalism.
Let us list the most typical linguistic means for colloquial speech, which create the features of its style.
In vocabulary and phraseology and such means are the following.
Colloquial vocabulary is widely used, including everyday content, and specific vocabulary. On the other hand, the composition of abstract vocabulary and book words, as well as terminology and uncommon words of foreign origin is limited. Colloquial speech is characterized by the activity of expressive-emotional vocabulary, especially such colors as familiar, affectionate, disapproving, ironic and other evaluative ones - with a decrease in style. Author's neologisms (occasionalisms) are high-frequency.
Polysemy is developed, and not only general language, but also individual and occasional (cf. family "languages" and friendly "jargons" of a narrow circle of people). There is an activation of phraseologically related meanings. Synonymy is rich, and the boundaries of the synonymic field are rather fuzzy; active situational synonymy, different from the general language.
The possibilities of combining words are wider than the normative general language ones.
Phraseological units are actively used, especially colloquially reduced stylistic coloring. The renewal of set phrases, their rethinking and contamination is widespread.
The word-forming features of colloquial speech are associated primarily with its expressiveness and evaluativeness.
Active here and characteristic mainly for this sphere of communication are suffixes of subjective assessment with the meanings of petting, disapproval, magnification, etc. (mommy, sweetheart, sun, child; wimp; vulgarity; house; cold etc.), as well as suffixes with a functional coloring of colloquialism, for example, for nouns: suffixes -k- (locker room, overnight stay, candle, stove); -ik(knife, rain); -un(talker); -yaga(hard worker); -yatina(dead meat, rotten meat); -sha (for nouns of the gender of the names of professions: doctor, conductor, usher etc.). In addition, non-suffixal formations are used here. (sickness, dance) and collocations (couch potato, windbag). You can also indicate the most active cases of word formation of adjectives of evaluative meaning: eye-asty, spectacles-asty, tooth-asty; biting, drach-li-vy; thin, healthy and others, as well as verbs - prefix-suffix: to play pranks, to-govar-ivat, to-bait, suffixes: der-anut, speculative-nut; healthy;
prefixed: is-lose weight, add-buy etc. In order to enhance expression, doubling of words - adjectives is used, sometimes with additional prefixation (He is such a huge-huge; water black-black; she is big-eyed - big-eyed smart - smart), acting in superlative functions.
In the field of morphology, the frequency of parts of speech is peculiar. In the colloquial sphere, there is no predominance of a noun over a verb, which is usual for a language. Even in the "most verbal", artistic speech, nouns are found 1.5 times more often than verbs, while in colloquial verbs - more often than nouns. Significantly increased frequency (several times against the indicators for artistic speech) is given to personal pronouns by particles. Possessive adjectives are very common here. (foreman wife, Pushkinskaya the outside); but participles and gerunds almost never occur. Short adjectives are rarely used, and they are formed from a very limited range of words, as a result of which in colloquial speech there is almost no opposition between short and complete forms adjectives. Among the case formations, variants of the forms of the genitive and prepositional cases in -y (from home, on vacation, no sugar, sugar).
Characteristic of colloquial speech is the weakening of the grammatical meaning of pronouns (So it and eat) and using them to enhance expression (This bespectacled man of yours came). There is an active trend towards nondeclension of the first part of compound names (to Ivan Ivanych) and compound numbers (from two hundred and fifty three) and, conversely, the declension of some abbreviations (Postcard from VAK received).
In the area of the verb, we note the variety of aspectual shades with the meaning of repeated action in the past (spoke, walked, gasped, harvested) and once (pushed, punched) as well as the activity of expressive forms of moods with a variety of amplifying contextual means, the widespread use of forms of one mood in the meaning of another.
The temporary meanings of the verb are surprisingly diverse when using one tense in the meaning of another. The palette of meanings of the present tense is especially rich (the present of the moment of speech, the present extended, the present historical), as well as the past and future in the meaning of the present.
The widespread use of verbal interjections turns out to be a specific sign of colloquial speech. (jump, lope, shast, bang); in fiction, these interjections are a reflection of colloquial speech.
