THE SUBJECT OF PHONETICS.

BASIC PHONETIC UNITS

PHONETICS- a branch of the science of language that studies the sound side of the language. Phonetics is a specific system included in common system language. This is a sublevel of the general language system, inextricably linked with the entire system, since the basic units of the language are words, morphemes, phrases, sentences that represent more high levels, - are signs. After all, in addition to the semantic side - denoted (values), they all have a material side accessible to the senses - denoting(sounds and their combinations). There is a conditional (not natural, not natural) connection between the signifier and the signifier. Yes, the word dream has a material expression - this is a combination of five sounds that serves to express the meaning "something created by the imagination, mentally represented." The subject of phonetics is the material (sound) side of the language.

The task of phonetics - the study of the methods of formation (articulation) and acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in the speech stream. You can study phonetics with different goals and different methods. Depending on this, general phonetics, descriptive phonetics, comparative phonetics, historical phonetics, and experimental phonetics are distinguished.

General phonetics on the material of various languages, considers the theoretical issues of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, the structure of the syllable, the relationship of the sound system of the language to its grammatical system.

Descriptive phonetics explores the sound system specific language in synchronous plan, i.e. on the present stage language development.

Comparative phonetics explains phenomena in the field of sound structure, referring to the material of related languages.

Historical phonetics traces the formation of phonetic phenomena over a more or less long period of time, studies the changes in the phonetic system that occurred at a certain stage of their development, i.e. studies phonetics in diachronic plan.

Experimental phonetics is part of general phonetics, studies the sound side of the language with instrumental methods.

In this way, phonetics of the modern Russian language- this is descriptive phonetics, since phonetic phenomena are considered at a certain stage in the development of the language, at a given point in time.

All phonetic units of the language - phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables, sounds - are interconnected by quantitative relationships.

Phrase – the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other similar units by a pause. A phrase is not always the same as a sentence (a sentence can consist of several phrases, and a phrase can consist of several sentences). But even if the phrase coincides with the sentence, the same phenomenon is still considered from different points of view. In phonetics, attention is paid to intonation, pauses, etc.

Intonation – a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional aspects, which are manifested in successive changes in pitch, speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and deceleration in the flow of speech), sound strength (intensity of speech), intra-phrase pauses, the general timbre of the utterance. With the help of intonation, speech is divided into syntagmas.

Syntagma – a combination of two or more phonetic words from a phrase. For example: See you tomorrow I in the evening. See you I tomorrow night. In these sentences, syntagmas are separated by a pause. It should be noted that the term "syntagma" is understood by scientists in different ways. Academician V.V. Vinogradov, in particular, delimits the syntagma from the speech tact as an intonation-shaped semantic-syntactic unit of speech, isolated from the composition of the sentence

speech beat – part of a phrase, united by one stress, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness (with the exception of the last one). For example: In the hour of trial / bow to the fatherland / in Russian / at the feet. (D. Kedrin).

phonetic word - part of a speech measure (if the phrase is divided into measures) or a phrase united by one stress. A phonetic word can coincide with a word in the lexical and grammatical sense of this term. A phrase has as many phonetic words as there are stresses in it, i.e. most often significant words stand out in separate measures. Since some words do not carry stress, there are often fewer phonetic words than lexical ones. As a rule, service parts of speech are unstressed, but significant words can also be in an unstressed position:

. Words that do not have an accent and are adjacent to other words are called clitics . Depending on what place they occupy in relation to the stressed word, proclitics and enclitics are distinguished. proclitics called unstressed words, standing in front of the shock, to which they adjoin:, enclitics - unstressed words after the stressed one to which they adjoin:,. Functional words usually act as proclitics and enclitics, however, a significant word can also turn out to be an enclitic when a preposition or particle takes on stress: on ´ water[according to].

Syllable - part of a bar or phonetic word, consisting of one or more sounds, the connection of the least sonorous sound with the most sonorous, which is syllabic (see the section "Syllable division. Types of syllables").

Sound - the smallest unit of speech delivered in one articulation. We can also define sound as the smallest phonetic unit that is distinguished by the successive division of speech.

Basic concepts of phonetics

Phonetics is a branch of linguistics that studies the sound forms of a language, their acoustic and articulation, properties, laws by which they are formed, and the mode of functioning.

The sound of speech is the smallest unit of the howling chain, resulting from the articulation of a person and characterized by certain phonetic properties.

Sound is the basic unit of language with words and sentences, but by itself it has no meaning.

Sounds play an important meaning in the language, a significant role: they create the outer shell of words and thus help to distinguish words from each other.

Words differ in the number of sounds of which they are composed, the set of sounds, the sequence of sounds.

The sounds of the tongue are formed in the speech apparatus when air is exhaled. In the speech apparatus, the following parts can be distinguished:

1) breathing apparatus (lungs, bronchi, trachea), which creates the air jet pressure necessary for the formation of sound vibrations;

3) mouth and nose, where under the influence of vibrations vocal cords fluctuations in the air mass occur and additional tones and overtones are created, superimposed on the main tone that arose in the larynx.

4) The cavities of the mouth and nose are resonators that amplify additional tones of sound; organs of pronunciation, i.e. tongue, lips.

5) 5) brain and nervous system a person who controls the entire work of the speech apparatus.

Articulatory, all speech sounds are divided into vowels and consonants. The main differences between them are related to the way these sounds are formed and their role in the formation of a syllable. Vowels are syllable-forming, which form the top of the syllable, therefore, in almost all languages ​​of the world, the number of consonants exceeds the number of vowels.

Principles of Classification of Speech Sounds

According to the peculiarities of formation and acoustic properties, the sounds of the Russian language are divided into vowels and consonants.

Vowels are sounds that consist only of a voice; in the formation of vowels, the participation of the vocal cords and the absence of an obstruction in the oral cavity are mandatory. Exhaled air passes through the mouth without any obstruction. The phonetic function of vowels is in the organization of the sound integrity of a syllable, a word.

There are six main vowels in Russian: [a], [o], [u], [e], [i], [s].

Vowels are stressed (for example, noise - [y], forest - [e]) and unstressed (for example: water - [a], spring - [and]).

Consonants are sounds that consist of noise or voice and noise: when articulating consonants, the exhaled air encounters obstacles in its path in the oral cavity. In the formation of consonants, the participation of the vocal cords is not necessary, but the presence of a barrier and a joint articulation is mandatory.

Consonants as a class of sounds oppose vowels also because they are not syllabic: the very name "consonant", that is, occurring together with a vowel, indicates the subordinate role of the consonant in the syllable.

Finally, one more important feature in the opposition of vowels and consonants should be noted - their role as carriers of certain information. Since there are significantly fewer vowels than consonants, they are more common, choosing them is quite simple. There are much more consonants than vowels, so the choice of the necessary one is more difficult.

Voiced and voiceless consonants are paired and unpaired.

In accordance with this feature, all consonants are divided into noisy and sonorous (from Latin Zopogiz - sonorous).

The voiced consonant at the end of a word and before a deaf consonant is replaced by a paired deaf consonant. This replacement is called stunning (friend - [k], spoon - [w]).

A deaf consonant before a voiced consonant (except for l, p, Nu m, d) is replaced by a paired voiced consonant. This replacement is called voicing (request - [з "]).

Syllable. stress

A syllable is one vowel sound or several sounds in a word, which are pronounced with one push of air during speaking. A syllable is the smallest unit of pronunciation of a word. Syllables consisting of two or more sounds can end either in a vowel (this is open syllable, for example, in-ra, mountain-ra,), or into a consonant (this is a closed syllable, for example, doc-tor, black).

Stress is the selection of a syllable in a word with greater force when pronouncing the word using phonetic means (voice strength, longitude of sound, pitch).

The stress always falls on a vowel sound in a syllable, for example: book-ga, spring-sen-ny, in-gla-sit.

Depending on the location of the stress in the syllabic structure of the word, stress is free and connected. Free stress is a non-fixed stress that can fall on any syllable of a word (in Russian, for example, it can be on the last syllable: good, on the penultimate one: girlfriend, on the third from the end: expensive.

Associated stress is a fixed stress attached to a specific syllable in a word (in French it is on the last syllable, in English on the first).

Towards morphological structure word stress can be mobile and motionless.

