There are several classifications of speech errors. We will focus on classification in the aspect of secondary communicative activity (the perception of errors by the addressee) and consider errors associated with difficulties in interpreting the text.
1. Wrong choice of lexical equivalent often leads to inappropriate comedy, to the absurdity of the statement. For example: “Our Russian birches are standing in wedding shroud"(instead of" in a wedding dress); "In February the length of the day will increase by two hours" (instead of "... daylight hours will increase by two hours").
Such errors occur when a person chooses words from a certain thematic group without bothering to analyze their exact meaning. This negligence turns into vagueness of the statement, and sometimes complete absurdity. In this case, various associations can fail (day - day, wedding dress (veil) - funeral dress (shroud). This kind of error can be called associative .
Inaccurate word choice does not only happen as a result of a lexical error. It happens that a person, for various reasons (for example, to soften the meaning of a statement), instead of the exact meaning of a word, selects an indefinite, softened one. Stylists call such veiled expressions euphemisms, talking about euphemistic speeches . For example, "We are still not paying enough attention children’s health” (it’s better to say: “we pay little attention” or “not enough attention”).
2. Alogism . Even Aristotle warned against logical errors in speech. He argued: "Speech must comply with the laws of logic." Logic - quality that characterizes the semantic structure of the text (statement). It refers to the correct correlation of the semantic structure of the text with the laws of development of the thought process. The following are the main conditions of consistency (and in brackets - examples from school essays in which these conditions are violated):
any statement should not be contradictory (“The peasants love Bazarov: for them he is like a pea jester”);
consistency: there should be no shifts in semantic layers in the text (“When he already fell into the gorge, Gorky exclaimed:“ Born to crawl cannot fly ”);
the correct establishment of causal relationships and the sufficiency of grounds for conclusions (“Bazarov does not marry because he is a nihilist”);
logical coherence, consistency of different parts of one whole (“It was raining and two students”).
The reason for the illogicality of the statement sometimes lies in the fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts, generic and specific names. So, the thought in the sentence is incorrectly formulated: “With good care every animal will give 12 liters of milk. After all, it means cow, not any animal, i.e. the specific concept should not be replaced by the generic one. It should be remembered that replacing specific categories with generic ones makes speech colorless, official (unless it is formal business style, where generic concepts are natural and even more preferable).
3. Violation of lexical compatibility . Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other, because in speech words are used not in isolation, but in phrases. At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they fit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. So, very "similar" definitions - long, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy, lengthy- differently attracted to nouns: you can say long (long) period, but not a long (long, long-term) period; long haul, long journey and long fees, long-term credit, and not otherwise . There are many such words, we use them all the time, without thinking about the features of their compatibility, because. we intuitively feel which word “suits” for which.
It happens that, in terms of meaning, the words seem to be suitable for expressing one or another meaning, but “do not want” to be combined into phrases. We are speaking: bow your head and bow downlap; can win a victory and fail, but no one will say that he "succeeded", "defeated".
The limitations of lexical compatibility for certain words are often explained by their use in special meanings. For example, the word deep, meaning "one that has great depth, is at great depth", has practically unlimited possibilities of lexical compatibility ( deep lake, bay, river, well, place etc.), but in the sense of "reached the limit, complete, perfect" is combined with a few nouns ( deep autumn, winter, night, sleep, peace, silence, silence, old age).
In some cases, the cause of lexical compatibility is the fastening of a word to set expressions. For example, the Velvet season- "autumn months (September, October) in the south." This expression has a stable character, so we cannot replace the word season with any other, even the closest in meaning. They say: tongue twisted, but one cannot say “teeth (lips) are braided”, because this combination is stable, the replacement of words is excluded in it.
The rules for combining words in speech are also determined by grammatical compatibility, on which the possibility of connecting one part of speech with another depends. Grammatical compatibility allows the connection of nouns with adjectives ( deep silence), but "prohibits" the combination of adjectives with numerals (one cannot say big hundred), possessive pronouns with verbs ( mine doesn't understand yours).
Lexical compatibility often conflicts with grammatical. Yes, everything transitive verbs combined with nouns in the accusative case without a preposition ( reading a book), however, the form of this case often depends on whether the nouns are animate or inanimate: in the former, the accusative case coincides in form with the genitive ( met a friend), the second - with a nominative ( mettrain). Moreover, in special cases, grammatical compatibility helps to correctly determine the meaning of the word: see satellite(about the spaceship) and see satellite(about a human).
Compatibility plays an important role in artistic speech, therefore, the assessment of lexical compatibility in works of art cannot be approached with the usual measure, here the laws of attraction of words are special. So, the restrictions of semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: figurative expressions black thoughts, cheeks burn may seem meaningless if taken literally. However, we perceive them as metaphors, and this is not an obstacle to understanding the text.
The expansion of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, underlies many of the classic images of the great masters of artistic speech: gray winter threats"(A.S. Pushkin), “ rubber thought"(I. Ilf and E. Petrov), "apricot hair"(V. Nabokov). Many such combinations are fixed in the language, become stable, which indicates their approval by the linguistic taste of the time.
When using words that have an extreme limited opportunities lexical connections, incompatibility often becomes the reason for the comic sound of speech: “Students worked on their experimental site as the most notorious experts". "Let's not be silent about glaring achievements amateur artists". Lexical errors in such cases cause damage not only to the style, but also to the content of the phrase, because the associations that arise in this case suggest the opposite meaning.
Some words are truly unlucky: they are often used in speech in the wrong combinations. They say: “expensive prices” (instead of: high prices, expensive goods), “raise a toast” (instead of: make a toast, raise a glass), “broaden your horizons” (instead of: expand), “cold boiling water”, etc. Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the association (contamination) of similar phrases. For example, they write: "meet modern requirements", mixing combinations satisfy the requirements of and meet the needs; "to give importance" ( give importance to, pay attention to); "improve level" ( improve quality, improve).
Attentive attention to the word, to the peculiarities of lexical compatibility in Russian will help you avoid such mistakes in speech, and in other cases it will allow you to use unusual combinations of words to create vivid images or as a source of humor.
4. Speech redundancy or verbosity. An economical, precise expression of thought is the main requirement of style. The French scientist, philosopher and writer Pascal remarked: "I write long because I don't have time to write short." There is deep meaning in this paradoxical statement, because the carelessness and helplessness of the author usually lead to verbosity, and brevity and clarity of formulations are achieved as a result of hard work with the word. “Brevity is the sister of talent,” A.P. Chekhov. All this must be remembered by those who want to improve their style.
There are two types of speech redundancy: tautology and pleonasm. Tautology - unjustified use of words with the same root, for example: “I believe that those speakers, to be protrude, they will tell about the case. Numerous examples of tautology can often be found in everyday life: May I ask a question?», « This phenomenon is…», « Naturally, from this follows a regularity», « For example, let's take an example…" etc.
Pleonasm - a form of verbosity in which extra clarifying words are used in sentences and phrases (“Their leader died, and they chose a new of the living»).
Pleonasms arise when using unnecessary definitions ( main point ), circumstances (sang together together), as well as as a result of unjustified stringing of synonyms ( finish, complete, complete a task). Pleonasm is common in colloquial speech (saw with my own eyes), where it serves as a form of natural redundancy, is traditional in folklore ( path-road, sadness-longing). Some styles in the past cultivated it: "Maria Godunova and her son Theodore poisoned myself poison. We saw them dead corpses"(A.S. Pushkin).
Speech redundancy is also generated by the connection foreign word with Russian duplicating its meaning ( unusual phenomenon, retaliatory counterattack). In such cases, one speaks of a hidden tautology, since Russian word repeats the value of the borrowed.
Some combinations of this type are nevertheless fixed in the language, which is usually associated with a change in the meanings of the words included in them. An example of the loss of tautology would be the combination period of time. Linguists of the past considered this expression redundant, because. word of Greek origin period means "time". Gradually, this word began to mean "a period of time", which made it possible to consolidate it in the named combination. Of the other, initially redundant combinations, the following were fixed: monumental monument, reality, exhibits etc. In them, the definitions ceased to be a simple repetition of the main feature contained in the noun.
Not only latent, but also explicit tautology sometimes has to be recognized as acceptable, because words with the same root that do not have synonyms may collide in speech: dictionary of foreign words, make a riddle, foreman of the first brigade etc.
Poets and writers often resort to tautology as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. Humorists use tautological combinations for the purpose of punning: by colliding words with the same root, they emphasize their semantic commonality ( "The writer pees and the reader reads." M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). Tautological repetition can give the statement a special significance, as in V.A. Zhukovsky in the inscription on the portrait donated by A.S. Pushkin: " Winner- a student from defeated teachers."
5. Speech deficiency usually expressed in the omission of a word or several words, for example: “In the literature office hanging great writers" (missing word portraits). Such errors often occur in oral speechwhen the speaker is in a hurry and does not follow the correct expression of thought. Speech deficiency causes serious damage not only to the stylistic, but also to the semantic side of speech: the grammatical and logical connections of words are violated in the sentence, the meaning is obscured.
The omission of a word can cause alogism - a comparison of disparate concepts. For example: " Compare the indicators of the first table with the seventh table "(you can compare indicators with indicators, and tables with tables). As a result of the omission of a word, a substitution of the concept often occurs. For example: " Among the exhibits at the exhibition was a philatelist from Tomsk”(although it was not the stamp collector himself that was exhibited, but his album).
Speech deficiency as a common mistake should be distinguished from ellipsis - a stylistic figure based on the deliberate omission of one or another sentence member to create expressiveness. The most expressive are elliptical constructions without a verb-predicate, which convey dynamic movements: “ I'm for a candle, a candle - in the stove! I'm for a book, that one - run!»