Especially characteristic is s and n t a k s and from colloquial speech. It is here that its ellipticality, as well as emotionality and expressiveness, are most clearly manifested. This is also expressed in the high frequency of different semantic shades of infinitives and incomplete sentences (Well, that's enough!; Great!; Shut up!), and in the nature of the incompleteness of the latter (“omission” not only and not so much of the secondary, but of the main members: Tea? - Half a cup for me) and in a large percentage of interrogative and incentive sentences. A specific feature is the actual intonational, emotionally expressive transmission of meanings (affirmative, negative and others).
Only the conversational sphere is characterized by the use of special words and corresponding sentences expressing agreement or disagreement. (Yes; No; Of course).
Due to the unpreparedness and associativity of colloquial speech, it is characterized by the restructuring of the phrase on the go (Telephone- it is his), parceling (It’s scary to leave. But it’s necessary; We had a good rest. Only a little) and generally broken structure with interruptions in intonation. The activity of connecting structures of various types and ways of expression (in particular, with introductory words and particles: yes and. and here, perhaps, not only that, by the way).
Colloquial speech is characterized by a weakening of the meaning of introductory words, their redundancy and in general (with large numbers introductory words with the meaning of indicating the relationship between parts of the statement) using them in a modified function.
The word order is freer than in book-written speech (the post-position of unions, their transfer from the subordinate clause to the main one, etc.)
There is activity of interjection phrases (Oh, is it?; Is that how it is?; Fathers!; Here you go!), predicative phrases reinforced with emotionally expressive particles (Well, power!; That's what he said!), and phrases with constant constructive elements (It is necessary ...; There is ...; The same to me ...; Why not ...; That's it, that ...).
In complex sentences, composition clearly predominates over subordination, and in complex sentences, the composition of subordinate clauses is very uniform; moreover, such a common form as definitives is not widely used in colloquial speech. The vocabulary is also limited. subordinate clauses(as a manifestation of the standardization of speech). Explanatory clauses are attached to very few verbs: speak, say, think, hear and others, for example: I don't know, who you had; I I do not speak, what is wrong. Colloquial speech is also characterized by non-union connections in a complex sentence. The speed of speech reactions is usually explained by short sentences here. The depth of phrases, as a rule, does not exceed 7 ± 2 word usages.
In general, colloquial speech is characterized by a variety of rhythmic-tempo and intonation design of speech and a wealth of emotionally expressive intonations. In connection with these common features In colloquial speech, there is ellipticity at the phonetic level: an acceleration of the tempo, leading to an increase in the reduction of vowels, the assimilation of consonants, and, in general, an incomplete pronunciation of sounds and syllables. It is characteristic, for example, that the orthoepic norm of oral speech is Hello, Van Vanych, Mary Vanna, not clear Hello, Ivan Ivanovich, Maria Ivanovna(the latter would be artificial).
Examples of emotionality and expressiveness, as well as the ellipticity of colloquial speech and the linguistic embodiment of its other stylistic features, could be replenished, but it seems that the cited ones are enough for general characteristics this functional style.
So, the colloquial everyday style, possessing, to a greater extent than other styles, the originality of linguistic means that go beyond the limits of the codified literary language, occupies a special place in the system of modern functional styles. (Quoted by: M.N. Kozhina. Characteristics of the functional styles of the Russian language / Stylistics of the Russian language).
Conversational style. It is used in casual conversations, usually with familiar people in the sphere of domestic relations. Implements communication function. Immediacy of communication, features of the content of conversations, the need for a quick reaction (often evaluative) to the message of the interlocutor, the possibility of using non-verbal methods of communication (intonation, stress, rate of speech), extralinguistic factors (facial expressions, gestures), the characteristics of the situation, the nature of the relationship of the interlocutor determines the leading style features colloquial expressions. This is ease, freedom in the choice of words and expressions, a manifestation of one's attitude to what is reported by the interlocutor, emotionality.