A sub-stress is an accent that can move in different word forms of the same word, it is not tied to the same morpheme, for example: mountain - mountain.

A fixed stress is a constant stress tied to the same morpheme of different word forms of a word, for example: book, book, book.

The stress can distinguish the meanings of words or different forms of the word: atlas (collection geographical maps) - satin (shiny silk fabric), windows (im. pl.) - window (gen. sg.)

The word usually has one stress, but sometimes (as a rule, in compound words) there is a side stress (for example: medical institute, two-story).

To indicate stress on a letter in necessary cases the sign a is used above the stressed vowel.

In some words of the Russian language, the stress is placed on one or the other syllable. Both options are correct, for example: at the same time and at the same time, cottage cheese - cottage cheese, otherwise - differently, thinking and thinking.

Russian stress in modified words during their addition or conjugation can be stored on the same part of the word on which it was in the initial form: mountain - mountains, big - big, sandy - sandy, choose - I'll choose, or it can move to another part of the word, for example: friend - friend, take - took.

Phoneme as a unit of language

Every language has a huge variety of sounds. But the whole variety of speech sounds can be reduced to a small number of language units (phonemes) involved in the semantic differentiation of words or their forms.

A phoneme is a unit of the sound structure of a language, represented by a number of positionally alternating sounds, which serves to identify and distinguish between significant units of the language.

There are 5 vowel phonemes in Russian, and the number of consonant phonemes ranges from 32 to 37.

Like any language unit, a phoneme has its own phonological features. Some of them are "passive" signs, others are "active", for example: hardness, sonority, explosiveness. To define a phoneme, it is necessary to know the set of its differential features.

To determine a phoneme, you need to find a position in a word in which the most phonemes differ (compare: small - mol - mule - here, under stress in the same phonetic environment, phonemes [a], [o], [y]) are distinguished) .

Position is a condition for the implementation of a phoneme in speech, its position in a word in relation to stress, another phoneme, the structure of the word as a whole. Distinguish between strong and weak positions.

A strong position is a position in which the largest number of units differs. The phoneme appears here in its basic form, which allows it to the best way perform their functions. For Russian vowels, this is the position under stress. For deaf / voiced consonants - a position before all vowels, for example: [g] ol - [k] ol.

Weak position is a position in which the difference is less than in strong position, the number of units, because phonemes have limited opportunities to perform its distinctive function, for example: s [a] ma - sama and soma.

For Russian vowels, a weak position is a position without stress. For deaf / voiced "consonants - the position of the end of the word, where they do not differ, coinciding in one sound, for example: forests - fox [fox], congress - eat [syest].

Transcription

Transcription is a special writing system used to accurately convey the sound composition of spoken or written speech. Transcription is based on strict adherence to the principle of correspondence between the sign and the sound transmitted by this sign: the same sign must in all cases correspond to the same sound.

There are several types of transcriptions. The most commonly used phonetic transcription.

Phonetic transcription is used to convey a word in full accordance with its sound, i.e., with its help, the sound composition of the word is fixed. It is built on the basis of any alphabet using superscript or subscript characters that serve to indicate stress, softness, longitude, brevity. Among the phonetic alphabets, the most famous is the alphabet of the International Phonetic Association, built on the basis of the Latin alphabet, for example, the words window and day are transmitted as follows: [akpo \ [y y en y].

In Russia, in addition, transcription is used, which is based on Russian graphics: [ltsno], [d * en "].

The transcription does not use punctuation marks and capital letters.

Intonation and its elements

Intonation is a set of rhythmic and melodic components of speech, one of the most important means of formulating an utterance, identifying it.

meaning. With the help of intonation, the speech flow is divided into semantic segments with further detailing of their semantic relationships. Intonation includes:

1) melody of speech: the main component of intonation, it is carried out by raising and lowering the voice in the phrase;

2) the rhythm of speech, that is, the regular repetition of stressed and unstressed, long and short syllables. The rhythm of speech serves as the basis of aesthetic organization artistic text- poetry and prose;

3) the intensity of speech, i.e. the degree of its loudness, the strength or weakness of the utterance of the statement;

4) the rate of speech, i.e. the speed of its flow, the duration of the sound in time;

5) the timbre of speech, that is, the sound coloring of speech, which conveys its emotional and expressive shades.

Intonation forms the statement into a single whole, distinguishes the types of statements in terms of their purposefulness, expresses emotional coloring, characterizes the speaker and the situation of communication as a whole.

Read, indicate what role stress plays in words. Put the stress, make 5-7 sentences.

Flock protein - vegetable protein; the organ of speech - the organ sounds, the majestic castle - the door lock; smells of perfume - smells like a breeze; picturesque shores - from the opposite shore;

full-flowing rivers - along the river bank; lead from loved ones - lead the child by the hand; dense forests - the edge of the forest; drank coffee - drank wood.

Orthoepic and accentological norms

ORPHEPIC STANDARDS

Orthoepy - 1) a section of linguistics that studies normative literary pronunciation; 2) a set of rules that establish a uniform pronunciation that corresponds to the pronunciation standards adopted in the language.

There are several sections in Russian orthoepy:

6) pronunciation of vowels;

7) pronunciation of consonants (hard and soft, combinations of consonants);

8) pronunciation of individual grammatical forms;

9) pronunciation features foreign words;

10) errors in the pronunciation of individual words.

Pronunciation of unstressed vowels

In modern Russian literary language vowels [a], [e], [o] are pronounced distinctly only under stress: poppy, stump, house. In an unstressed position, they undergo qualitative and quantitative changes as a result of a weakening of articulation. A qualitative reduction is a change in the sound of a vowel with the loss of some signs of its timbre. Quantitative reduction is the reduction of its longitude and strength.

To a lesser extent, vowel sounds that are in the first pre-stressed syllable, for example, and [o] are pronounced the same way - as a closed sound, denoted in phonetic transcription icon - “lid” - [l]: [plkd] - peace, [blzir] - bazaar, etc. It differs from the shock [a] in a shorter duration.

The pronunciation of an unstressed [o] as a closed [l] is called a moderate akan and is a feature of Russian literary pronunciation.

In the remaining unstressed syllables, in place of [o] and [a) it is pronounced short sound, denoted in transcription by the sign: k [b] los6k, div [b], shkdl [b].

At the beginning of a word, unstressed [a] and [o] are pronounced like [a]: xioma, [a] blaka.

After hard hissing [w] and [w], the vowel [a] is also pronounced like [a] if it is in the first pre-stressed syllable: w [a] rgon, w [a] gatp, and before soft consonants a sound is pronounced, the middle between [s] and [e]: f[s e] fly, losh [s e] dey.

In place of the letters e and i in the first pre-stressed syllable, a sound is pronounced, the middle between [e] and [i], denoted in the transcription [and e], for example: l [and e] gugiki, s [and e] blah.

In the rest of the unstressed syllables, in place of the letters to her I, a short [and] is pronounced, denoted in transcription by the sign: p[b]tachbk, vyt[b]nut.

In place of combinations aa, he, do, oo in pre-stressed syllables, [a] is pronounced long, denoted in transcription [a], for example: in [animation, z[a] park.

The distinct pronunciation of unstressed [a], [o], [e] is a violation of the orthoepic norms of the Russian literary language. It most often arises under the influence of the written appearance of the word and produces its literal, rather than sound composition. Also, errors in the pronunciation of vowels can be caused by the influence of local dialects.

A number of orthoepic errors are associated with the indistinguishability of stressed [e] and [o] (in the letter ё) after soft consonants: scam and scam, grenadier and grenadier, etc. In most native Russian words, unstressed [e] under stress corresponds to [o], cf. .: wife - wives, village - villages, etc.

In many cases, with the help of sounds [e] and [o], words or forms of words are distinguished: the expired year and the bled one, everything and everything, case (noun) and case (cattle).

However, most often the fluctuations in pronunciation [e] and [o] have neither semantic or stylistic meaning. These are equal options. literary norm. So, according to the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language", the pronunciation of the following words is a variant: whitish and add. whitish, faded and additional. faded, being and being, from afar and additional. from afar, bile and additional. bile, maneuver and maneuver, pronominal and pronominal, crossed and additional. crossed, trellised and trellised.