(K. Chukovsky). With an ellipsis, there is no need to restore missing words, because the meaning of the sentence is clear and the introduction of clarifying words into it will deprive it of lightness and expressiveness.
Language is one of the most amazing tools in the hands of man. However, you need to use it skillfully, constantly studying its features and secrets. Can we say with confidence that we are fluent in our native language?
The more we realize the richness and grandeur of the Russian language, the more demanding we become with our speech, the more acutely we feel the need to improve our style, fight for the purity of our native language, resist its distortion and impoverishment. N.M. Karamzin, who did a lot for the development and enrichment of the Russian language, wrote: “Voltaire said that at the age of six you can learn all the main languages, but you need to learn your natural language all your life. We Russians have even more work than others.”
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Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation
STATE UNIVERSITY
CONTROL SYSTEMS AND RADIO ELECTRONICS
CULTURE OF SPEECH COMMUNICATION
Thematic abstract
in the discipline "Russian language and culture of speech"
Completed:
specialties
CULTURE OF SPEECH COMMUNICATION
1. Language norm
In most works on the culture of speech, the central place is occupied by the problem of the correctness of speech, which is connected with the question of the norm of the literary language. Speech is correct if it does not violate the language norm; speech is wrong if it violates this norm.
In linguistic works there are various interpretations of this concept. Most often language norm define as a set of rules for pronunciation (orthoepy), spelling (spelling) and rules for the use of words and their grammatical forms, adopted in the speech practice of a given society and recognized as the basis of the literary language. The language norm arises in certain socio-cultural conditions and throughout the existence of the language does not remain unchanged. At the same time, in each given period, it is supported by dictionaries and normative grammars, speech practice. educated people, literature, mass media.
There are two main points in the definition of a language norm.
1. The prescriptive essence of the norm and its evaluative nature. In the minds of the speakers, the norm has the quality of special correctness, this adopted speech usage.
2. The objective nature of the norms. Norms are the most common options fixed in the course of socio-historical development. The objectivity of the language norm means the absence of individual arbitrariness of normalizers, it implies reliance on the system and structure of the language.
The linguistic norm is characterized by relative stability (over a certain period of time) and, at the same time, historical variability and flexibility. The changeable nature of the language norm determines the admissibility of some variants in it - completely equivalent or stylistically colored, while the norm of the written language is more stringent. Fluctuations in the norm are due to the impact on the literary language of other forms of language - dialects, professional and scientific languages, vernacular, jargons, as well as the coexistence in the literary language of various styles, colloquial and book variants.
In case of inequality of options, the main option is considered to be one that can be used in all styles of speech (for example, “pour gasoline, tea"). A secondary variant is recognized, the use of which is limited to some style (compare colloquial forms: “pour gasoline, tea»).
The quality of a language norm is determined by its role in the formation and functioning of the literary language. The well-known linguist L.I. Skvortsov defines the role of norms as follows: “ Language norms in their social, cultural meaning - this is the beacon by which the language community is oriented in the ocean of speech activity.
Main functions language norm :
participation in maintaining the continuity of the stages of language development;
fixing objective development trends and the state of the language at each stage of historical development;
selection and cultivation of everything expedient and communicatively significant in the language.
Trends in the development of literary norms
In the development of literary norms, certain trends are observed:
1) the trend towards savings. This trend is manifested at all levels of the language (from nomination to syntax) and is expressed in the contraction of words and their elements, for example, scientific (scientific Library), You took me out(out of balance); loss of suffixes, endings: rails - rail, grams - gram, wet - mok.
2) a tendency towards unification - trimming private grammatical meanings under the general form: directora,Professora.
3) the expansion of colloquiality into bookish speech and the neutralization of colloquial elements in literary speech.
2. Types of literary norms
Language norms are classified on various grounds:
layered principle , according to which the norms are distinguished: phonetic, grammatical (morphology and syntax), lexical, phraseological and spelling norms.
functional principle .
Depending on which aspect of speech regulates this or that norm, there are:
General literary norms that allow you to limit the literary language, highlight it against the background of vernacular, folk dialects, jargons, etc .;
Stylistic norms are linguistic means traditionally attached to any area of communication, as well as connotative, i.e. additional meanings that give the word a certain color (emotional, expressive, evaluative, etc.).
Norms are mandatory for use in all areas, situations of literary speech; violation of the norms inevitably leads to a violation of the structure of the language. In literary speech, both stylistic and colloquial means are allowed, but their use depends on the situation, so they are not mandatory, but recommended.
3. Level classification of literary norms
Phonetic norms . Phonetic norms include the norms of pronunciation of sounds and their combinations, as well as the norms of setting stress.
The modern Russian literary language differs from non-literary vernacular, local dialects in that it has a system of pronunciation norms. How certain sounds should be pronounced in certain phonetic positions, in certain combinations with other sounds, as well as in certain grammatical forms and groups of words - deals with all these issues. orthoepy . Therefore, orthoepy can be defined as a set of rules that establish literary pronunciation. For example, when pronouncing consonants, the literary language is characterized by the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word and before the deaf ones and, conversely, the voicing of the deaf before the voiced ones (oak - du [p], love - lyubo [f "]). [g] at the end of the word, they use not a paired deaf [k], but a consonant [x]. They say, for example, vra[x], vdr[x], sleep[x], which corresponds to the vernacular or dialectal pronunciation.
The importance of orthoepic rules for communication is enormous. They contribute to a faster mutual understanding of the speakers. Errors in pronunciation distract from the content of speech and thus interfere with linguistic communication. Despite the great successes achieved in the field of public education in general and in improving the speech culture of our population, in particular, pronunciation is still the weakest link in it. At present, in connection with the expansion of the influence of mass media, the issue of correct pronunciation is particularly acute.
The correct placement of stress is also an important aspect of language culture. Despite the significant diversity of Russian stress (stress can be on any syllable, even in related words, on the first, on the second, on the last: derevo, derevya, treesa), it has a certain system. So, in the academic "Russian Grammar" (1980), a description of all types of stress distribution is given. For example, the vast majority of nouns have a fixed (permanent) stress, and only a small part of them is characterized by a mobile stress, which obeys certain rules. So, one accent type is characterized by the fact that in all forms of the singular the stress is on the basis ( Gogenus, gokind, gokind etc.), but in all forms plural- at the end ( citya,cityoin townam etc.). Another accent type is characterized by an accent on the ending in all singular forms. ( wavesa,wavesoth, wavese) and based on all forms of plural. ( inomoons, inoln, inolnam).
In Russian literary pronunciation, there are variants of stress, for example, Pod uphill or under goru, saboard or for bort. At present, for the literary language as a whole, both variants of stress are acceptable. True, there are deviations from this general rule. For example, if the place of stress serves as a distinguisher of the meaning of the statement. You can say: live withacity and live for theoby birth, which means "to live in a suburban area". But if we want to indicate that some object is located on the other side of the city, then we prefer the option with the accent on the noun: The forest is located per goborn.
The stress is more often preserved on the preposition and in stable combinations. Yes, they say sideoside, be3rd week, 3rdatakes the soul, tooth nathe tooth is missing. In adverbs like naside in everyday speech, the emphasis on the preposition is also preferred.
In setting the stress, it is better to focus on orthoepic dictionaries, for example:
Ageenko F.L., Zarva M.V. Dictionary of stress of the Russian language. M., 1993.
Borunova S.N., Vorontsova V.L., Eskova N.A. Pronouncing dictionary Russian language: Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms. Ed. R.I. Avanesov. M., 1993.
Grammar rules. As you know, there are two subsystems in grammar: morphology and syntax. To morphological norms include the rules for the use of parts of speech: nouns, adjectives, verbs, pronouns, numerals. Here is one of those rules: Third person personal pronouns have a letter after prepositionsn (them - in them, him - around him)". Morphological norms are quite stable, slowly changing over time.
Syntax is a systematized set of phrases and sentences, as well as the rules for their construction and use, available in the language, and at the same time - a section of grammar that studies and describes these phrases, sentences and rules.
Syntactic norms also change historically, although this is less noticeable. For example, now they don’t say as in Pushkin’s time: “ fled about them conversations noisy" . There was also a construction in the Old Russian language with the so-called dative independent, which is now remembered only by historians. So, you could write: Mstislav sitting at dinner, give him news" . It is easy to see that here the turnover with the dative case acts as a synonym subordinate clause time: "When Mstislav was sitting at dinner ...". The construction with the dative independent has long been out of use, so it does not bother us. At the same time, there are many options syntactic norms which may be difficult for speakers. There are different rules for this, for example, " with a subject expressed by a combination of a common noun and own name, the predicate agreetwith the last» (Referent Ivanova helped write a report to the director).
Lexical norms. Lexical norms are understood as the correctness of word usage: the use of the indicated vocabulary units in accordance with their meaning, stylistic coloring, evaluative properties, etc.
Difficulties in word usage are due to the fact that the lexical composition is constantly enriched, since this side of the language is the most sensitive to all kinds of environmental changes. So, starting from the mid-80s (since the time of “perestroika”), the language began to be intensively replenished with new words and meanings. Moreover, this replenishment affected, first of all, the “key”, socially meaningful words indicating fundamental changes in all spheres of society. Among the political and economic terms born of perestroika and reflecting the spirit of the times, the following can be named: new political thinking, liberalization, democratic socialism, open civil society, free enterprise zone, negotiated price and so on . Many of these words and phrases still do not have a definite, unambiguous interpretation and need clarification or commentary. The frequent vagueness of the semantics (i.e. meaning) of new words is the first obvious difficulty for native speakers.