Colloquial speech is characterized by the following linguistic features: the activity of colloquial (non-bookish) means of the language, up to colloquial and familiar ones; the use of evaluative, emotionally expressive means; incomplete structural design of language units; weakening of syntactic links between parts of the sentence; activity of speech standards and colloquial phraseological units.
Conversational style is opposed to book styles. This opposition is based, first of all, on the differences in the features of the sphere of communication in which functional styles are realized: the sphere of individual consciousness and the informal setting brings to life the conversational style; sphere public consciousness and the official nature of communication - bookish styles.
In addition, with the help of the means of colloquial speech, as a rule, the function of communication is realized, while the means of book styles - the function of the message.
All these circumstances lead to the fact that the colloquial style is perceived as a fairly isolated homogeneous system, opposed to the system of book styles. (Quoted by: Ippolitova N.A. Russian language and culture of speech)
Section 6. Scientific style of speech
H and at chn and I vocabulary serves the field of science and is characterized as if by impersonal information about nature, man and society. The style-distinctive features of scientific vocabulary are: terminating the semantics of the word, the subject of scientific concepts, the logicization of meaning scientific concept, lack of emotionally expressive connotations and colloquial words. The composition of scientific vocabulary includes:
1) terminological systems as paradigms of branches of specialized knowledge: exchange rate "Fin. selling price of securities " », brand "Fin. monetary unit of Germany and Finland " », booms "Fin. credit documents giving the right to receive a sum of money " »;
2) abstract names naming abstract concepts: analogy, being, capacity, hypothesis, binomial, classify, condition, suppose, realize;
3) modal words expressing the reliability / unreliability of the message: certainly, probably, probably, undoubtedly;
4) words that define the "order" of the presentation of thoughts: firstly, secondly, moreover, thus and others (Cited in: Modern Russian language: Textbook for university students / P.A. Lekant, E.I. Dibrova, L.L. Kasatkin and others; Edited by P.A. Lekant).
The sphere of scientific communication is distinguished by the fact that it pursues the goals of the most accurate, logical, unambiguous expression of thought. The main form of thinking in the field of science is the concept, and the linguistic embodiment of the dynamics of thinking is expressed in judgments and conclusions, following one after another in a strict logical sequence. The thought here is strictly argued, the course of logical reasoning is especially emphasized. Analysis and synthesis are closely interrelated, and the first, in fact, is necessary to obtain the second, because the purpose of science is to reveal patterns. Hence the generalized and abstracted nature of thinking. It is necessary to distinguish, on the one hand, the nature and "path" of thinking in the very process of scientific knowledge, and, on the other hand, the embodiment of the results of thinking in scientific writings. In the texts, additional, in comparison with the research stage, purely “decorative” tasks appear (method of proof, degree of polemic, descriptiveness or reasoning, degree of popularization). In this regard, the stages of internal and external speech are not identical in their speech texture, in linguistic embodiment. There is no fundamental difference between these stages of thinking and their linguistic embodiment. However, it should be remembered that the final crystallization of thinking (scientific positions) is carried out precisely in external, and not in internal speech.
The most general specific features of the scientific style, arising from abstractness (conceptuality) and strict logical thinking, are
abstract generalization and underlined the logic of presentation. They define in their own turn more frequent (secondary) stylistic features, as well as the specifics of the speech system of the scientific style, the meanings and stylistic colors of the language units used here and, in addition, their frequency. Very typical for scientific speech (but not primary, but derivatives) are semantic accuracy (uniqueness), without " figurativeness, hidden emotionality, objectivity of presentation, some dryness and severity of it, which, however, do not exclude a kind of expressiveness. The degree of manifestation of these features may vary depending on the genre, topic, form and situation of communication, the author's individuality and other factors.
How are the main stylistic features of scientific speech achieved and how are they expressed?
Abstraction and generalization certainly permeate every scientific text. This is manifested primarily in the fact that almost every word here appears as a designation of a general concept or an abstract subject. Wed suggestions: Chemistry deals only with homogeneous bodies; The possibility of quantitative determination is based on the following position; Chemical formulas are used to express substitution. Here each of the words expresses a general concept or an abstract phenomenon (chemistry in general, bodies in general, etc.). Even where there is some kind of specification (“the next provision”, “ chemical formulas”), yet the phrase expresses a very abstract concept.