Only [e] should be pronounced in the words: midwife, athlete, scam, bluff, splash, grenadier, tribal, peep, pharynx, fishing line, simultaneous, guardianship, settled, crypt, perfect view(term), helmet, etc.

Only [o] graphically yo should be pronounced in the words voyager, engraving, ice, bigamy, drowsiness, numb, sparkling, juniper, worthless, etc.

Pronounce the words correctly and put emphasis. See the spelling dictionary for help.

Zer, pointed, dusty, populated, cluttered, cramming, from afar, hibernation, stubble, sleet, firebrand, cries, wandering, foreigner, settled, nonsense, point, cross, brought, tearful, loan, sooty, motley. Exercise 2. Determine in which words we pronounce [e] - graphic e, and in which [o] - graphic e.

Newborn, worthless, incomparable, faded, pompous, pollinated, saddle, despicable, different times, this, gleam, background, swollen, brought, brought, obscene, humble, silver, unmercenary, athlete, perfect (communion).

Pronunciation of consonants

The pronunciation of consonants is associated with the laws of assimilation and deafening.

At the end of words and in the middle before deaf consonants, voiced consonants are stunned: bunch - gro [s "t"], meadow - lu [k], mitten - vare [shk] a, etc.

In the combinations “voiced consonant + voiceless consonant” or “voiced consonant + voiced consonant”, the first of them is likened to the second: mug - kru [shk] a, conspiracy - [zg] ovor.

Combinations of individual consonants are pronounced as follows:

si /, ass - [shsh] or [sh:]: made a noise - ra [sh:] skillful]

S ^ FS) evil [lzh] or [zh:]: fry - [zh:] fry;

zzh y zhzh (inside the root) - [zh "] or [zh:]: later - by [zh:] e \

mid - [w "]: happiness - [w "] astier \

zch (at the junction of the root and the suffix) - [w 1]: clerk - prik [w "] ik;

tch, dh - [h "]: speaker - report [h"] ik, desperate - from [h"] ayanny;

ts, dts - [ts]: well done - young [ts] s, fathers - o [ts] s \

ds, ts (at the junction of the root and the suffix) - [c]: fraternal - marriage [c] cue, factory - factory [c] coy \

in combinations gk, gch [g] is pronounced like [x]: light ~ le [x] cue.

It should be remembered that the voiced consonant [g] at the end of the word should sound like a deaf explosive [k]. The pronunciation of the deaf fricative [x] is unacceptable as a dialect (a feature of the southern dialects). An exception is the word god - 6o[x].

Softening of hard consonants before soft ones (assimilation, i.e., likening in softness) is most often observed before the suffix or inside the root: snow - [s"n"ek], Friday - [n"at"n"itsj], racer - [ gon "sh": ik], from the winter - [z "-z" ima].

In some cases, the softening of hard consonants before soft ones in the modern Russian literary language during pronunciation is optional, i.e. optional: branches [t "in"] and [te"), ate [s "yel] and [syel].

Softening [h] in the suffix -ism is not allowed if the consonant [m] is solid, for example: materialism] and organism [sm].

The combination ch in most cases is pronounced in accordance with the spelling: exact, Milky Way and others. Only in some words [shn] is pronounced in place of ch: two [gin "]ik, in patronymics -ichna (Nikiti [shn] a). There are words with a variable pronunciation: two-kopeck [shn] and [ch].

Write in the transcription the pronunciation of the combination ch in the following words:

Bath-laundry, bagel, barrel, alarm clock, pin, bakery, bottle, bribe, maid, mustard plasterers, fever, buckwheat, loser, five-kopeck, bachelorette party, dairy, oncoming, kalachny, housekeeper, on purpose, midnight, trifling, birdhouse, scrambled eggs.

Write down the words in which [sh] should be pronounced.

Careless, felt, bribery, all-night, mustard, shop, fabulous, cordial friend, heart muscle, country, petty, Kuzminichna, Ilyinichna, boring, candlestick, eyeglass case, barley, everyday, balalaika.

Find words that pronounce the sound [z*]. Dirt, request, mowing, idle, hint, pointer, here, do it, health, unwell, building, watermelon, brain, station, starry, envious, hello, run away, patriotism, idealism, position, ruthless, wintering, loading, clerk. List the words that have the [s] sound.

Epistemology, kind-hearted, convocation, agitation train, motto, collective farm, union, synthesis, discuss, sign, inscription, low, narrow, enter, slippery, burned out, faded, embroidered, miscalculate, calculation, sad, famous, envious, factory, fry.

Threshing, west, trap, bottom, day, December, good, excuse, horseshoe, jacket, drill, pond, pud, pudding, fall, case (nominative), bribery, subcourses, strand, span (of land), galaxy, code, treasure, pantry, plaid.

I. Faded, pipe, zamzav, ruthless, miscalculate, in part, thirty, childish, Bolshevik, capitalism, decide, gather.

II. Frozen, dove, jagged, compressed, subscriber, speaker, urban, soldier, anti-fascist, impressionism, woo, see each other.

III. Embroidered, timid, second, lifeless, carver, clean up, passionate, naval, revanchist, idealism, they say, dreams.

Errors in the pronunciation of some grammatical forms

In place of the letter g in the endings of the -th / -it should be pronounced [in]: red [in], then [in], fourth [in]. The sound [v] in place of the letter g is also pronounced in the words today, today, total.

must be differentiated in pronunciation unstressed endings 3rd l. plural verbs I and II conjugation; ko[l"ut], not ko[l"ut], mu[h"it], not mu[h"and et], not [l"ut], not me[l"at], dy [shut], not dy [giut], etc.

In the forms of the 2nd l. unit before the return postfix -sya, the consonant sound [w] is preserved: dare [gis] or dare [gis" b]. instead of bathing [c > b].

Find the words in which you should pronounce [r].

Genesis, no coal, toast, big, today, god, whom, total, today's, blue, what, his, beautiful, sweet, kind, beloved, run, no one, neither one nor the other, white, mine, huge, worthless , miraculous, ours, alcohol, money, agreement.

Write down the words in which the sound [v] is pronounced.

Grass, mitten, cheesecake, green, mine, cow, boyish, inform, Petrov, Gordian knot, libel, no one, in the field, apostrophe, absolutely, light in the night, petition, girls, delivery, campfires, houses, hair, forever, eight, spring.

Features of the pronunciation of borrowed words

In book words of foreign origin and in some proper names, unstressed [o] is preserved: poet, poem, rococo, Zola, Chopin, sonnet, etc. novel, glass, etc.

At the beginning of words of foreign origin and after a vowel in place of the letter e, [e] is pronounced: exotic, exterior, duelist, pirouette.

The consonants l, g, k, x in foreign words soften before e: duke, scheme, molecule.

The consonants t, d, z, s, and, p most often remain firm before e: Voltaire, rendezvous, thermos, masterpiece, etc.

According to the Orthoepic Dictionary, in many words a variable pronunciation is allowed before e: parcel [n "d" e] and [nde], businessman [zne] and [me], add. [s"n"e] and [m"e], depot [d"e] and [de]. This is due to the fact that the change in the quality of consonants before e in borrowed words is a living process. The softening of consonants before e occurs primarily in commonly used words.

Determine in which words the consonant before e is solid. In case of difficulty, please contact orthoepic dictionary.

I. Andante, despotism, adequate, benefit performance, nativity scene, debut, apartheid, asteroid, bulldenezh, waterline, dumping, synthetics, test, tetracycline, plywood.

I. Alma mater, detailing, adenoids, beret, harem, degenerate, atheism, outsider, burime, riding breeches, citadel, clarinet, sector, masterpiece, Schopenhauer.

Academician, accordion, dispatch, hypotenuse, democracy, no less, bijouterie, sandwich, grapefruit, interior, scarf, phonetics, thermometer, tete-a-tete, director.

Watercolor, mezzanine, patentless, rowdy, brotherhood, woodcock, grotesque, newspaper, Odessa, rent, tour, tenor, thermos, tube dispensary, territory.

Write out the words in which before e, according to the norms of Russian pronunciation, you can pronounce both a hard consonant and a soft one. See a dictionary for help.