Under the influence of perestroika processes came into motion , updated , i.e. many groups of words that were on the periphery of the language became widely used in the political, economic and cultural life of society. Previously, they were rarely used, although they denoted realities that occupied some place in society. The activation of these words, their greater frequency in the speech of native speakers of the Russian language was facilitated by various reasons: the promotion of certain forms of management to the fore ( rental, farming, commerce), social structure ( duma, province, zemstvo), education ( gymnasium, lyceum, seminary), an appeal to religion, to church rites ( confession, baptism). At the same time, such negative phenomena and their names as beigentsy, national strife, inflation.
The period of perestroika clearly demonstrates the opposite process in the vocabulary of the language - de-actualization parts of the vocabulary. This is not about the archaization of individual words, which is quite natural for the language, but about systemic archaization when certain groups of words, very important and frequent, pass to the periphery. In this case, the reason for the deactualization of some lexical groups is the gradual dismantling of the existing political and economic systems. Such words that are losing or have lost their relevance include: five-year plan, socialist competition, shock worker of socialandphysical labor etc.
Archaized words should be used with caution. If you call modern schoolchildren pioneers and peasants collective farmers, you may not be understood, and some may even be offended.
Speaking about the lexical norms of the Russian language of our days, it can be noted that many words and groups of words for recent times changed their meaning. For example, the word menu meant "selection of foods, as well as a sheet with their list", but now anyone who is familiar with the computer knows that this is the name of the list of modes, commands and response options displayed on the display screen for user selection.
A particular difficulty for many Russian speakers is ignorance or inaccurate knowledge of the meanings of borrowed words, the inner form of which, unlike neologisms of Russian origin, is not always clear. For example: auditor, broker, dealer, distributor. Such words are widespread in the modern business world and in the media. In order to navigate the sea of neologisms, borrowings, incomprehensible words, it is useful to refer to special dictionaries that fix this vocabulary, for example:
Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language of the late twentieth century. Language changes / Ed. G.N. Sklyarevskaya. St. Petersburg: Ed. Folio-press, 1998;
Butseva T.N., Denisenko Yu.F., Kholodova E.P. New words and meanings. Dictionary-reference book on the materials of the press and literature of the 80s. / Ed. E.A. Levashova. St. Petersburg: Ed. "Dmitry Bulanin", 1997;
Maksimov V.I., Bure N.A., Vakulova E.N. Perestroika Dictionary (1895-1992) / Ed. IN AND. Maksimov. St. Petersburg: Zlatoust, 1992;
Komlev N.G. Foreign words and expressions. M., 1997;
Modern dictionary of foreign words. M., 1992.
Phraseological norms
Under phraseology is understood as a set of phraseological units - sustainable turnover languages that are used as ready-made units reproduced in speech: not salty slurping, come to a conclusionYucheniya, express disbelief, black box. Many linguists refer to phraseology as proverbs, sayings, winged words, speech stamps and phraseological turns dating back to literary sources: Business time - fun hour; Scarlet Sails(A.S. Green); white poison(sugar). The most important features of phraseological units are stability and reproducibility.
Most of the Russian phraseological units are of native Russian origin: colloquial ( there is no truth at the feet) and colloquial (with a gulkin nose) turns. Colloquial, as a rule, have bright expressiveness ( put the goat in the garden) and emotionality (contain additional meanings: stationery rat- disdainful attitude). Borrowed phraseological units ( pillars of Hercules,memento mori- memento Mori) belong to varieties of book style.
The phraseological composition of the language, like the lexical one, changes over time, and this is also associated with changes in public life countries. Each epoch gives birth to its own phraseology. At present, the mass media are the distributors of phraseology, contributing to its wide popularity and frequent use in the speech of contemporaries. To a lesser extent, the popularization of set expressions is facilitated by the speeches and works of the creators of phraseological units themselves ( The process has begun(M.S. Gorbachev); Hoteelk as best, but it turned out as always(V.S. Chernomyrdin).
As an expressive and expressive means, phraseological units are used in a journalistic style, as well as in the language fiction. For amplification stylistic effect there are various ways of creative, individual updating of phraseological units:
1) playing with direct and figurative meanings: Golden calf- golden calf;
2) updating a phraseological unit by expanding it or replacing a word: socially humpbacked one grave will fix (M. Gorky).
Spelling rules. Spelling rules cover the rules of spelling and punctuation. Unlike the norms of pronunciation, they practically do not have options. Spelling rules include spelling of vowels, consonants, letters b and b, capital letters, as well as continuous and hyphenated (dash) spellings. Punctuation rules include the use of punctuation marks: periods, commas, semicolons, colons, dashes, quotation marks, etc. Of course, those and other rules have changed over time for various reasons. The greatest changes in Russian spelling were made by the reforms of Peter I (1708-1710) and government decrees of 1917-1918. As a result, “extra” letters were removed from the alphabet, i.e. transmitting the same sounds. Obsolete forms have been eliminated (such as red, bluego), the spelling of many words has been defined or specified ( table, but not table). The rules for using punctuation marks have also changed over time. For example, the simplest punctuation mark - a dot, which is now placed at the end of a sentence, was placed on different levels: both at the base of the letter and at the level of the middle. Moreover, the scribe, interrupting the work, could put a full stop even in the middle of a word.
In 1956 For the first time, a single set of "Rules of Spelling and Punctuation" was published, prepared by a group of the country's largest linguists. In this code, some rules were supplemented, the use of spellings was regulated, and exceptions to the rules were defined.
In the 1960s, the third reform of Russian spelling was also brewing, which did not receive its development.
Obviously, even today, literacy among a significant part of our population leaves much to be desired. Evidence of this is the annual results entrance exams to universities. Russian spelling still remains a subject of discussion in the specialized literature. At the same time, its various aspects are affected: the methods of teaching the Russian language, the state of education in educational school, some issues of spelling and punctuation, the need to improve existing rules in general. In particular, it is noted that despite external well-being in the field of teaching spelling (the availability of textbooks and manuals, reference literature), it has accumulated a lot of issues that require urgent solutions. Not surprisingly, in 1988 at the Institute of the Russian Language of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the spelling direction was again singled out as a special direction. Currently, intensive work is underway on a new edition of the Rules for Spelling and Punctuation, the need for which is explained by several reasons.
The continued development of the language in the second half of the 20th century, its replenishment with new words led to the incompleteness of some spelling rules formulated back in the 1930s and 1940s. Many rules require clarification, and even a radical revision. Thus, we can confidently talk about the approaching reform of Russian spelling.
4. Classification of speech errors
There are several classifications of speech errors. We will focus on classification in terms of secondary communication activities(the perception of errors by the addressee) and consider errors associated with difficulties in interpreting the text.
1. Wrong choice of lexical equivalent often leads to inappropriate comedy, to the absurdity of the statement. For example: “Our Russian birches are standing in wedding shroud"(instead of" in a wedding dress); "In February the length of the day will increase by two hours" (instead of "... daylight hours will increase by two hours").
Such errors occur when a person chooses words from a certain thematic group without bothering to analyze their exact meaning. This negligence turns into vagueness of the statement, and sometimes complete absurdity. In this case, various associations can fail (day - day, wedding dress (veil) - funeral dress (shroud). This kind of error can be called associative .
Inaccurate word choice does not only happen as a result of a lexical error. It happens that a person, for various reasons (for example, to soften the meaning of a statement), instead of the exact meaning of a word, selects an indefinite, softened one. Stylists call such veiled expressions euphemisms, talking about euphemism h news speeches . For example, "We are still not paying enough attention children’s health” (it’s better to say: “we pay little attention” or “not enough attention”).
2. Alogism . Even Aristotle warned against logical errors in speech. He argued: "Speech must comply with the laws of logic." Logic - quality that characterizes the semantic structure of the text (statement). It refers to the correct correlation of the semantic structure of the text with the laws of development of the thought process. The following are the main conditions for consistency (and in parentheses are examples from school essays in which these conditions are violated):
any statement should not be contradictory (“The peasants love Bazarov: for them he is like a pea jester”);
consistency: there should be no shifts in semantic layers in the text (“When he already fell into the gorge, Gorky exclaimed:“ Born to crawl cannot fly ”);
the correct establishment of causal relationships and the sufficiency of grounds for conclusions (“Bazarov does not marry because he is a nihilist”);
logical coherence, consistency of different parts of one whole (“It was raining and two students”).
Logic conditions - the correctness of the construction of syntactic structures, the order of words in a sentence; structural and logical connectivity of paragraphs and the entire text; thoughtfulness of the semantic content of the structures of sentences and phrases.
The reason for the illogicality of the statement sometimes lies in the fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts, generic and specific names. So, the thought in the sentence is incorrectly formulated: “With good care every animal will give 12 liters of milk. After all, it means cow, not any animal, i.e. the specific concept should not be replaced by the generic one. It should be remembered that replacing specific categories with generic ones makes speech colorless, official (unless it is an official business style, where generic concepts are natural and even more preferable).
3. Violation of lexical compatibility . Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other, because in speech words are used not in isolation, but in phrases. At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they fit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. So, very "similar" definitions - long, lengthyblasting, long-term, lasting, lasting- differently attracted to nouns: you can say long (continued)andtelny) period, but not “a long (long, long-term) period; long way, long way and long gathering, long timencredit, and not otherwise . There are many such words, we use them all the time, without thinking about the features of their compatibility, because. we intuitively feel which word “suits” for which.
It happens that in terms of meaning, the words seem to be suitable for expressing one or another meaning, but “do not want” to be combined into phrases. We are speaking: bow your head and kneel down but not bow your head, bow your knees.
The limitations of lexical compatibility for certain words are often explained by their use in special meanings. For example, the word deep, meaning "one that has great depth, is at great depth", has practically unlimited possibilities of lexical compatibility ( deep lake,aliv, river, well, place etc.), but in the sense of "reached the limit, complete, perfect" is combined with a few nouns ( chatside autumn, winter, night, sleep, peace, silence, silence, old age).