It is characteristic that even specific vocabulary here acts to denote general concepts (cf .: Chemist should pay attention to... that is, a chemist in general, any chemist; Birch tolerates frost well; here is the word Birch denotes not a single object, a tree, but a species of trees, that is, again expresses a general concept).
This abstract generalized character of speech is also emphasized by special lexical units (usually, usually, regularly, always, every, everyone), and grammatical means: indefinite personal sentences, passive constructions (For this take funnel in laboratories; At the end of the experience counted down acid residue etc.).
Of course, the generality and abstractness of scientific speech does not mean that figurativeness is in principle contraindicated for it. Analysis of specific objects and phenomena is an integral part of scientific knowledge. Word images help to express conceptual thought. The use of figurative means depends to a certain extent on the author's individuality and on the field of knowledge. Yes, some humanitarian sciences(literary criticism, history, philosophy), descriptive natural sciences (geology, chemistry, geography and some others) are usually to a greater extent than the so-called exact sciences use means of verbal figurativeness. From the latter it is necessary to distinguish the terms-metaphors that are well-established in science, as a rule, with obliterated figurativeness. These include, for example, in biology - tongue, pistil, umbrella, in technology - clutch, caterpillar, paw, shoulder, trunk, neck, in geography - sole(the mountains), ridge etc.
Of all the figurative means, comparison is the most consonant with the style of scientific speech, since it acts as one of the forms logical thinking. Comparisons are widely used to explain the phenomena characterized, for illustration, without pursuing specifically expressive purposes. In these cases, comparisons are accurate, often containing already known terms: Radical C 14 H 14 enters, like nitrogen, compound with three eq. hydrogen(N. I. Zinin). In other cases, acting in an explanatory function, comparisons at the same time have vivid imagery and clarity: The tide raises the waves like mountains (D. Sokolov); Ice floes stood like high hills (F. P. Wrangel). Sometimes comparisons of scientific speech are distinguished by especially vivid imagery and originality: Their branching horns(deer. - M.K. swayed like huge strips of dry bush (F. P. Wrangel); Along the Bukhtarma River and around the Kolyvan Lake ... you can see granite mountains, as if folded from bread (D. Sokolov).
Here are some examples of interesting non-terminological metaphors: ...two rati, oak and spruce, have been standing against each other for millennia(G. F. Morozov); Spruce... passed under the canopy of pine, thick close formation (M. E. Tkachenko); Pine sheltered first settlers spruce(he); cheerful look undergrowth(G.F. Morozov).
The use of verbal figurative means in scientific speech, in addition to their optional and relatively rare use, is fundamentally different from the use of these means in fiction: 1) figurative means, in particular metaphors, have in scientific speech, as a rule, is only two-dimensional, but not multifaceted; 2) metaphors in scientific speech have a narrow contextual meaning and do not have the systemic character that is characteristic of them in artistic speech; 3) the functions of figurative means in scientific and artistic speech are fundamentally different. In a work of art, metaphor is one of the important elements in the general system of images, organically united by a common theme and idea, in scientific speech, figurative means play an auxiliary role - for clarification, popularization, concretization - and therefore are a kind of inlays that are not organically connected with the general speech system.
All this is reflected in the proper linguistic nature of metaphors and other figurative means and is expressed, in particular, in the fact that the metaphors of scientific speech usually have a general language character, not necessarily individual; comparisons include terms, etc. In addition, the speech imagery of a scientific text has such differences from the aesthetic imagery of fiction, which stem from the difference in the very essence of the corresponding forms of cognition and are as follows. The image in scientific speech is usually with schematization
generalized, devoid of those individually unique properties-features that are inherent in it in a work of art. For all its figurativeness, a metaphor, for example, in scientific speech denotes not a single (albeit at the same time typified) object, but common property, type, etc.