Annexation, bacteria, parcel post, brunet, beefsteak, businessman, Bremen, Bruxelles, child prodigy, genesis, delegate, devaluation, deductive, Daudet, Descartes, deputy, depot, dermatologist, deformation, editor, resolution, tennis, tradescantia, term.

Errors in the pronunciation of individual words

In speech, sometimes some sounds are unjustifiably omitted, others, on the contrary, are inserted or rearranged. Similar errors can be observed when pronouncing foreign words, cf.:

Wrong: dermat[n] tin (added [n]) incident [n] dent (added [n]) intriguer [t] ka (added [t]) state [n] tirovat (added [n]) hypocrisy [n] property (added [n]) tro [l "e] bus (omitted [l] and [th]) [n "bp" and 3 trumpets] ation (rearrangement of sounds) laboratory [l] laboratory (replacing the sound [p] with [k]) legal [t] adviser (added [t]) light doom[d] judgment (added [d])

Instead of the correct skirt, skirts, they say yu [n] ochka, yu [n] ok, keeping the stunning that occurs before the consonant [k] in the form of the nominative case: yu [n] ka, yu [n] ki.

Instead of one [o] in the word porcupine, they pronounce wild [oo] b-raz, and the standard-bearer sounds like a banner [nln6] set. These gross errors testify to the strong influence of vernacular.

ACCENTOLOGICAL STANDARDS

Accentology (from lat. assep1u $ - stress) is a section of linguistics that studies the features and functions of stress.

In Russian, stress is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages. For example, in Czech, the stress is assigned to the first syllable, in Polish - to.

That's right: leatherette incident intriguer to ascertain hypocrisy trolleybus perturbation laboratory legal adviser doomsday penultimate, in Armenian - after the last. Since in Russian the stress can fall on any syllable, it is called heterogeneous (daughter, cow, kilogram). This feature makes it difficult to assimilate accentological norms.

The second feature of Russian stress is the presence of mobility / immobility. Mobile stress is called, changing its place in different forms of the same word (house - home, I can - you can). If, in various forms of the word, the stress falls on the same part, it is called motionless (ringing - calling - calling - phoned).

The diversity and mobility of Russian stress serve to distinguish different ones that coincide in spelling, for example: pickaxe ("Protestant Church") and pickaxe ("tool"), cowardly ("to be afraid") and cowardly ("jogging"), cut off (Sov. view ) and cut off (non-native appearance), the dress is small (kr. form with lag.) and slept a little (adv.).

For stress, there is the concept of variance, which means that some words have variants of stress. Accent variants do not differ in either lexical or grammatical meaning. But they are often characterized by varying degrees of use and in many cases are assigned to different areas of use.

Equal accentological options include: barge and barge, gas and gas, dombra and dombra, frosty and frosty, rust and rust, flounder and flounder, combiner and combiner, salmon and salmon, etc.

Other normative options are divided into basic and acceptable, i.e. less desirable, for example / cottage cheese and extra. cottage cheese, cooking and more. cooking.

A number of stress options are associated with the professional sphere of use, cf .: flute - flute (among musicians), bite - bite (among specialists), compass - compass (among sailors).

Specific stress in borrowed words. It depends on many circumstances: on the stress in the source language, in the intermediary language in indirect borrowing, on the age of borrowing and the degree of mastery of the word by the Russian language. Therefore, the stress in borrowed words should be consulted in dictionaries.

Accent errors

The greatest number of accentological errors occurs in the formation of the following forms:

I. In nouns:

monosyllabic nouns m.r. in oblique cases singular have an accent on the end: pancake - pancake, screw - screw, umbrella - umbrella, tench - tench, stack - stack, polecat - polecat, stroke - stroke, etc.

disyllabic nouns in V.p. unit have an emphasis on the ending (spring - spring, gum - gum, sheep - sheep, foot - foot, etc.) and on the root (winter - winter, board - board, wall - wall, etc.).

a number of nouns zh.r., used with the prepositions v and na, are pronounced with an accent on the ending: in the chest, on the door, in the night, in the net, in the shadow, on the chain, etc.

nouns in R.p. plural have an accent:

a) on the basis of: localities, honors, profits, ice holes, pranks;

b) at the end: branches, handfuls, positions, fortresses, planes, degrees, tablecloths, speeds, sterlets, taxes, stories, news, quarters.

II. In adjectives:

Short names adjectives in m. and. cf. unit and in plural have an accent on the first syllable of the stem, and in the f.r. - at the end, for example: oars - fun - fun, but - fun.

In verbs:

in verbs of the past tense in f.r. the emphasis most often falls on the ending: she took, lied, drove, asked, started, understood, slept (from sleeping), etc.

Less often on the basis of: shaved, laid, wings, soaps, awl, slept (from falling), etc.

verbs in -toile are divided into two groups:

a) with an emphasis on and: block, guarantee, debate, compromise, copy, etc.;

b) with an emphasis on a: bombard, engrave, group, seal, form, etc.

In participles:

in most passive participles In the past tense, the stress in all forms, except for the female form, falls on the basis: taken - taken - taken, but - taken.

participles in -brazen, -tattered, -called in all forms have an accent on the prefix: convened - convened - convened - convened.

In phraseological units, the emphasis on the pretext is usually preserved: climb the wall, grab your head, be after your heart, from morning to night.

Read the words with the correct stress.

Alibi, alphabet, aristocracy, analogue, arrest, anatomist. Benefits, barge, fear, pamper, bartender, bows, bows.

Gross, elections, elections, religion, willow, hand, hand, hand.

Gas pipeline, stamp, herald, citizenship, penny. Dispensary, contract, contracts, contracts, leisure, nap. Heretic, heresy. Life, blinds.

Witch doctor, yawn, long, hangnail, ringing, sign.

For a long time, otherwise, industry, icon painting, hieroglyph.

Kilometer, quarter, catalogue, pantry, rubber, flint, beautiful, more beautiful.

Lapel, chunk.

A glimpse, thinking.

Place emphasis on the following words:

Long, intent, obituary.

Officers, encourage, guardianship, facilitate, trivialize, wholesale, provision.

Sentence, call, paralysis, pullover, remembering, noose, dowry.

Belt, shell, spreading.

Funds, orphan, orphans, orphans, statue, plum, carpenter, steward.

Shoe, dancer, sacrament, immediately. Notify, more convenient, strengthening, dead, aggravate. Phenomenon, fetish, trick, facsimile, chaos, masters. Gypsy, sorrel, holy fool, expert, language barrier, manger, manger.

Read the words, place the stress:

Merry, merry, merry, merry. Young, young, young, young.

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In the sound stream, it is customary to distinguish between linear (segmental) (from the Latin segmentum - segment) and supra-linear (super-segmental) phonetic units. Linear phonetic units include the sounds of a language or their combinations, located sequentially one after another and forming a hierarchical system, supra-linear phonetic units include stress and intonation, which cannot exist separately from speech sounds, but only together with them.

Linear phonetic units are sound, syllable, phonetic word, speech tact, phonetic phrase.

A phonetic phrase is the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other phrases by a pause.

A speech tact, or syntagma, is a part of a phonetic phrase, a group of words united by one intonation and meaning.

A phonetic word is a part of a speech tact, united by one verbal stress, an independent word along with unstressed service words and particles adjacent to it.

A syllable is part of a phonetic word.

Sound is the smallest phonetic unit.

The selection of these phonetic units is the result of phonetic articulation of speech.

Phonetic division of speech is the division of a phrase into syntagmas, depending on the communicative intention of the speaker.

6. Speech apparatus, its structure and functions of its individual parts.

The speech apparatus is a set of work of human organs necessary for the production of speech. It includes:

- respiratory organs, since all speech sounds are formed only when exhaling. These are the lungs, bronchi, trachea, diaphragm, intercostal muscles. The lungs rest on the diaphragm, an elastic muscle that, when relaxed, has the shape of a dome. When the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contract, the volume of the chest increases and inhalation occurs, when they relax, exhale;

- passive speech organs - these are motionless organs that serve as a fulcrum for active organs. These are teeth, alveoli, hard palate, pharynx, nasal cavity, larynx;

- active speech organs - these are mobile organs that perform the main work necessary for the formation of sound. These include the tongue, lips, soft palate, small uvula, epiglottis, vocal cords. The vocal cords are two small bundles of muscles attached to the cartilages of the larynx and located almost horizontally across it. They are elastic, can be relaxed and tense, can be moved apart to different widths of the solution;

- the brain, which coordinates the work of the organs of speech and subordinates the technique of pronunciation to the creative will of the speaker.