In some cases, the reason for lexical compatibility is the fastening of a word to set expressions. For example, the Velvet season- "autumn months (September, October) in the south." This expression has a stable character, so we cannot replace the word season with any other, even the closest in meaning. They say: tongue twisted, but one cannot say “teeth (lips) are braided”, because this combination is stable, the replacement of words is excluded in it.
The rules for combining words in speech are also determined by grammatical compatibility, on which the possibility of connecting one part of speech with another depends. Grammatical compatibility allows the connection of nouns with adjectives ( deep silence), but "prohibits" the combination of adjectives with numerals (one cannot say big hundred), possessive pronouns with verbs ( mine doesn't understand yours).
Lexical compatibility often conflicts with grammatical. So, all transitive verbs are combined with nouns in the accusative case without a preposition ( reading a book), however, the form of this case often depends on whether the nouns are animate or inanimate: in the former, the accusative case coincides in form with the genitive ( met a friend), the second - with a nominative ( met the train). Moreover, in special cases, grammatical compatibility helps to correctly determine the meaning of the word: see satellite(about the spaceship) and see satellite(about a human).
Compatibility plays a particularly important role in artistic speech, therefore, the assessment of lexical compatibility in works of art cannot be approached with the usual measure, here the laws of attraction of words are special. So, the restrictions of semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: figurative expressions black thoughts, cheeks burn may seem meaningless if taken literally. At the same time, they are perceived by us as metaphors, and this is not an obstacle to understanding the text.
The expansion of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, underlies many of the classic images of the great masters of artistic speech: gray winter threats"(A.S. Pushkin), “ rubber thought"(I. Ilf and E. Petrov), "apricot hair"(V. Nabokov). Many such combinations are fixed in the language, become stable, which indicates their approval by the linguistic taste of the time.
When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, the violation of compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech: “Students worked on their experimental site as the most notorious experts»; "Let's not be silent about glaring achievements amateur artists". Lexical errors in such cases damage not only the style, but also the content of the phrase, because the associations arising from all this suggest the opposite meaning.
Some words are truly unlucky: they are often used in speech in the wrong combinations. They say: “expensive prices” (instead of: high prices, expensive goods), “raise a toast” (instead of: make a toast, raise a glass), “broaden your horizons” (instead of: expand), “cold boiling water”, etc. Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the association (contamination) of similar phrases. For example, they write: "meet modern requirements", mixing combinations satisfy the requirements of and meet the needsaboutstym; "to give importance" ( give importance to, pay attention to); "improve level" ( improve quality, improve uraboutvein).
Attentive attention to the word, to the peculiarities of lexical compatibility in Russian will help you avoid such mistakes in speech, and in other cases it will allow you to use unusual combinations of words to create vivid images or as a source of humor.
4. Speech redundancy or verbosity. An economical, precise expression of thought is the main requirement of style. The French scientist, philosopher and writer Pascal remarked: "I write long because I don't have time to write short." There is deep meaning in this paradoxical statement, because the carelessness and helplessness of the author usually lead to verbosity, and brevity and clarity of formulations are achieved as a result of hard work with the word. “Brevity is the sister of talent,” A.P. Chekhov said. All this must be remembered by those who want to improve their style.
There are two types of speech redundancy: tautology and pleonasm. Tautology - unjustified use of words with the same root, for example: “I believe that those speakers, to be vystatfall, they will tell about the case. Numerous examples of tautology can often be found in everyday life: May I ask a question?», « This phenomenon is…», « Naturally, the law follows from thisaboutdimension», « For example, let's take an example…" etc.
Pleonasm - a form of verbosity in which extra clarifying words are used in sentences and phrases (“Their leader died, and they chose a new of the living»).
Pleonasms arise when using unnecessary definitions ( main point), circumstances (sang together together), as well as as a result of unjustified stringing of synonyms ( finish, complete, complete a task). Pleonasm is common in colloquial speech ( saw with my own eyes), where it serves as a form of natural redundancy, is traditional in folklore ( path-road, sadness-longing). Some styles in the past cultivated it: "Maria Godunova and her son Theodore poisoned myself poison. We saw them dead corpses"(A.S. Pushkin).
Speech redundancy is also generated by the combination of a foreign word with a Russian word that duplicates its meaning ( unusual phenomenon, retaliatory counterattack). In such cases, one speaks of a hidden tautology, since the Russian word repeats the meaning of the borrowed one.
Some combinations of this type are nevertheless fixed in the language, which is usually associated with a change in the meanings of the words included in them. An example of the loss of tautology would be the combination time periodeme. Linguists of the past considered this expression redundant, because. word of Greek origin period means "time". Gradually, this word began to mean "a period of time", which made it possible to consolidate it in the named combination. Of the other, initially redundant combinations, the following were fixed: monumentalapenny, reality, exhibits of the exhibition etc. In them, the definitions ceased to be a simple repetition of the main feature contained in the noun.
Not only latent, but also explicit tautology sometimes has to be recognized as acceptable, because words with the same root that do not have synonyms may collide in speech: dictionary of foreign words, make a riddle, foreman of the first brigade etc.
Poets and writers often resort to tautology as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. Humorists use tautological combinations for the purpose of punning: by colliding words with the same root, they emphasize their semantic commonality ( "The writer pees and the reader reads" M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). Tautological repetition can give the statement a special significance, as in V.A. Zhukovsky in the inscription on the portrait presented to A.S. Pushkin: “ Winner- a student from defeated teachers."
5. Speech deficiency usually expressed in the omission of a word or several words, for example: In the literature classroom hanging great writers(missing word portraits). Such errors often occur in oral speech when the speaker is in a hurry and does not follow the correct expression of thought. Speech deficiency causes serious damage not only to the stylistic, but also to the semantic side of speech: the grammatical and logical connections of words are violated in the sentence, the meaning is obscured.
The omission of a word can cause alogism - a comparison of disparate concepts. For example: " Compare the indicators of the first table with the seventh table "(you can compare indicators with indicators, and tables with tables). As a result of the omission of a word, a substitution of the concept often occurs. For example: " Among the exhibits at the exhibition was a philatelist from Tomsk”(although it was not the stamp collector himself that was exhibited, but his album).
Speech deficiency as a common mistake should be distinguished from ellipsis - a stylistic figure based on the deliberate omission of one or another sentence member to create expressiveness. The most expressive are elliptical constructions without a verb-predicate, which convey dynamic movements: I'm for a candle, a candle - in the stove! I'm for a book, that one - run!(K. Chukovsky). With an ellipsis, there is no need to restore missing words, because the meaning of the sentence is clear and the introduction of clarifying words into it will deprive it of lightness and expressiveness.
Language is one of the most amazing tools in the hands of man. At the same time, you need to use it skillfully, constantly studying its features and secrets. Can we say with confidence that we are fluent in our native language?
The more we realize the richness and grandeur of the Russian language, the more demanding we become with our speech, the more acutely we feel the need to improve our style, fight for the purity of our native language, resist its distortion and impoverishment. N.M. Karamzin, who did a lot for the development and enrichment of the Russian language, wrote: “Voltaire said that at the age of six you can learn all the main languages, but you need to learn your natural language all your life. We Russians have even more work than others.”
Literature
1. Kozhin A.N., Krylova O.A., Odintsov V.V. Functional types of Russian speech. M., 1982.
2. Mitrofanova O.D. scientific style speech: learning problems. M., 1985.
3. Vinokur T.G. patterns stylistic use language units. M., 1980.
4. Nozhin E.A. Skill in oral presentation. M., 1989.
5. Soper P. Fundamentals of the art of speech. M., 1992.
6. Vasilyeva A.N. A course of lectures on the style of the Russian language. Scientific style of speech. M., 1976.
7. Kokhtev N.N. Rhetoric. M., 1994.
8. Lukyanova N.A. Expressive vocabulary of colloquial use. Novosibirsk, 1986.
9. Blinova O.I. Imagery as a lexical category // Expressiveness at different levels of the language. Novosibirsk, 1983.
use speech data. For the purposes of research and confirmation of their conclusions, they inevitably turn to the facts of the functioning of the language, but still their main interests remain in the field of language systems.
Translation theorists usually compare multilingual words in the specific contexts of the original and translation, and therefore the material for translation comparisons are words, as a rule, in the same lexical meaning with all the shades and overtones that accompany it.
It is not the variety of meanings of a word and its lexico-semantic variants that occupies the theorist of translation, but the comparison of single uses of words in the entire volume of the various information transmitted by them. In essence, in any case of translation comparison, the words realized in speech are studied. Even when the translator "measures" lexical units in their dictionary meaning out of context, he considers them as conditionally actualized in speech, as words, the meaning of which has already been used in their familiar contexts. Thus, translation comparison is inherently monosemantic and is carried out mainly on the material of specific speech samples. In turn, this does not mean that translation theory neglects comparisons of the meanings of related multilingual words at the language level or does not take into account the data of lexical-linguistic comparisons.
Language and speech are a dialectical unity. One does not exist without the other. The thing is that at the language level, when the meanings of specific lexical units already established by lexicologists and lexicographers are compared, and at the speech level, when the most diverse contextual uses and occasionalisms of the original and translation are compared, translation comparisons do not lose their specificity. In all cases, the researcher, as it were, “weighs” the lexical meaning and the semantic shades surrounding it, determining the semantic load of the word, its expressive-emotional strength and functional weight, i.e., compares in words the realized amount of information transmitted by them and the function they perform. Comparing translations with their originals, he determines those types of verbal information that must necessarily be transmitted during translation, which will inevitably be omitted and which can or should be modified to some extent; analyzes methods of compensation in the transfer of those in-
formative inconsistencies that, of course, exist between the compared units of the source and target languages. All these comparisons are necessary for the researcher not only to determine the degree of adequacy of the translation to the original and to establish constant and occasional correspondences, but also for generalizations of various nature and disclosure of the patterns of translation comparisons.