The abstractness and generalization of scientific speech are manifested in the features of the functioning of various grammatical, in particular morphological, units, which is also found in the choice of categories and forms (as well as the degree of their frequency in the text), and especially the meanings of these units.
When using the verb, this is expressed, as indicated, in the wide use of the present timeless " th (with a qualitative, indicative value), which is consistent with the need to characterize the properties and features of the objects and phenomena under study; Chloride slow decomposing (N. D. Zelinsky); Carbon is... the most important part of the plant(K. A. Timiryazev).
In connection with the manifestation of the same stylistic feature, scientific speech is characterized by verb forms with weakened lexical and grammatical meanings of time, person, number, as evidenced by the synonymy of sentence structures, compare, for example, such parallels: distillation produce- distillation produced; we can withdraw conclusion - can be deduced conclusion - withdraw conclusion. This phenomenon is reflected in syntax - in the presence of a kind of empty personal sentences that can be replaced by impersonal ones, and in general their omission (cf. synonymous expressions: We know, that there is no method... - It is known that there is no method... - There is no method...).
AT scientific literature, especially in one where mathematical methods are applied, the form of the future tense is essentially devoid of its usual grammatical meaning and, as can be seen from the examples, is grammatically weakened (will=is, is).
The abstraction, generalization and specific speech system of the scientific style is also due to the fact that the forms of present tense verbs - against the background of the past (the so-called present of a living representation) - in scientific speech, however, do not receive the figurativeness and concretization of the meanings that they usually have. In scientific speech, they emphasize the regularity of the phenomenon, which is enhanced by the components of the context. Actually, the present of a living representation is absent here at all, and instead of it, in similar contextual conditions, there are cases similar to the following: Frig and Gitz successfully applied the usual physiological methods to their study... When certain parts of the cerebral cortex are stimulated, contractions regularly occur...(I.P. Pavlov).
Abstraction and generalization are manifested in scientific speech and in the peculiarities of the use and meanings of the category v and da of the verb. The commonly used forms here are perfect look, as comparatively more abstract and generalized in meaning than the forms of the perfect form: the former make up about 80% in scientific speech. (In artistic speech, they make up only 55%).
It is characteristic that even those comparatively few perfective verbs that occur in scientific speech are often used here in stable repetitive turns in the form of the future tense, synonymous with the present timeless; hence the weakness and species value: let's prove that...; consider...; the equation will take the form etc. In most of these cases, it is possible to replace the form with an imperfect form, which is real and is observed in scientific texts.
More than in other styles, the number of imperfective verbs is devoid of paired perfective verbs: Acid corrodes...,...Metals are easy are cut. Water boils down vegetables and etc. This is due to the qualitative meanings of verbs.
The use of faces and verbs and personal pronouns reveals the same pattern: scientific speech is characterized by the predominance of units that are most abstractly generalized in their meaning. So, the forms of the 2nd person and pronouns are practically not used. you you as the most specific; the percentage of forms of the 1st person singular is negligible. numbers. In the overwhelming majority of cases, the most abstract forms of the 3rd person and pronouns are used. he she it. But even more revealing are the features of the use of these language units. In addition to the well-known so-called copyright we, used "for modesty" and for the sake of objectivity of presentation, the pronoun we together with the personal form of the verb very often expresses meanings of varying degrees and nature of abstract generalization. These include "we totality" (I and the audience; we are with you): If a we exclude... then we get...(A. G. Stoletov); ...We will designate through m...(A. G. Stoletov); We come to the result...(K. A. Timiryazev); We we can conclude...(S. I. Vavilov). It is characteristic that in all these cases, along with the possible substitution of “we are with you,” it is no less likely to omit a pronoun when replacing a personal construction with an impersonal or infinitive one: you can come to a result; can be concluded; if excluded; if we designate etc. Thus, the meaning of a person turns out to be very weakened, indefinite, and therefore more abstract than usual. This weakening of meaning is in other cases even more pronounced: long sound we call musical(A. G. Stoletov) - called musical; So we have the theorem(N. A. Umov) - there is a theorem etc. The same tendency is manifested in cases where the pronoun we and the verb form of the 1st person plural implies any person, a person in general, that is, it acquires a very generalized meaning (in these cases it is also possible to replace these expressions with impersonal ones): Everything we see, we clearly distinguish either as a substance or as a phenomenon(D. I. Mendeleev); Irritations ... parts of the retina we Can making a difference separately(A. G. Stoletov).