Functions of individual organs of speech.

1. The vocal cords are relaxed, open. The glottis is wide open. Air passes through it unhindered. No sound is produced. This is the state of the vocal cords when pronouncing deaf sounds.

2. The vocal cords are close and tense. The glottis almost closes. There is an obstruction in the way of the air stream. Under the pressure of the air jet, the vocal cords move apart and come together again, because. they are tense. Thus, oscillations occur. This creates a tone, a voice. This is the state of the vocal cords when pronouncing vowels and voiced consonants

The oral cavity and nasal cavity Act as resonators

1. Palatine curtain. When the palatine curtain is lowered, nasal sounds are pronounced, when raised (folded back) - oral (pure) sounds.

2. The middle part of the back of the tongue. If the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate, soft consonants are formed. This additional movement of the tongue, superimposed on the main articulation, is called palatalization. When pronouncing solid consonants, there is no palatalization. For the sound [j], palatalization is not an additional, but the main articulation, therefore it is commonly called a palatal sound.

THE SUBJECT OF PHONETICS.

BASIC PHONETIC UNITS

PHONETICS- a branch of the science of language that studies the sound side of the language. Phonetics is a specific system included in the general system of the language. This is a sublevel of the general language system, inextricably linked with the entire system, since the basic units of the language - words, morphemes, phrases, sentences representing higher levels - are signs. After all, in addition to the semantic side - denoted (values), they all have a material side accessible to the senses - denoting(sounds and their combinations). There is a conditional (not natural, not natural) connection between the signifier and the signifier. Yes, the word dream has a material expression - this is a combination of five sounds that serves to express the meaning "something created by the imagination, mentally represented." The subject of phonetics is the material (sound) side of the language.

The task of phonetics - the study of the methods of formation (articulation) and acoustic properties of sounds, their changes in the speech stream. You can study phonetics with different goals and different methods. Depending on this, general phonetics, descriptive phonetics, comparative phonetics, historical phonetics, and experimental phonetics are distinguished.

General phonetics on the material of various languages, considers the theoretical issues of the formation of speech sounds, the nature of stress, the structure of the syllable, the relationship of the sound system of the language to its grammatical system.

Descriptive phonetics explores the sound structure of a particular language in synchronous plan, i.e. at the present stage of language development.

Comparative phonetics explains phenomena in the field of sound structure, referring to the material of related languages.

Historical phonetics traces the formation of phonetic phenomena over a more or less long period of time, studies the changes in the phonetic system that occurred at a certain stage of their development, i.e. studies phonetics in diachronic plan.

Experimental phonetics is part of general phonetics, studies the sound side of the language with instrumental methods.

In this way, phonetics of the modern Russian language- this is descriptive phonetics, since phonetic phenomena are considered at a certain stage in the development of the language, at a given point in time.

All phonetic units of the language - phrases, measures, phonetic words, syllables, sounds - are interconnected by quantitative relationships.

Phrase – the largest phonetic unit, a statement that is complete in meaning, united by a special intonation and separated from other similar units by a pause. A phrase is not always the same as a sentence (a sentence can consist of several phrases, and a phrase can consist of several sentences). But even if the phrase coincides with the sentence, the same phenomenon is still considered from different points of view. In phonetics, attention is paid to intonation, pauses, etc.

Intonation – a set of means of organizing sounding speech, reflecting its semantic and emotional-volitional aspects, which are manifested in successive changes in pitch, speech rhythm (ratio of strong and weak, long and short syllables), speech rate (acceleration and deceleration in the flow of speech), sound strength (intensity of speech), intra-phrase pauses, the general timbre of the utterance. With the help of intonation, speech is divided into syntagmas.

Syntagma – a combination of two or more phonetic words from a phrase. For example: See you tomorrow I in the evening. See you I tomorrow night. In these sentences, syntagmas are separated by a pause. It should be noted that the term "syntagma" is understood by scientists in different ways. Academician V.V. Vinogradov, in particular, delimits the syntagma from the speech tact as an intonation-shaped semantic-syntactic unit of speech, isolated from the composition of the sentence

speech beat – part of a phrase, united by one stress, limited by pauses and characterized by an intonation of incompleteness (with the exception of the last one). For example: In the hour of trial / bow to the fatherland / in Russian / at the feet. (D. Kedrin).

phonetic word - part of a speech measure (if the phrase is divided into measures) or a phrase united by one stress. A phonetic word can coincide with a word in the lexical and grammatical sense of this term. A phrase has as many phonetic words as there are stresses in it, i.e. most often significant words stand out in separate measures. Since some words do not carry stress, there are often fewer phonetic words than lexical ones. As a rule, service parts of speech are unstressed, but significant words can also be in an unstressed position: . Words that do not have an accent and are adjacent to other words are called clitics. Depending on what place they occupy in relation to the stressed word, proclitics and enclitics are distinguished. proclitics they call unstressed words that are in front of the stressed one to which they adjoin:, enclitics - unstressed words after the stressed one to which they adjoin:,. Functional words usually act as proclitics and enclitics, however, a significant word can also turn out to be an enclitic when a preposition or particle takes on stress: on´ water[according to].

Syllable - part of a measure or a phonetic word, consisting of one or more sounds, a combination of the least sonorous sound with the most sonorous, which is syllabic (see the section "Symbol division. Types of syllables").

Sound - the smallest unit of speech delivered in one articulation. We can also define sound as the smallest phonetic unit that is distinguished by the successive division of speech.

Language Features

• communicative (or communication function) - the main function of the language, the use of language to convey information;
• constructive (or mental; thought-forming) - the formation of the thinking of the individual and society;
• educational (or accumulative function) - transmission of information and its storage;
• emotional-expressive - expression of feelings, emotions;
• voluntarily (or call-incentive function) - impact function;
• metalinguistic (metalinguistic) - explanations by means of the language of the language itself; In relation to everyone sign systems language is a tool of explanation and organization. The point is that the metalanguage of any code is formed in words.
• phatic (or contact-setting) - The use of language to establish psychological contact between interlocutors;
• ideological function - the use of a particular language or type of writing to express ideological preferences. For example, the Irish language is used mainly not for communication, but as a symbol of Irish statehood. The use of traditional writing systems is often perceived as cultural continuity, and the transition to the Latin script as modernizing.
• omadative (or shaper of reality) - creation of realities and their control;
• nominative - (or nominal) the language names various objects;
• denotative, representative - information transfer, presentation
• conative - orientation to the addressee;
• aesthetic - the sphere of creativity;
• axiological - value judgment (good / bad).
• reference (or reflective) - a function of language, in which language is a means of accumulating human experience.
• Deictic - combines elements of language with gestures, pointing function. The function of personal and demonstrative pronouns, as well as particles: here, this, etc.

Language and speech

The human language exists in the form of separate languages ​​- Russian, English, Chinese and many others. Well, in what form does each separate language exist?

Language is not "innate", inherited. The term " native language” does not mean “innate”, but only “learned in early childhood". Language penetrates into the consciousness of each person, of course, “from outside”, penetrates because this language is used by other people around. Following their example, he himself begins to use it from childhood. this person. And, on the other hand, the language is gradually forgotten, and in the end completely disappears from memory (even the native language), if a person for some reason stops using it. From all this it appears

that one can speak of the true existence of a language only insofar as it is used. Language exists as a living language because it functioning. And it functions in speech, in statements, in speech acts. The distinction between the concepts of "language" and "speech" was first put forward in a clear form and

substantiated by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913). Note that under speech modern linguistics understands not only oral speech, but also written speech. In a broad sense, the concept of "speech" also includes the so-called "inner speech", i.e., thinking with the help of linguistic means (words, etc.), carried out « to myself, without saying it out loud.

Language is a set of signs and rules. Language is mental and abstract. Since language is a system of signs, it is in the public domain. It is neutral and does not depend on the situation, it is not directed to anyone in particular, it has a mental essence. While speech is the implementation of existing signs and rules at a specific time by a specific person. It is material and individual, it does not belong to the whole nation. Speech is psychological and situational, addressive and linear.