In translation studies, an attempt to theoretically comprehend interlingual lexical correspondences was first made by Ya. I. Retsker in 1950 1 . Establishing lexical correspondences was not a fundamentally new idea. The merit of Ya. I. Retsker was that he drew attention to the regular nature of lexical correspondences in translation, pointed out the importance and independence of the doctrine of various types and types of correspondences in the theory of translation and tried to determine the degree of lexical-semantic correlation of the compared units, dividing the possible correspondences between the lexical units of the original and the translation into three main types: equivalents, analogues and adequate replacements 2 . “An equivalent should be considered a constant equivalent correspondence, which for a certain time and place no longer depends on the context” 3 . "Analog is the result of translation by analogy through the choice of one of several possible synonyms" 4 . There is always one equivalent, there can be several analogues. With the help of analogues, in particular, phraseological units, proverbs and sayings are translated. “Adequate replacement is resorted to when, for accurate transmission thought, the translator must break away from the letter of the original, from dictionary and phrase correspondences and seek a solution to the problem based on the whole: from the content, ideological orientation and style of the original.
Adequate replacements are achieved by one of four translation techniques: concretization in the translation of undifferentiated and abstract concepts of the original, logical development of concepts, antonymic translation and compensation 6 . This classification, without changes or with some modifications, formed the basis of most
" Cm. Retsker Ya. I. On regular correspondences when translating into native language/ Questions and methods of educational translation. M., 1950. S. 156-178. 2 For the attitude to these terms, see § 3 of this manual. "See Questions of Theory and Methods of Educational Translation. S. 157.
4 Ibid. S. 158.
wa teaching aids in translation published after 1950. It was also taken into account in articles on lexical correspondences in the translation of various texts, including literary ones.
With the development of domestic translation studies, a tendency has been determined to create a more accurate and reasonable classification of the correlation of the lexical means of the source language and the target language. In the division of correspondences proposed by Ya. I. Retsker, insufficient and subjective motivation of some provisions is revealed. Based on the linguistic instinct of the researcher, and not on the basis of any objective criteria, equivalents and analogues are identified. The different nature of the discrepancy between the meanings of analogues is not taken into account (discrepancies are emotionally expressive, stylistic, dialectal, etc.). Differences between constant (linguistic) and occasional (speech) correspondences are ignored. Reasoning about adequate substitutions is more likely to be reduced to a description of the methods of translating individual categories of words and phrases than to highlighting a special type regular correspondences. Finally, the terms themselves are not very successful due to the closeness and low differentiation of their basic meanings and the involuntary substitution of one term for another.
A. D. Schweitzer, analyzing the classification of Ya. I. Retsker, also believes that it needs to be detailed equivalents, among which one should distinguish between one-sided and two-sided. "League of Nations" is always translated into Russian as The League of nations, and at the same time The League of nations always, regardless of context, translated into English language like League of Nations. Along with this, an unambiguous interpretation of a linguistic unit in terms of another language can take place only in one direction” 1 , i.e. we are talking about the fact that one Russian term can correspond in another language not only to one term, but, for example, two equivalent term. Betatron translated into English either as betatron or as induction electron accelerator; Russian monolingual linguistics and linguistics translated into Spanish by only one term lingüística.
It should also be noted that the author himself could not but feel some contradictions and logical failures in his original classification. In subsequent works, he modified it, reducing all correspondences to two types: equivalents and variant correspondences (analogues), and began to consider adequate replacements as methods of translation activity.
1 Schweitzer A. D. Translation and linguistics. M., 1973. S. 19.
Later, Ya. I. Retsker again modifies the proposed classification of correspondences, achieving greater clarity and differentiation. “In the process of translation,” he writes, “three categories of correspondences are built: 1) equivalents, established due to the identity of the signified, and also deposited in the tradition of language contacts; 2) variant and contextual correspondences and 3) all types of translation transformations. There is a fundamental difference between the first - equivalent - category and the other two. Equivalent correspondences belong to the sphere of language, while the last two - to the sphere of speech” 1 . Then, among the equivalents, full and partial, absolute and relative are distinguished. Variant correspondences are not differentiated. There are seven lexical transformations: differentiation, concretization, generalization of meanings, semantic development, antonymic translation, integral transformation and compensation for losses in the translation process. The proposed classification has not lost its significance at the present time.
However, it seems possible and appropriate to consider the types of translation correspondences from somewhat different positions.
types of interlingual translation lexical correspondences (equivalents)
In § 3 it was said that translation correspondences (equivalents) are understood as words and phrases of the translation and the original, which in one of their meanings convey an equal or relatively equal amount of significant information and are functionally equivalent. The classification of lexical correspondences can be based on their various properties and qualities.
According to the form of correspondence, there are equivocabulal ones - this happens when the word in the translation corresponds to the original word, and the phrase corresponds to the phrase, and non-equivocal - they
" Retsker Ya. I. Translation theory and translation practice. M., 1974. S. 9.
appear when the word combination in the translation corresponds to the original word or vice versa. In turn, equivocabulal correspondences are subdivided into equidischarge, if comparable lexical items refer to the same parts of speech, and nonequi-bit, if the named units are different parts of speech.
By the amount of significant information transmitted matches are divided into complete and incomplete(partial). For full equivalents, the amount of transmitted extralinguistic information is the same. For incomplete equivalents, usually with a complete or partial coincidence of semantic (semantic) information, its other types may not coincide. If the semantic information of partial equivalents is completely correlated, then the non-coincidence of any other information components is obligatory. When significant information correlates only partially, then the mismatch of other types of information is not at all necessary.
So, the lack of a complete correlation between equivalents of a given species can be:
a) Semantic (semantic) nature, when the volumes of concepts expressed by related lexical units do not coincide in some way. Translating the Spanish words pierna and pie as leg, we, in fact, operate with incomplete equivalents, since pierna denotes only part of the leg, from the foot and above, and pie the foot. Usually, such metonymic equivalents, peculiar interlingual synecdoches, do not impoverish the perception of the text. Detailing the translation in our example will occur only if the indication of one or another part of the leg becomes necessary according to the meaning of the translated phrase. In the sentence "A Juan le hirieron al pie gravemente y los médicos se vieron obligados a amputarlo hasta el tobillo." (Juan was seriously wounded in the foot, and the doctors had to amputate it up to the ankle.) the equivalent of pie would naturally be foot. Incomplete equivalents with semantic inequivalence very often appear in literary translations, when, due to contextual reasons, it is necessary to replace the name of the whole in the source language with the name of the part in the target language, or, accordingly, the name of the cause with the name of the effect, or vice versa. The first phrase from "Don Quixote" "En un lugar de la Mancha..." H. Lyubimov
translates "In a certain village of La Mancha ...". The ratio lugar - village is also an example of incomplete equivalence. In translation, a broader concept was concretized, expressed by the word lugar (any locality, any village). In the same chapter, N. Lyubimov concretizes and narrows the meanings of the verb estorbar (interfere) relating it to the verb to distract. Translating trigo (wheat grain, wheat) like grain, a rocín (draft horse, nag)- how horse, it expands the concepts conveyed by the Russian equivalents compared to the concept expressed by the corresponding Spanish words. The frequent appearance in translations of semantically incomplete equivalents is in no way evidence of semantic losses in translation: after all, semantic information at the level of a phrase or a broader context is preserved completely, and even within a word - a semantically incomplete equivalent - the extension of the concept expressed by it to a generic one in comparison with the concept of the word of the original or narrowing it down to a specific one in comparison with the generic concept of the word of the source language does not lead to semantic distortions, since in the end the denotation, the referent in both cases remains the same. In other words, interlingual metonymic transformations during translation do not destroy the invariance of the general meaning of lexical correspondences.
b) Emotional-expressive (connotative, stylistic) character, when the emotional-expressive component of the informative volume of the word of the original and the translation does not match. In the same first phrase of Don Quixote, N. Lyubimov looks for an equivalent for the verb form vivía with a different stylistic marking - lived-was. This fabulously epic beginning with justified boldness was introduced by the translator into a work in which fiction and reality are combined in a bizarre and hitherto unseen unity of a great fairy tale and were just as great. Translating a novel marked, in the words of Menendez y Pelayo, by an unusual “verbal abundance” and a contrasting combination of “high” vocabulary with “low” objects and “low” vocabulary with lofty concepts, deeds and things, the translator is forced to change the particular in the name of the artistic whole. and select stylistically
a more "sublime" equivalent to a trawling word. Neutral combination of continuos pensamientos (permanent thoughts) translated as everlasting thoughts, and the verb me quejo is not conveyed by a word I'm complaining a book phraseology bring a complaint the equally neutral expressions amigo de la caza and estaba confuso are translated by colloquial correspondences avid hunter and dumbfounded. There are many equivalents of this kind in translations.
For incomplete equivalents with stylistic mismatches, the semantic information is equivalent. That is why these equivalents are searched for in a synonymic series composed of the so-called stylistic synonyms, by which they usually mean words that have the same denotation, but differ either in expressive-emotional coloring or in belonging to different functional styles of speech, i.e., in essence, two types of synonyms are combined - stylistic and stylistic. However, we do not need to strictly differentiate synonyms, especially since stylistic synonyms in speech very often perform emotional and expressive functions, when they are transferred from their usual speech style to a different stylistic environment.