Very often in scientific speech, verbs are used in an indefinitely personal meaning, close to a generalized personal one; this largely depends on the lexical semantics of verbs. In this case, anyone, anyone, everyone can be thought of as a doer, or he is completely non-specific and unknown and cannot even be assumed at all (based on the meaning of the verb). Examples: For such active centers accepted atoms(N. D. Zelinsky); Laws usually formulated... (A. N. Reformatsky); Bromine receive like chlorine(A. N. Reformatsky), etc.
The category of nouns also often appears with a weakened grammatical meaning, since the names of abstract concepts, in principle, cannot be represented as countable “objects”, they are incompatible with the idea of number, counting . Wed: wholeness all parts of this mechanism...(I. M. Sechenov); Education water at burning wax...(A. M. Butlerov), etc.
The singular number of nouns denoting single countable objects in scientific speech usually serves to express a generalized concept or an indivisible totality and integrity: Birch belongs to light-loving breeds(G. F. Morozov); Most often elk found in ... cutting areas(V. N. Milkov); Further inland... prevail oak and hornbeam (L. S. Berg). It is no coincidence that the names of plants, animals, etc. are used in the texts of the natural sciences almost exclusively in the form of a singular, indicating unity, totality, indivisibility. This is because the plural forms of such nouns are specific in meaning: they indicate separate counted objects. (birches, elks, oaks, etc.). The latter is incompatible with the expression of a general concept and does not correspond to the general stylistic feature of scientific speech.
The meaning of the singular number of nouns, close to distributive, in scientific speech also acquires a very generalized character: The hand is not only an organ of labor(V. L. Komarov); Ear analyzes any sound(A. G. Stoletov).
On the other hand, scientific speech knows plural forms that are usually unusual for the Russian language in other areas of communication. numbers from abstract and real nouns: heats, lengths, frequencies, activities, costs, minima, maxima, climates, equilibria, concentrations, fauna, flora, magnitudes, states, active oxygens, gunpowder, needles, clays, oils, steels, tobaccos, wormwood etc.
The abstractness and generalization of scientific speech are expressed in the increased use of words of the middle gender. These are nouns with an abstract meaning: movement, quantity, phenomenon, relation, action, property, formation, change, distribution, state, influence, meaning, definition etc. Among masculine and feminine nouns, a large place belongs to abstract vocabulary: case, experience, process, question, volume, character, period, experience, method, result and etc.; part, energy, form, force, magnitude, mass, activity, possibility, need etc. Abstract nouns in scientific speech, as a rule, are not metaphorized and act as terms.
Generalization and abstractness do not imply, however, that scientific speech should be completely unemotional and non-expressive. Let us recall the provisions that “without“ human emotions ”there has never been, is not and cannot be human searching truth" that "it is impossible" to "study the actual state of things", without qualifying without judging him... Scientific speech, like any other literary one, should be bright, moderately expressive, emotional and figurative, not faceless. Otherwise, it does not achieve its goal, in any case, its communicative qualities suffer.
Scientific works of a polemical nature are especially expressive and emotional (for example, discussion articles and parts of works containing polemics), popular science literature; works that are distinguished by a special novelty of the topic and problematics; parts of works of a historical and bibliographic nature (“history of the question”) and various kinds of “digressions” from the main presentation. The most restrained are descriptive works and descriptive parts of scientific essays, educational literature, informational articles and some other genres. The degree of expressiveness and emotionality of scientific speech to a large extent depends on the author's individuality, partly on the branch of science and genre.