2. A speech act is an individual and each time a new use of language as a means of communication of various individuals. The speech act must be necessarily bilateral: speaking - listening, which is an inseparable unity that determines mutual understanding.

The speech act is primarily a process that is studied by physiologists, acousticians, psychologists and linguists. A speech act can be not only heard (with oral speech), but also written down (when written), as well as, in the case of oral speech communication, recorded on tape.

The speech act is thus accessible to study and description from different points of view and according to the methods of different sciences.

4. How do language and thinking relate? Their areas can be depicted as two partially intersecting circles. Not everything in thinking belongs to language, but not everything in language can be attributed to thinking. Firstly, thinking happens without language (meaning - without speech). Even a monkey can figure out how to get a banana with a stick - this is the so-called practical thinking. A person also has it, you have probably heard the expression “practical mind”. A “practical” person knows how to make the right decisions, acts “smartly”, but he will most likely find it difficult to explain in words why he did this and not otherwise. There is also such a type of thinking as visual-figurative. It often prevails among people of art: artists, directors... A person with this type of thinking prefers to think not in words, but in pictures, images, ideas... Finally, there is verbal thinking, that is, verbal. Sometimes it is called verbal-logical or simply logical. Such thinking: - involves the search for truth, - is not connected with feelings and assessments, - does not deal with the question and motivation. Practical and imaginative thinking can do without words, but logical thinking does not exist without speech. Language is the "clothing" of thought (scientists say: the material design of thoughts). And since people not only think “to themselves” (that is, inaudibly to others), but also strive to convey thoughts to another, they cannot do without the help of an intermediary language. Thinking is carried out in certain forms. There are three of them: 1. CONCEPT. Concepts reflect the distinctive properties of objects and the relationship between them. The concepts of "book", "brochure", "magazine", "newspaper", "weekly" belong to one thematic group, but differ in such features as "format", "volume", "periodicity", "page bonding", "binding method", etc.2. JUDGMENT. Logical thinking and begins, strictly speaking, where the judgment appears. In a judgment, something is necessarily affirmed or denied.3. CONCLUSION is the process of thought itself, the receipt of a new judgment from the content of the original judgments. How did the proposition "The cat is immortal" come about? Of the two: "All people are mortal" - right? "A cat is not a person" - right? So, of the two correct, the third is also correct.

5.Basic units of the language.
Language is a system, and any system consists of separate elements interconnected. A language is made up of "language units".

1. Phoneme- the smallest unit of the sound structure of a language. The sound itself has no lexical meaning, but in the language some words consist of one sound, in which case the sound ceases to be just a sound and acquires a meaning.
2. Morpheme- this is the minimum semantic unit of the language (prefix, root, suffix, ending). Morphemes consist of phonemes and already have a meaning, but they cannot be used independently. To isolate a morpheme, it is necessary to select words with the same root. Morphemes are distinguished due to the fact that there are relationships between words.
3. Word is the basic unit of the language. The word names objects, phenomena, signs or points to them. The word consists of morphemes, it has a lexical meaning and is used independently.
4. phrase- This is the smallest unit of the language in which the laws of grammar begin to operate. It consists of two or more words, between which there is a semantic and grammatical connection (coordination, control, adjoining).
5. Sentence- a word or several words related by meaning. In speech, sentences are separated by intonation or pauses. There is always a verb in a sentence (if it does not exist as such, then it is implied). Any proposal either confirms or denies something.

Text - it matters, the form of expression, a certain style.
text properties:-connectivity
- completeness - authorship
-addressability. Texts are oral and written.

Language levels and units

Language levels- subsystems (tiers) of the general language system, each of which has a set of its own units and rules for their functioning.

The language is conventionally divided into three levels

grammar

Vocabulary

Phonetics

Grammar- a branch of linguistics that studies the grammatical structure of the language, its formal organization and functioning.

The central parts of grammar in this sense are traditionally the doctrine of parts of speech and their grammatical categories, as well as the doctrine of the general rules for combining words into more extended units (phrases, sentences) and the structure of these speech units - syntax.

Vocabulary(from other Greek τὸ λεξικός - “related to the word”, from ἡ λέξις - “word”, “turn of speech”) - a set of words of a particular language, part of a language or words that this or that person or group knows of people. Vocabulary is the central part of the language, naming, forming and transmitting knowledge about any objects, phenomena.

Vocabulary- all vocabulary language, which distinguishes between active and passive components.

• Archaisms are obsolete words.
• Neologisms are new words.

• Homonyms are one word that has several meanings.
• Antonyms are opposite in meaning.
• Monosyllabic words are words that have the same meaning.
• Polysemantic words are words that have two or more meanings.

Speech styles

Types of speech

Phonetics(from the Greek φωνή - “sound”, φωνηεντικός - “sound”) - a branch of linguistics that studies speech sounds and the sound structure of the language (syllables, sound combinations, patterns of connecting sounds in a speech chain).

Hypotheses of the new time

sound hypothesis.

Interjection hypothesis

The hypothesis of a social (social) contract.

Labor hypotheses

Collectivist hypothesis (labor cry theory)

Spontaneous jump hypothesis

According to this hypothesis, the language arose abruptly, immediately with a rich vocabulary and language system. The German linguist Wilhelm Humboldt (1767-1835) expressed the hypothesis: Language cannot arise otherwise than all at once and suddenly.

It is currently impossible to unambiguously determine the origin of the language.

Phoneme system

The phonemes of a particular language together form a specially ordered system in which each unit (phoneme) is in certain relations with all other units (phonemes).

The phoneme system breaks down into:

• Vocalism (subsystem of vowel phonemes)
• Consonantism (subsystem of consonant phonemes)

Vowels are distinguished by:

The degree of elevation of the tongue

high y, u, s

middle uh oh

the presence or absence of labialization

labeal: uh oh

non-labialized: all others

The consonants are divided into:

sonorous

noisy.

Sonorants include |m|, |m'|, |n|, |n'|, |l|, |l'|, |p|, |p'|, |j|, the rest are noisy.

Classification:

occlusive

1) Explosive|p| |b| |p'| |p'| |t| |e| |t'| | d'| |k'| |g'| |k| |r|

2) Stop-fricative(affricates) |pf| |c| dz h j

3) Nasal|m| |m'| |n| |n'|

4) Side|l| |l'|

5) Trembling|p| |p'|

slotted|f| |in| |f'| |in'| |c| |h| |s'| | h'|

|w| |W| |sh''| |w''| |j| |x'| |x|

The consonants are divided into:

• hard and soft
• deaf and voiced.

Paired according to hardness - softness are consonants: |n| - |p'|, |b| - | b’|, |t| - |t'|, |d| - |d'|, |f| - |f’|, |v| - |in'|, |s|- |s'|, |s| - |z'|, | m| - |m'|, |n| -|n'|, |l| - |l'|, |p| - |p'|, |k| - |k'|, |g| - |g'|, |x| -|x'|.

Unpaired for this trait consonants: |zh|, |sh|, |ts| (solid), |g''|, |sh''|, |h'|, |j| (soft).

Paired for deafness - voicedness are consonants:, |n| - | b|, |p'| - |b'|, |t| - |d|, |t'| - |d'|, |f| - |v|, |f'| - |in'|, |s| - |z|, | s'| - |z'|, |sh| - |w|, |sh''| - |w''|, |k| - |g|, |k'| - |g'|.

Unpaired for this trait consonants: all sonorous (voiced), |ts|, |h|, |x|, |x'| (deaf).

Consonants |sh|, |zh|, |sh''|, |zh''| and |h| are combined into a group of hissing phonemes, and the consonants |s|, |s|, |s'|, |s'| and |c| - in a group of whistlers.

23. Morphological the method of word formation is the creation of new words by combining morphemes according to the rules existing in the language, the formation of words from the material resources available in the given language (roots and service morphemes - affixes).

Word formation (or derivation)

The main types of morphological word formation that operate in the modern Russian language are affixation, the non-affix way of word formation and addition.

Affixation- the creation of a new word by attaching certain affixes to the generating base (or word).

There are three affixal ways of word formation: suffixal, prefixal and suffixal-prefixal. A variation of the suffix is ​​the postfix method (Latin post - after and fixus - attached).