The appearance of stylistically incomplete equivalents in translations is due not only to compensation for any stylistic losses, not only to involuntary “whims” of the context, the translator’s predilections and the requirements of the stylistic system of a speech work, but also to the fact that the neutral style is devoid of stylistic coloring only relatively and its characteristics in two the languages being compared will not be the same. For example, the neutral styles of French and Spanish speech differ from the Russian neutral style. "The French neutral style turns out to be shifted towards bookish speech, and the Russian neutral style is shifted away from it towards familiar speech" 1 . Therefore, when translating a neutral text from Russian into French (as well as into Spanish), one has to “raise” the style somewhat, and when translating from French or Spanish into Russian, one has to slightly lower it. In other words, although the functional styles of the source and target languages do not match in their tone, the translator conveys the functional style of the original (or some of its lexical elements) with the corresponding style of the target language, and does not reconstruct foreign functional styles using Russian means.
1 Stepanov Yu. S. French style. S. 235.
Russian speech. A reconstruction of this kind would lead to stylistic inconsistencies between the original and the translation and violations of the system of functional styles of the target language that are incomprehensible to the reader.
So, a translator working with seemingly neutral vocabulary should not forget about the correction coefficient of the norm and select equivalents, taking into account the difference between the neutral styles of the source and target languages.
c) Socio-local (stylistic, socio-geographical) nature, when, if the semantic meaning of the compared lexical units coincides, their stylistic characteristics do not match. The dialect words of the original work of art always correspond in translation to incomplete equivalents, which have lost the socio-local information of the words of the original. It cannot be otherwise, because the vocabulary specific language in the dialectal plan, it is zonal marked only in the area of distribution of the given language and cannot have equivalents with the corresponding marking in another language. Therefore, such informative losses are made up with the help of vernacular, indicating that the equivalent, as well as the dialectism of the original corresponding to it, do not belong to the literary norm, are “torn off” from it. No less often, dialectisms are conveyed by general literary words, and the lost information, usually associated, for example, in literary texts with the hero’s speech characteristics or a description of a particular environment, is compensated by some other linguistic means in the same micro-context or in another place of the broad context. This kind of equivalence is partly observed in the translation of jargons, not all, of course, but some of them, because translators more and more often recreate the jargons of the original with the jargon words of the target language, if these latter do not Russify the characters or environment being described too much.
Let's open, for example, the story of the Argentine prose writer Raul Larra "He was called Whirling" and immediately meet with dialectisms in the speech of the characters:
"- ¡Che, Rulo, como miras! ...¿Ahora te dedicas a relojear a las minas? ¿no vendes más los diarios?" one .
1 Larra Raul. Le decian el Rulo. Buenos Aires. S.A. P.9.
The regional words che, retojear, minas contain a clear indication of the zone and environment of their existence. A serious reader will immediately feel the Argentine-Uruguayan speech flavor and understand that the characters of the story are people of the social urban lower classes of Rio de la Plata. Only a hint remained in the translations that the speech of the characters is far from the literary norm, i.e. certain social information is preserved in the words, but local information is lost. Wed different translations of these phrases:
“- Hey, forelock! You that stared... I decided make beauties].. You don't sell newspapers anymore?" one .
"- Hey, Whirlwind, look through your eyes. I decided no-stare at beauties? BUT What, you don't sell newspapers? .
d) Background nature, if the coincidence of the lexical meaning of the related words differs in their "background coloring". It depends on the so-called background information, which is closely related to the language, reflected in a certain part of its vocabulary, words and phraseological phrases, as well as in proverbs, sayings, stable quotations, names of historical persons, etc. Therefore, when a Colombian X Salamea in the famous pamphlet "The Metamorphosis of His Excellency" writes about cielo violáceo 3 , the Spanish-speaking reader perceives the epithet violáceo not only in its direct meaning purple, dark purple, but also in a symbolic sense. The words violáceo, morado have their own poetic halo. It is the color of sadness, grief, mourning. Let's remember what Pablo Neruda said in "A New Love Song for Stalingrad": "Describí el luto y su metal morado" - (literally) "I described mourning and its purple metal" The Russian reader perceives the combination purple(or purple) sky without the Spanish symbolic "pendant". That is why incomplete equivalents appear in such contexts like the adjective purple, which, although it conveys the semantics of the word morado, is devoid of its symbolic coloring. Of course, translators try to restore lost information with varying degrees of success, and prose translations usually
1 Raoul Larra. They called him Chubomyu. / Per. from Spanish A. Korobitsyna // Argentinean
stories. M, 1957. S. 130.
2 Raoul Larra. His name was Whirlwind. / Per. from Spanish S. Aleinikova and V. Vinogradov //
Neva, 1958. No. Z.S. 101.
3 Zalamea Jorge. La metamorfosrs de Su Excelencia // Trece cuentos colombianos.
Montevideo, 1970. P. 51.
resort to amplification. For example, in the translation of the mentioned work by Jorge Salamea, the combination cielo violáceo corresponds to purple sky dressed in mourning 1, and in P. Neruda's poem, "deadly metal" is meant.
In a phrase from Francisco de Quevedo's translation of The Life Stories of a Rogue named Don Pablos, "At that time, someone else appeared ... in brown clothes ..." (original: ...vino uno con ... su vestido pardo) the reader only guesses from the context, and the comment reinforces his guess that the brown (gray) color in those days was the color of the pavement. And that's why brown in relation to pardo becomes an incomplete equivalent, devoid of the background information that pardo has.
It is unlikely that the Russian reader will understand why the rogue Pablo compares himself to an owl when he sits down to play cards with a hermit who puts lamp oil in a bank: “I confess, I hoped that I would be an owl who would drink this oil from him ...” (“ Y confieso que pensé ser su lechuza y Debérselo...") 3 . In this context owl- an incomplete equivalent of the word lechuza, because according to popular Spanish belief, owls drink oil from the lamps near the images of saints, which are sometimes placed on posts on the roadsides, and in Russian folklore, there seems to be no such sin behind them.
These are the main information discrepancies between the lexical units of the original and their incomplete equivalents.
By the nature of functioning in the language compliance can be divided into two main types - constant and occasional. Constant matches(they could also be called dictionary, constant, linguistic or predictable) are defined at the language level. In speech, in a literary text, they are only concretized. Any translator masters a certain set of these correspondences in the process of preparing for professional work. Constant equivalents capture bilingual dictionaries and other lexicographic aids. Without mastering this vocabulary in the process of teaching a foreign language, there can be no question of any serious translation activity. The richer the stock of the translator's bilingual vocabulary memory, the more relaxed the
" Salamea Jorge. Metamorphosis of His Excellency. / Per. from Spanish // "Foreign Literature". 1969, No. 7. S. 91.
2 Quevedo F. The life story of a rogue named Don Pablos. / Per. from Spanish K. Holding
guilt // Quevedo F. Favorites. L., 1971. S. 198.
3 Ibid. S. 180.
the cast of his work. Constant correspondences are not homogeneous. Their core is made up of primary (basic) constant correspondences, which are defined at the level of ordinary dictionary equivalence. These are words with equal information volume, i.e. absolute interlingual synonyms. Secondary (potential) constant equivalents differ in emotional, stylistic and other shades, but their material and semantic content basically coincides. In other words, these are relative interlingual synonyms.
Thus, by the nature of their functioning in the language, the interlingual synonyms discussed above are constant correspondences. In the process of translation, any primary equivalent is as if invisibly surrounded by synonyms, ready to come to the aid of the translator at any moment. Meeting, for example, in translated into Russian Spanish phrase the word vivienda (in the meaning of "housing space"), the translator knows in advance not only the main constant correspondence, but also possible secondary equivalents, which make up one synonymous series: habitation, habitation, abode, lair, lair, lair, for the conditions of the context may YOU force the translator to translate vivienda not as dwelling, and another word selected from the specified series of synonyms. In the vast majority of translations of prose texts, the corresponding word for vivienda will be dwelling, and, for example, the adjective indiferente (meaning "devoid of interest in someone, something") - the adjective indifferent, to the verb huir (in the meaning, which in the dictionary of S. PL Ozhegov is defined as "run away from somewhere") - the verb run away etc. The degree of predictability of such translation correspondences is very high. Quite predictable are the correspondences chosen from the synonymic series. In the examples given for indiferente, these could be indifferent, indifferent, indifferent, and for huir - run, run away, run away, drape, give thrust etc. Constant correspondences are characterized by their predictability, due to the fact that they are based in the related languages on the lexical meanings of the words of the national language fixed by the linguistic tradition. Constant correspondences constitute that translation basis, that obligatory lexical basis, that predictable set of equivalents, without which none of the types of translation is carried out. High percent constant correspondences in the translation of texts indicates the groundlessness of some nihilistic conclusions
renderings about the fact that, they say, for example, in literary translation “everything determines the context”, “everything depends on the context”, and therefore there is nothing to talk about any permanent correspondences.