Bookish, colloquial and colloquial linguistic elements can be correlated with neutral (N), which are not assigned to any particular area of communication and have zero stylistic coloring, which stands out only in comparison with stylistically marked units of the language. Thus, the word deceit is neutral when compared with book hoax and colloquial swindle; really - when compared with the book really and colloquial really.
Neutral linguistic means, entering into synonymous relations with stylistically colored ones, form a stylistic paradigm: (at the same time - synchronously - at once, together - in the aggregate - artelno) 1 . The stylistic paradigm is based on the identity or proximity of the main meaning of its members and the difference in their functional-stylistic and emotionally-expressive coloring. So, the verb forms jumped and jumped (He jumped into the ditch - He jumped into the ditch) have a common lexical and grammatical meaning, but differ in functional and stylistic coloring (H and P), as well as the lack of expression in the first form and the presence in the second. The words predominate and dominate, included in the same paradigm, have the same lexical meaning ‘occupy in some respect the main, leading place, position’, but differ in stylistic coloring (Н and К).
Members of the stylistic paradigm (stylistic synonyms) are the main resources of stylistics. For the stylistics and culture of speech, since they deal with the functioning of the language, an expanded understanding of synonymy is relevant: the definition of synonyms on the basis of the interchangeability of language units in the context. It is the possibility of interchangeability that is consistent with one of the basic principles of stylistics and culture of speech - the principle of choosing the most successful language means for a given situation. Providing the opportunity to choose, stylistic synonyms allow you to express an idea in a different stylistic tone. Compare: I don't want to read - I don't want to read; How did you know about it? — How did you get wind of this?; If only I had known sooner! “Know this before!”
Outside the stylistic paradigm, there are many terms (T) and commonly used language units (O), which, unlike neutral ones, do not have stylistic synonyms. The commonly used ones are stylistically unmarked language units used without any restrictions in various areas and situations of communication. For example: house, paper, book, white, wide, walk, work, fun, in Russian, mine, ours, all. Terms represent a stylistically closed category of vocabulary and stable combinations assigned to certain areas of communication (scientific and official business).
The basis of the modern Russian literary language is made up of commonly used and neutral language units. They unite all styles into a single language system and act as a background against which stylistically marked means stand out. The latter give the context a certain functional and stylistic shade. However, in the context, the nature of the stylistic coloring can change; for example, an assessment of endearment turns into an ironic one (sissy), swear words can sound affectionately (you are my dear robber), etc. Functionally fixed language units in the context can acquire an emotionally expressive coloring. So, the words to praise, ornate, loud, named, exude, marked in the dictionaries as book obsolete, in the language of the newspaper acquire an ironic coloring.
Depending on the meaning and peculiarities of use, the same language unit can have several different stylistic connotations: The hunter shot the hare (N) - In winter, the hare changes its color (scientific) - He rode the bus as a hare (P, disapproved).
Polysemantic words in one sense (usually in the direct sense) are stylistically neutral, and in the other (usually in the figurative sense) they have a bright emotionally expressive coloring: A dog scratched and whined behind the door (K. Paustovsky) - “Why does he need your hare sheepskin coat? He will drink it, the dog, in the first tavern ”(A. Pushkin), There was an oak tree on the edge of the road (L. Tolstoy) -“ You, oak, are not going there ”(A. Chekhov). Compare also the use of the words fox, bear, rooster, elephant, croak, growl, snort, coo in direct and figurative meanings.
Stylistic means are not only linguistic units that have a constant stylistic connotation, i.e., the ability to express stylistic coloring out of context, but also language elements that acquire it in specific acts of speech activity, in certain syntagmatic connections. For example, pronouns that do not have a stylistic connotation, each and every and in the context, can acquire a disapproving expression: Everyone else must report. Everyone will make comments to me! Almost every language unit is capable of acting as a stylistic means, which is achieved by the nature of the organization and the methods of using it in a particular utterance. This significantly expands the stylistic resources of the literary language.
Note:
1. Paradigms containing all three members are extremely rare, more often in the language there are paradigms of two members.
T.P. Pleshchenko, N.V. Fedotova, R.G. Chechet. Stylistics and culture of speech - Mn., 2001.