1.1. Suffixal way of word formation - the formation of a new word or a new form of a word by adding a suffix to the generating stem or word. The words countryman, countrywoman, are formed by adding suffixes -yak, -k-, to the generating bases of earth-, countryman-.

1.2. Prefix way - the formation of a new word or form of a word by attaching a prefix to the generating word. The words enemy, ancestral home, amusing, rewrite formed by adding the prefixes not-, pra-, pre-, re-- to the generating bases friend, rodinap, funny, writing.

Postfix way - the formation of a new word or a new form of a word by attaching a postfix to the generating word. The term postfix has two meanings: 1) any affix after the root; 2) an affix standing after inflection and opposed to a suffix on this basis. Verbal stems attach the postfix -sya / -s: wash, wash; pronominal something, -either, -something: someone, some, something.

Mixed-affix way:

1.3. Suffix-prefix way - the formation of a new word by simultaneously attaching a suffix and a prefix to the generating stem or word. The words seaside, plantain, partition, copse formed by the simultaneous addition of prefixes vz- and suf to the generating base. -j-, prefixes po and suf. -nickname-, prefixes pro- and suf. –ok-, prefixes re- and suf. -OK-. When determining the method of morphological word formation in a word with a derivative stem, it is necessary to establish from which stem this word is formed, with which generating stem it correlates. Derivative stems of words neighboring, finishing, coexistence, back of the head, scatter in modern Russian, semantically and grammatically, they correlate with the generating bases neighbor, finish, existence, rear, run. The presence of this relationship between derivative and generating bases serves as the basis for the conclusion that the words neighboring and finishing formed in a suffix way, the word coexistence- prefixed, and words back of the head and scatter- suffix-prefix.

As part of the word-building affixes of the Russian language, there are borrowed from other languages, for example, the prefixes a-, re-; pro-, anti-, etc. and suffixes -it, -ent, -akt-, -azh, etc.: immoral, reproduction, vice-rector, antisocial; pleurisy, assistant, musician, character.

prefix-postfix method - the formation of a new word by simultaneously attaching a prefix and a postfix to the generating stem or word.

You-plaka- be-Xia← poster- be; in-read- be-Xia← read- be.

Suffixal-postfixal way - the formation of a new word by simultaneously adding a suffix and a postfix to the generating stem.

crowd- and-be-Xia← crowd- a; mean- and-be-sya ← stingy- oh.

Prefix-suffix-postfix mode - the formation of a new word by simultaneously attaching a prefix, suffix, postfix to the generating stem.

Pere-joking- willow-be-Xia← jester/s- be.

1.4. Non-affix way of word formation - the creation of a new word on the basis of the generating stem without the participation of the affix, i.e. the generating stem itself becomes the stem of the new word. This method is used mainly in the formation of nouns (from some verbs) and adjectives. At the same time, the stem of the adjective from which the noun is formed undergoes a change (the final consonant changes, the place of stress changes), and the stem of the verb usually does not change (cf .: deep - depth, quiet - quiet, run - run, flood - bay, etc.). P.).

Nouns mileage, high tide, chorus, departure, are derivative bases, however, the formation of these words by means of prefixes is excluded. These words are correlative in meaning with the verb stems to run, pour, hum, fly out, and are formed in a non-affix way. This method is usually used when forming nouns from verbs.

1.5. Addition – the formation of a new word by combining two or more bases into one verbal whole.

(bar-restaurant): ship, aircraft building, cinema, etc.

Compound and complex abbreviated words are formed by means of basic construction. Compound words are the result of the addition of full bases (water-on-wire), and complex abbreviated words are the result of truncated bases (head-teacher, deputy head). With the basic construction, the most productive is the formation of masculine nouns with a leading verbal non-derivative stem (helicopter, nuclear ship). The addition of the stems is usually carried out using the connecting vowels o and e (oil pipeline, bookselling), but often the basic construction is carried out without a connecting vowel (decade, twin-engine, multi-volume).

Sometimes addition is accompanied by a suffix: rarely-o-forest-j-e. One of the types of addition is abbreviation.

Words that have two or more roots in their composition are not always formed by means of a basic structure. Yes, the word reinforced concrete, produced from compound word reinforced concrete through the suffix -n. On the other hand, in modern Russian word formation, ambiguous stems - waters, - Vedas, - wearer, - prominent, - figurative, - creative, etc., can act as a word-formation element (cf. .

24\2. Semantic (or lexico-semantic ) way of word formation - the creation of a new word by splitting the old one into two or more homonyms. debt (debt) - debt (duty)

In addition to the morphological method, it is known lexico-semantic word formation, which is expressed in the fact that a word that already exists in the language acquires a new meaning, as it were, is split into two or more homonymous words that coexist as words with different meanings, for example: fist(hand clenched to strike) and fist(exploiter); grandmother (the same as grandmother), grandmother (hoof joint in animals), grandmother (one of the paired parts of a lathe), grandmother (several sheaves of bread stacked in a certain way).

The lexico-semantic method of word formation is actively used in modern advertising when nominating shops, cafes, health facilities, etc. Proper names-names are formed most often on the basis of metonymic transfer by adjacency. This method allows you to convey information about the nature of the object of sale: the names of stores " Cherry», « Karasik».

In addition, when forming new names-names, a symbolic way of forming a name is distinguished. Symbolic proper names do not reflect the object of the nomination, but are attributed to it as conventional signs. In this case, words with a well-known symbolic meaning can be used ( "Dawn", "Star", "Progress"), symbols of science, technology, art, culture ( "Ellipse", "Impulse", "Waltz", "Pirouette"), including national cultural symbols ( "Birch", "Troika", "Domes"). Symbolic nomination currently occupies a central place among other ways of education in advertising.

3. Lexico-syntactic way , or lexicalization - the creation of a new word by merging a whole combination of words into one lexical unit, merging phrases into one word: married, hello, goodbye, backhand. today(composed of today)

Lexico-syntactic the word-formation method takes place in cases of the formation of words from phrases combined into one word in the process of being used in the language, for example: crazy (crazy), seriously wounded (seriously wounded), four hundred (four hundred), finally (at the end), now ( this hour) a hoarder (save a house).

4. Conversion or morphological-syntactic way - the transition of words from one part of speech to another due to a paradigm shift. he is on duty today - duty officer

Morphological and syntactic way of word formation carried out when words belonging to any part of speech move to another part of speech, for example: adjectives bakery, forester, worker, canteen turned into nouns; participle manager passed into a noun; gerunds thanks to, in spite of) switched to prepositions, etc. Another name for this method is conversion.

Particularly effective is the conversion to English language, where nouns can be formed from most verbs: sleep - “sleep and sleep” to sleep, look “to look” and look “look”.

When words are formed from phrases (often this is an adjective + noun), a kind of word-building compression usually occurs: a noun is formed on the basis of the adjective (using the suffix -k), and the name being defined is omitted altogether. This formation of two-word names into one is especially characteristic of our time and is common in colloquial style: five-story building (five-story building), skyscraper (high-rise building), record book (grade book), business card ( business card), etc. The same method is also found in the formation of household names for various cereals - millet, buckwheat, oatmeal, as well as other food products - stew, burnt meat.

Since suffix elements are involved in this type of word formation, it can also be attributed to morphological-syntactic, or rather, lexical-morphological-syntactic.

5. Abbreviation - the formation of a new word by truncating the words included in the original phrase.

• KGB (ka-ge-be) - State Security Committee
• junior researcher (em-n-es) - junior Researcher
• RSFSR (er-es-ef-es-er) - Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic
• TFKP (te-ef-ka-pe) - the theory of functions of a complex variable (complex analysis)

So, the letter "F" ("ef") can be pronounced like "fe":

• FBI [fe-be-er] - F federal b Yuro R research
• Exercise therapy [el-fe-ka] - l medical f physical to ulura
• RFF [er-fe-fe] - R adio f physical f acultet

The letters "C" ("es") and "Sh" ("sha") as "se" and "she":

• USA - United States of America

Derivational analysis of the word (This is for practice

Word-formation analysis is carried out according to the following scheme:

1. Put the word under study in the initial form (for participle and gerund participle - infinitive).

2. To the word under study, select a motivating word (words) that is closest in form and related in meaning to the word under study; explain the meaning of a derivative word through the meaning of the generating word (words); highlight the researched and producing (producing) bases.