Predictable (constant, constant) correspondences are the basis of translation activity. The speaker uses the words available in the language in their traditional meaning and not so often resorts to direct word-creation. Those semantic and emotional shades and overtones that are given to the word in speech are layered on the main well-known lexical meaning of the word, grouped around it. The most subtle semantic and expressive shades conveyed by a word never arise without relying on one of its inherent meanings. The realized lexical meaning of the word is the basis and environment for individual author's semantic-expressive shifts and layers. The individuality of the author is manifested in the selection of popular lexical means, in lexical preferences, in speech intonation, in the features of metaphors, comparisons, any tropes, when again the well-known meanings of words and expressions are rethought. And the translator, willy-nilly, must convey this national linguistic basis of the writer's verbal style by means of the language into which he is translating. For example, the word ciénaga (swamp, swamp, swamp) in In the context of the story "La conjura de la ciénaga" 1 by the Cuban writer Luis Felipe Rodriguez, it acquires a special figurative meaning. Ciénaga is not only the name of the village in which the action of the story unfolds, not only the ominous swamp itself, located next to the village, but also the symbol of the then Cuba. Felipe Rodriguez leads the reader to the idea that a much more merciless swamp, an insidious quagmire is the very social reality of Cuba, exposing a person to constant danger of spiritual or physical destruction, ready to destroy a daredevil who has deviated from stereotypical thinking and actions prescribed by the authorities. The quagmire is local columns, tenants, joining in the ranks of the same party with city politicians. The swamp is merciless, it brutally executes the one who trusted its smooth surface. It is unlikely that the translator D. Suvorova experienced difficulties recreating the author's individual rethinking of the word ciénaga. So ordinary words swamp and quagmire acquired a corresponding symbolic meaning in the context. The task was not difficult and
1 Rodriguez Luis Felipe. Damn swamp. / Per. from Spanish D. Suvorova. M., 1970.
the fact that the Russian word swamp there are usual figurative meanings: "everything that is characterized by inertia, stagnation" (philistine swamp) and "neutral, passive part of the team" (opportunistic swamp).
The contradictory dialectic of such correspondences is that in one material unit, in one specific word or phrase, two semantic components are simultaneously realized: the usual lexical meaning, which is usual for the language, and the occasional meaning, subjectively generated in the speech by the creator of the work.
Occasional (contextual) correspondences arise in the process of translation and are determined primarily by the style of the original work that the translator seeks to convey, as well as by the peculiarities of the target language and creative personality translator. Translation occasionalisms are heterogeneous. Among them, three main varieties can be distinguished. Firstly, these are proper translation lexical occasionalisms, i.e. new words created by the translator in accordance with the meaning and function of the individual author's words of the original in accordance with the context of the original and translation. They are invented by the translator on the basis of various word-formation models. Many such correspondences are found, for example, in the translation of "Gargantua and Pantagruel" 1: ufonary, decretalists, anathematization, arch-demon, snebanishshie, quintessential, gigantic, mustard eaters. tooth-knocking, freaked-out milk" and others - all these are examples of the translator's word creation, which are occasional equivalents of varying degrees of semantic similarity to the author's neologisms of the original, equivalent to these latter in their stylistic functions and artistic effect (for occasional correspondences of this type, see p. 16).
4. Classification of speech errors
There are several classifications of speech errors. We will focus on classification in the aspect of secondary communicative activity (the perception of errors by the addressee) and consider errors associated with difficulties in interpreting the text.
1. Wrong choice of lexical equivalent often leads to inappropriate comedy, to the absurdity of the statement. For example: “Our Russian birches are standing in a wedding shroud” (instead of “in a wedding dress); "In February, the length of the day will increase by two hours" (instead of "... daylight hours will increase by two hours").
Such errors occur when a person chooses words from a certain thematic group without bothering to analyze their exact meaning. This negligence turns into vagueness of the statement, and sometimes complete absurdity. In this case, various associations can fail (day - day, wedding dress (veil) - funeral dress (shroud). Such errors can be called associative.
Inaccurate word choice does not only happen as a result of a lexical error. It happens that a person, for various reasons (for example, to soften the meaning of a statement), instead of the exact meaning of a word, selects an indefinite, softened one. Stylists call such veiled expressions euphemisms, they talk about the euphemism of speech. For example, “We still don’t pay enough attention to children’s health” (it’s better to say: “we pay little attention” or “not enough attention”).
2. Alogism. Even Aristotle warned against logical errors in speech. He argued: "Speech must comply with the laws of logic." Consistency is a quality that characterizes the semantic structure of a text (statement). It refers to the correct correlation of the semantic structure of the text with the laws of development of the thought process. The following are the main conditions of consistency (and in parentheses are examples from school essays in which these conditions are violated):
Ø any statement should not be contradictory (“Peasants love Bazarov: for them he is like a pea jester”);
Ø consistency: there should be no shifts in the semantic layers in the text (“When he already fell into the gorge, Gorky exclaimed:“ Born to crawl cannot fly ”);
Ø the correct establishment of causal relationships and the sufficiency of grounds for conclusions (“Bazarov does not marry because he is a nihilist”);
Ø logical connection, consistency of different parts of one whole ("It was raining and two students").
Logic conditions - the correctness of the construction of syntactic structures, the order of words in a sentence; structural and logical connectivity of paragraphs and the entire text; thoughtfulness of the semantic content of the structures of sentences and phrases.
The reason for the illogicality of the statement sometimes lies in the fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts, generic and specific names. So, the idea in the sentence is incorrectly formulated: "With good care, each animal will produce 12 liters of milk." After all, it means a cow, and not any animal, i.e. the specific concept should not be replaced by the generic one. It should be remembered that replacing specific categories with generic ones makes speech colorless, official (unless it is an official business style, where generic concepts are natural and even more preferable).
3. Violation of lexical compatibility. Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other, because in speech words are used not in isolation, but in phrases. At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they fit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. So, very "similar" definitions - long, long, long, long-term, long - are attracted to nouns in different ways: one can say a long (long) period, but not "a long (long, long) period; long way, long way and long fees, long-term credit, and nothing else. There are many such words, we use them all the time, without thinking about the features of their compatibility, because. we intuitively feel which word “suits” for which.
It happens that in terms of meaning, the words seem to be suitable for expressing one or another meaning, but “do not want” to be combined into phrases. We say bow your head and kneel, not bow your head, bow your knees.
The limitations of lexical compatibility for certain words are often explained by their use in special meanings. For example, the word deep, meaning “one that has a great depth, is at a great depth”, has practically unlimited possibilities of lexical compatibility (deep lake, bay, river, well, place, etc.), but in the meaning of “reached the limit , complete, perfect ”combines with a few nouns (deep autumn, winter, night, sleep, peace, silence, silence, old age).
In some cases, the reason for lexical compatibility is the fastening of a word to set expressions. For example, the velvet season is "the autumn months (September, October) in the south." This expression has a stable character, so we cannot replace the word season with any other, even the closest in meaning. They say: the tongue is braided, but one cannot say “teeth (lips) are braided”, because this combination is stable, the replacement of words is excluded in it.
The rules for combining words in speech are also determined by grammatical compatibility, on which the possibility of connecting one part of speech with another depends. Grammatical compatibility allows the combination of nouns with adjectives (deep silence), but “forbids” the combination of adjectives with numerals (you can’t say a big hundred), possessive pronouns with verbs (my yours doesn’t understand).
Lexical compatibility often conflicts with grammatical. So, all transitive verbs are combined with nouns in the accusative case without a preposition (I am reading a book), however, the form of this case often depends on whether the nouns belong to animate or inanimate: in the former, the accusative case coincides in form with the genitive (I met a friend), in the latter - with nominative (met the train). Moreover, in special cases, grammatical compatibility helps to correctly determine the meaning of the word: to see a satellite (about a spaceship) and to see a satellite (about a person).
Compatibility plays a particularly important role in artistic speech, therefore, the assessment of lexical compatibility in works of art cannot be approached with the usual measure, here the laws of attraction of words are special. Thus, the restrictions of semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: figurative expressions of black thoughts, cheeks are burning, may seem meaningless if they are understood in a literal sense. However, we perceive them as metaphors, and this is not an obstacle to understanding the text.
The expansion of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, underlies many classic images of great masters of artistic speech: “a gray winter threat” (A.S. Pushkin), “rubber thought” (I. Ilf and E. Petrov), “ apricot hair” (V. Nabokov). Many such combinations are fixed in the language, become stable, which indicates their approval by the linguistic taste of the time.
When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, the violation of compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech: “Students worked on their experimental site as the most notorious specialists”; "Let's not keep silent about the outrageous achievements of amateur artists." Lexical errors in such cases cause damage not only to the style, but also to the content of the phrase, because the associations that arise in this case suggest the opposite meaning.
Some words are truly unlucky: they are often used in speech in the wrong combinations. They say: “expensive prices” (instead of: high prices, expensive goods), “raise a toast” (instead of: make a toast, raise a glass), “broaden your horizons” (instead of: expand), “cold boiling water”, etc. Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the association (contamination) of similar phrases. For example, they write: "meet modern requirements", mixing combinations to satisfy requirements and meet needs; “pay attention” (give importance, pay attention); "improve the level" (improve the quality, increase the level).
Attentive attention to the word, to the peculiarities of lexical compatibility in Russian will help you avoid such mistakes in speech, and in other cases it will allow you to use unusual combinations of words to create vivid images or as a source of humor.
4. Speech redundancy or verbosity. An economical, accurate expression of thought is the main requirement of style. The French scientist, philosopher and writer Pascal remarked: "I write long because I don't have time to write short." There is deep meaning in this paradoxical statement, because the carelessness and helplessness of the author usually lead to verbosity, and brevity and clarity of formulations are achieved as a result of hard work with the word. “Brevity is the sister of talent,” A.P. Chekhov said. All this must be remembered by those who want to improve their style.
There are two types of speech redundancy: tautology and pleonasm. Tautology - the unjustified use of words with the same root, for example: "I believe that those speakers who will speak will speak about the case." Numerous examples of tautology can often be found in everyday life: “Can I ask a question?”, “This phenomenon is ...”, “It is natural that a pattern follows from this”, “For example, let's give such an example ...”, etc.
Pleonasm is a form of verbosity in which extra clarifying words are used in sentences and phrases (“Their leader died, and they chose a new one from among the living”).