3. In the word under study, highlight the means of word formation, if the word is formed by a prefix and / or a suffix.

4. Indicate the way of word formation.

When parsing word-formation, it is necessary to pay attention to the following.

It is necessary to correctly determine the generating basis - the closest motivating basis in form. An analysis will be erroneous in which the initial non-derivative word of the word-formation chain will be indicated as the generating basis, and not the direct generating word of the word under study. So, for example, for the word steamboat its producing basis will be the word steamer not words steam and walk. Means of word formation steamboat- suffix - n-, method - suffixation.

Do not clutter up word-formation analysis with a complete morphemic analysis of the word under study. Extra operations indicate a misunderstanding of the task of word-formation parsing and its difference from morphemic parsing. In the word under study, only the stem and the morpheme (morphemes) that are directly involved in word formation should be singled out.

In rare cases, the word under study may be at the same level of derivative from two different stems, for example: sadly ← fun / sad. In these cases, one speaks of the double motivation of the given word. It can also be described as a prefix derivative of the word fun, and as a suffixal derivative of the word sad.

Here are a few examples word-formation parsing:

1) excess

excess ← superfluous ; superfluous - "too much" ;

way of word formation - suffixation,

2) rushed about- verb form rush about

to rush about ← to rush about; to rush about - "to start rushing about",

way of word formation - prefix.

3) care

care- noun form care

care-Ø ← leave; leaving - "when they leave, the same as leaving",

way of word formation - without affix

Morpheme classification

Root – a common part related word meanings.

Affix- a service morpheme that modifies the meaning of the root or expresses the relationship between words in a phrase and sentence.

Prefix (or prefix)- a morpheme before the root, which serves to form new words and forms.  ( in-, over-, before-, behind-) (times- (roses-), without- (bes-))

Suffix- a morpheme after the root, which serves to form new words or new word forms. handbag, cat

Infix- a morpheme inserted into the root of a word, which serves to form new forms of the word. Latin vinco - I win (with vici - I won

Interfix- a morpheme that stands between the bases of a compound word or between a root and a suffix, serving to combine them into a single whole and form new words. forest-o-steppe, steel-e-var, half-a-circle, five-and-story, judge-l-ische, zhi-l-ets, p-v-ets, afrik-an-ets and etc.

Confix- a morpheme encircling the root, i.e. consisting of two affixes that are before and after the root and carry a single, undivided meaning. Serves for the formation of new words and new forms of the word: in it the language ge schrieb en .

windowsill
		coaster
		get noisy

Flexion (or ending)- a morpheme that stands at the end of a word and serves to connect words in a phrase or sentence.

Postfix- a morpheme after inflection, which serves to form new words or new word forms: -sya, -sya in Russian washed, dressed.

Productive affixes- are used to form new words and new word forms.

Run (productive prefix). Kolkhoz-nickname (productive suffix). Beautiful, talking, etc. (productive endings);

Unproductive affixes- affixes that do not participate or are rarely used in the formation of new words and word forms.

Pa-vodka, su-sand (unproductive prefixes). Life, past-already (unproductive suffixes). Tr-emya (unproductive ending).

Productivity/unproductivity affix is a dynamic characteristic of the affix associated with its derivational potential.

Valency - the ability of a morpheme to combine with other morphemes.

MORPHEME ANALYSIS

The purpose of morphemic analysis (the so-called parsing of a word by composition) is to identify the structure of the word, more precisely, the word form proposed for parsing. Morphemic parsing only SUBSTANTIVE WORDS are subjected (that is, those in which two or more morphemes can be distinguished), while both word-forming and form-forming morphemes are distinguished.

STAGES OF MORPHEME ANALYSIS

I. DETERMINATION OF THE PART OF SPEECH, THE FORM OF A WORD IN THE TEXT, THE VARIABILITY OR INCHANGABILITY OF THIS PART OF SPEECH OR THIS WORD FORM.

II. SELECTING THE BASIS OF THE WORD AND SHAPING AFFIXES (FLEXION). The stem of a word combines the forms of a given word (their coinciding part), this is a common part for all forms included in the paradigm of the word (two stems are distinguished in verb forms). Form indicators are not included in the basis.

III. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MORPHEME COMPOSITION OF THE WORD. When elucidating the morphemic structure, it is necessary to restore the word-forming chain (the word-forming affix fixes one word-forming step from word to word), select related words and their forms.

IV. DETERMINING THE TYPE OF AFFIXES. It is necessary to note word-forming and form-forming (inflectional) affixes, for the latter indicate the form formed with their help.

V. REVEALING THE CHARACTER OF THE ROOT MORPHEME. A free root is able to independently organize a word - only with the help of formative morphemes; the associated root requires other auxiliary affixes. These features of the root need to be illustrated.

VI. SELECTION OF A SINGLE-STRUCTURED WORD. A single-structural word (word form) of the same part of speech is called, according to the structure and type of morphemes corresponding to the given one, although the material expression of morphemes may be different.

PARSE SAMPLES

Two tables pushed together are covered with a long tablecloth.

shifted - suffer. incl. past vr., in full. f., pl. h., genus. P.

shift th - shaping: full. f., pl. h., genus. P.

shift -t- - shaping: strad. incl. past temp.

move -well- - word-form. affix

s- - word-form. affix

DERIVATIVE BASIS: s - move [g] - well -

ROOT RELATED: move-a (t), s - move (ø)

SINGLE-STRUCTURED WORD: bent

Methodology of word-formation analysis.

1. Put the word in its initial form: nominative singular - noun, pronoun, numeral; nominative case, singular, masculine- adjective, pronoun; infinitive - for all verb forms, including participles and participles.

2. Explain the meaning of the word through the closest in form and meaning to the single-root word (using the method of derivational interpretation).

3. Compare the analyzed word with the original one, because it retains part of the form and part of the meaning of the original word (perform a semantic and formal “subtraction”). Select the word-building formant, which includes word-building affixes and morphonological means that accompany the process of forming a new word.

4. Based on the “residue”, determine the method of word formation, because the “residue” is the means that formed a new concept and a new word. Determine which word-formation type the word belongs to.

5. If there are other affixal morphemes in the word, continue a similar reasoning by building a word-building chain, motivating each link.

For examplefrom an old closet...

1. Vintage

2. Antique

3. Vintage Starin(a) -n- (change of stress)

4. Suffixal, like: epic-n-(th) ← epic (a)

5. CO chain: old-n-(th) ← old-in-(a) ← old(th)

The main features of the word

Word- the phonetically and grammatically designed main meaningful unit of the language, which has impenetrability and lexical and grammatical relatedness and which is freely reproduced in speech to build an utterance.

The main features of the word:

1) The word is a sound structural unity created according to the laws of phonetics given language;

2) The word is formed according to the laws of the grammar of a given language and always appears in one of its grammatical forms;

3) The word is the unity of sound and meaning, and there are no words in the language that are devoid of meaning;

4) The word has the property of impenetrability, that is, it is impossible to insert another grammatically formed word inside the word;

5) Each word belongs to one or another lexical and grammatical category of words;

6) The word is not created in the process of communication, but is reproduced in speech as a finished and integral structural and semantic unit;

7) The word is a building material for works of speech, for statements.

realia- that in objective reality corresponds to the given word.

Lexical meaning the words- historically conditioned connection between the visual or sound appearance of the word and the image of the named object

1) phonetic formality, (the word is a sound complex with an accent)

2) grammatical formality, (compare the root fell- in the word finger, which is not formalized, and the word finger, which is formalized as a masculine noun of the singular number)

3) impenetrability, (you can’t put anything in the middle of a word)

4) two-sidedness (unity of sound and meaning),

5) free reproducibility in speech (that is, we do not give birth to a word each time in an act of speech, but we store it ready-made, and we reproduce it: we extract it from memory. Unlike a sentence that we build from words.).

27.Semasiology - a section of linguistics that deals with the meanings of those linguistic units that are used to nominate individual objects and phenomena of reality.

One side, there is no direct connection between the subject and the word. This is proved by the facts of the different names of identical objects in different languages, as well as the possibility