Pleonasms arise when using unnecessary definitions (the main essence), circumstances (they sang together), as well as as a result of unjustified stringing of synonyms (finish, complete, complete the task). Pleonasm is common in colloquial speech (I saw it with my own eyes), where it serves as one of the forms of natural redundancy, and is traditional in folklore (path-road, sadness-longing). Some styles in the past cultivated it: “Maria Godunova and her son Theodore poisoned themselves with poison. We saw their dead corpses” (A.S. Pushkin).
Speech redundancy is also generated by the combination of a foreign word with a Russian word that duplicates its meaning (an unusual phenomenon, a retaliatory counterattack). In such cases, one speaks of a hidden tautology, since the Russian word repeats the meaning of the borrowed one.
Some combinations of this type are nevertheless fixed in the language, which is usually associated with a change in the meanings of the words included in them. An example of loss of tautology would be a combination of time periods. Linguists of the past considered this expression redundant, because. The Greek word period means "time". Gradually, this word began to mean "a period of time", which made it possible to consolidate it in the named combination. Of the other, at first redundant combinations, the following were fixed: a monumental monument, reality, exhibits of an exhibition, etc. In them, the definitions ceased to be a simple repetition of the main feature contained in the noun.
Not only latent, but also explicit tautology sometimes has to be recognized as acceptable, because words of the same root that do not have synonyms may collide in speech: a dictionary of foreign words, make a riddle, foreman of the first brigade, etc.
Poets and writers often resort to tautology as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. Humorists use tautological combinations for the purpose of punning: by colliding words with the same root, they emphasize their semantic commonality (“The writer pees, and the reader reads” M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin). A tautological repetition can give the statement a special significance, as in V.A. Zhukovsky’s inscription on the portrait presented to A.S. Pushkin: “To the winner-student from the defeated teacher.”
5. Speech deficiency is usually expressed in the omission of a word or several words, for example: Great writers hang in the literature office (the word portraits is missing). Such errors often occur in oral speech when the speaker is in a hurry and does not follow the correct expression of thought. Speech deficiency causes serious damage not only to the stylistic, but also to the semantic side of speech: the grammatical and logical connections of words are violated in the sentence, the meaning is obscured.
The omission of a word can cause alogism - a comparison of disparate concepts. For example: “Compare the indicators of the first table with the seventh table” (you can compare indicators with indicators, and tables with tables). As a result of the omission of a word, a substitution of the concept often occurs. For example: “At the exhibition, among the exhibits was a philatelist from Tomsk” (although it was not the stamp collector himself that was exhibited, but his album).
Speech deficiency as a common mistake should be distinguished from ellipsis - a stylistic figure based on the deliberate omission of one or another sentence member to create expressiveness. The most expressive are elliptical constructions without a verb-predicate, which convey dynamic movements: I am for a candle, a candle is in the stove! I'm for a book, that one - run! (K. Chukovsky). With an ellipsis, there is no need to restore missing words, because the meaning of the sentence is clear and the introduction of clarifying words into it will deprive it of lightness and expressiveness.
Language is one of the most amazing tools in the hands of man. However, you need to use it skillfully, constantly studying its features and secrets. Can we say with confidence that we are fluent in our native language?
The more we realize the richness and grandeur of the Russian language, the more demanding we become with our speech, the more acutely we feel the need to improve our style, fight for the purity of our native language, resist its distortion and impoverishment. N.M. Karamzin, who did a lot for the development and enrichment of the Russian language, wrote: “Voltaire said that at the age of six you can learn all the main languages, but you need to learn your natural language all your life. We Russians have even more work than others.”
Literature
1. Kozhin A.N., Krylova O.A., Odintsov V.V. Functional types of Russian speech. M., 1982.
2. Mitrofanova O.D. Scientific style of speech: learning problems. M., 1985.
3. Vinokur T.G. Patterns of stylistic use of language units. M., 1980.
4. Nozhin E.A. Skill in oral presentation. M., 1989.
5. Soper P. Fundamentals of the art of speech. M., 1992.
6. Vasilyeva A.N. A course of lectures on the style of the Russian language. Scientific style of speech. M., 1976.
7. Kokhtev N.N. Rhetoric. M., 1994.
8. Lukyanova N.A. Expressive vocabulary of colloquial use. Novosibirsk, 1986.
9. Blinova O.I. Imagery as a lexical category // Expressiveness at different levels of the language. Novosibirsk, 1983.
Its subject of its analysis is essential for preparing children for schooling for later literacy. Chapter 2 preschool age 2.1 Development of communicative abilities of children of primary preschool age It has been proven that language occupies an extremely important place in the development of a child. Only through the mother tongue does a child enter the world...
Achievements, the formation of individual self-consciousness). Paralanguage transmits and processes information on a non-verbal basis (facial expressions and gestures, body movements; clothing, interior, somehow otherwise and deliberately materialized symbols, such as signs traffic; even silence, a pause in speech communication solves important language problems). An example of this kind of communication is...
... ”, 1997, etc. The importance of dictionaries in the life of every person can hardly be overestimated. Reading dictionaries, constant reference to them improves the culture of speech. Dictionaries enrich the individual vocabulary and phraseological stock, introduce the norms of the Russian language, warn against misuse words, their grammatical forms, pronunciation. Dictionaries expand our knowledge of the language, deepen our understanding...
Characteristic for dialogical replicas). 2.3. The Linguistic Aspect of Consistency Despite the fact that in the methodology of teaching a foreign language the need to develop logical speech is an axiom, when studying the problem of teaching a culture of foreign language communication, the very concept of logic needs to be clarified. Most often, the logicality of speech is understood as the sequence of expressing thoughts that ...
subject inaccuracy
The choice of a word can be determined by many factors, one of the main among them is subject accuracy, that is, the correspondence of the content of speech to the range of objects, phenomena of reality that are displayed by speech.
Comprehensive knowledge of the subject of speech is the most important condition for creating objectively accurate speech. Ignorance of the object or phenomenon denoted by the word leads to the wrong choice of the word and, accordingly, to the subject inaccuracy of the statement.
For example, in the works of modern writers there are facts of the wrong choice of a word, due to ignorance of the subject of speech.
There are seven cartridges in the Browning drum (the Browning does not have a drum).
Carriage locksmiths ... tap with a hammer on cast-iron wheels (train wheels are made of steel)
Ambiguity of the statement
The wrong choice of lexical means often leads to the fact that a word or combination in the context acquires a double meaning, thereby significantly reducing the accuracy of speech.
So, in a newspaper essay about a doctor who wants to get a new home, the following phrase occurs: “And now 15 square meters of a wonderful surgeon turn into a vicious circle” (15 square meters: is this the area of \u200b\u200bthe apartment or the area of \u200b\u200bthe surgeon’s body?).
In a congratulatory speech addressed to service and trade workers, the following statement is found: Today you represent, perhaps, the most difficult, most problematic area of \u200b\u200bour life ... (represent: compose or introduce?)
The unsuccessful metaphorization of speech associated with the imposition of the direct and figurative meanings of the word also leads to ambiguity. See the following statements.
Soon the center of the city will light up with a bright flame. New lights will be installed on Lenin Street. (it will burn with a bright flame: will it be engulfed in fire or will it be lit by lanterns?)
Violation of the logic of the statement (alogism)
The subject-logical connections between the phenomena of the surrounding world should determine the choice of words denoting them. Failure to comply with this principle leads to a violation of the logic of speech - alogism. Alogism as a speech error is manifested in the following statements.
Unreliable facts should be alarming (the fact ‘an event, a phenomenon that takes place in reality’ cannot be unreliable, that is, not confirmed in reality).
The friends were the same age, but one was sixteen years old, and the other was already eighteen. (people of different ages are not peers).
Unwanted associations
This speech error is illustrated by the following statement:
A woman in her forties nimbly climbed into the cab.
Here the unfortunate choice of the verb clambered up in relation to man is due to an undesirable association with a monkey.
Unsuccessful choice of figurative language means
The use of metaphors, comparisons, epithets, periphrases, hyperbole and other figurative means of speech in which words are used not in direct, but in figurative meaning, gives speech emotional coloring, rhetoric, imagery, brightness. However, on the other hand, as Ya. Parandovsky, the author of the famous book “Alchemy of the Word”, writes, “metaphor is fraught with various dangers: it either spreads the stench of banality, or leads to absurdities; it takes a lot of tact, intelligence and taste to keep the measure and grace in relation to these verbal embellishments. The use of expressive means should be meaningfully and stylistically justified. Otherwise, the following statements are obtained that cause a smile:
Installers crossed the equator of installation work.
A stolen car claimed two young lives.
The judge was as simple and modest as his office.
The stewardess looked at me with a gentle eye and let me go ahead.
More life he fell in love with his profession as a digger for its special, modest, discreet beauty.
Discord of the word
The euphony of speech is the most perfect, from the point of view of speakers of a given language, a combination of sounds that is convenient for pronunciation and pleasant for hearing. The requirements of euphony apply not only to oral speech, but also to writing.
There are laws of euphony of Russian speech. There are only four of them. Here they are conventional names:
1) compatibility of sounds in Russian;
2) aesthetic evaluation of the sounds of the Russian language;
3) frequency of repetition of sounds in speech;
4) word length.
Violation of these laws will be the following phenomena:
1) confluence of consonants and vowels at the junction of words: adult competition;
2) confluence of vowels at the junction of words (gaping): for Tanya and Olya;
3) repetition of dissonant hissing and whistling sounds, such as lice, shpa, vsh, shcha, shche;
4) repetition of the same sound or one-syllable constructions: Dutch goal against Canadian football players; murders and horrors in a gloomy manor;
5) a confluence of short words in speech, which makes the phrase jerky, chopped: the garden was empty, old, naked, it was forgotten;
6) a confluence of long words (the average length of a Russian word is 3 syllables), which makes the speech monotonous: the testimonies of the named avant-holders are recorded.
