social change - this is diverse changes that take place over a certain period of time in society as an integral system, in its structure, in the activities and functioning of all components of society.

Among the main causes of social change are:

1 . Demographic changes (population growth, increase in life expectancy, etc.).

2 . natural changes. They, in turn, are divided into natural (floods, earthquakes, drought, etc.) and those that began as a result of human impact (depletion of mineral and energy resources, pollution environment, global warming, etc.).

3 . Changes in technology (automation of production, the use of computers) have significantly increased the economic productivity and standard of living of many segments of the population.

4 . Cultural Changes ( scientific discoveries, new beliefs and values, etc.).

Under the influence of various factors in society, there is a change:

a) the composition of the population (ethnic composition, occupations and incomes);

b) ways of behavior (change in the level of social interaction, ways of obtaining means of subsistence);

in) social structure (changes in the economy and the distribution of power, in family life, education and religion);

G) culture (growth in popularity of any socio-political ideas).

Social change covers all areas of society, all kinds of diverse changes in it, constituting the essence of the social dynamics of society. Social dynamics can also be expressed through such concepts as the social process, social development, social evolution, social progress, etc. Social dynamics also includes consideration of the basic laws of the development of society. These include: the law of the acceleration of history (each subsequent stage of the development of society takes less time than the previous one, which indicates the consolidation of historical time) and the law of unevenness (peoples and nations develop at different speeds).

social development- the process of accumulating, irreversible changes in sufficiently large time intervals, as a result of which a qualitatively new state arises social object. The division of social changes into certain types can also be implemented depending on the direction of the ongoing changes. Thus, progressive, regressive social changes and cyclical movement are distinguished. With progressive social changes, there is a transition from a lower level of development social system to its highest level or to a new, more perfect social system. Regressive social changes consist in the transition from a higher to a lower stage of the development of society, in the processes of degradation, decline, etc.

Between progress and regression there is not only a connection of opposites, but a more diverse interdependence. So, on the one hand, individual regressive changes can occur within the framework of the general progressive development of the social system, and, on the other hand, with the intensification of regressive changes in the system as a whole, its individual structural components or functions can maintain or enhance the progressive direction of development. Social progress is possible, but this possibility does not imply its inevitability. Cyclic movement - the alternation of ascending and descending development, progress and regression.

Depending on the pace of social change distinguish the following types of social development: social evolution and social revolution.

social evolution These are slow, gradual changes in society.

social revolution are rapid, radical changes in society. Various revolutions are taking place in society: in the productive forces, science and technology, in consciousness and culture, etc. The social revolution involves qualitative changes in public relations, throughout their system.

Human history represents a gradual transition from one type of society to another. In sociology, it is customary to single out several typologies of societies for various reasons.

By criterion writing distinguish between preliterate and written societies (alphabet and fixation of sound on material media).

By the number of levels of government and the degree of social stratification differentiate between simple and complex societies. simple societies arose 40 thousand years ago. The social organization of simple societies is characterized by the following features: egalitarianism, i.e. social, economic and political equality, the relatively small size of the association, the priority of blood and family ties, the low level of division of labor and the development of technology. In science, it is customary to distinguish two stages in the development of simple societies: local groups and primitive communities.

Complex societies arose 6 thousand years ago e. A transitional form from a simple society to a complex one is the chiefdom. . In terms of numbers, the chiefdom is a large association. In chiefdoms, there is inequality in property, several levels of government (from 2 to 10 or more). Until now, chiefdoms have survived in Polynesia, New Guinea and tropical Africa. Complex societies include those where there is a surplus product, commodity-money relations, social inequality and social stratification (slavery, castes, estates, classes), a specialized and widely branched management apparatus.

The basis of the third classification of societies is mining method livelihood . Allocate hunting and gathering societies . For example, the natives of Central Australia. Societies engaged in cattle breeding and horticulture. At present, this type of society has survived mainly in Africa and the south of the Sahara (nomadic lifestyle). The political structure of this society consists of no more than two layers, the basis of the social structure is family ties.

Agrarian societies appeared as a result of the Neolithic revolution. First appeared in Ancient Egypt. This type of society is characterized by: a sedentary lifestyle, the use of wooden
hoes, which are gradually replaced by a wooden plow, and later by an iron plow, animals began to be used as labor force, productivity increased Agriculture surplus agricultural product appeared. All this, in turn, is a prerequisite for the emergence of cities, the development of crafts and trade. The system of kinship ties ceased to be the basis of the social structure of society and gave way to more complex ones. Despite this, family ties continued to play an important role in political life for a long time.

Industrial societies arose after the Industrial Revolution (England) and the French Revolution. The main role in the development of industrial societies was played by industrial technologies and the use of new energy sources. Gradually evolved highly developed systems government controlled. The emergence of this type of society was facilitated by industrialization (the creation of large-scale machine production) and urbanization(migration of people to cities). This led to the replacement of feudalism by capitalism and the class stratification of society, the establishment of a new political form of society - democracy.

According to K. Marx, the type of society is determined mode of production and form of ownership, depending on which they distinguish: primitive, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, socialist and communist society.

Modern sociology uses most general classification types of societies. Thus, the American sociologist D. Bell identifies the following types of societies: pre-industrial, industrial and post-industrial. The industrial society arose about 200 years ago, when an agrarian civilization was replaced by an industrial one. The formation of a post-industrial society falls on the 70s. 20th century characteristic features which are Information Technology, information and services .

concept "modernization" in world sociology describe the transition from pre-industrial to industrial, and then to post-industrial society. The concept of modernization is based on the concept of social progress and assumes that all societies, no matter what era they exist and in what region they are located, are involved in a single, universal process. scientific and technological progress in which the cultural identity of each country recedes into the background, and what unites them comes to the fore - a system of universal values.

Modernization- a complex set of economic, social, cultural, political changes taking place in society in connection with the process of industrialization, the development of scientific and technological achievements. Modernization is designed to explain how countries that are belated in their development can reach the modern stage and solve internal problems, that is, it indicates the way of entering the world community, which is understood as the world economic system capitalism.

There are two types of modernization: organic and inorganic. Organic modernization assumes that the country develops along the capitalist path on its own basis and is prepared by the entire course of the previous evolution (for example, England). Inorganic modernization assumes that the country catches up with more developed countries and borrows advanced technologies, investments and experience from them (for example, Japan).

Along with modernization in sociology in considering the issue of social dynamics, attention is paid to strategies sustainable development of society , which was substantiated in the "World Strategy for Environmental Protection" (1980), and the main conclusion of which is that the further development of society is impossible without the preservation of the environment. This implies both the preservation of the habitat and the natural resource potential of the biosphere, as well as the limitation of economic growth and the creation of conditions for a fair distribution of the natural resource potential.

Among the main principles of sustainable development the following can be distinguished: the principle of bioanthropocentrism, the principle of reducing consumption by optimizing needs, the principle of ecological cleanliness of human activity, the principle of compensation, i.e. the restoration of disturbed processes in nature, the principle of the correspondence of the pace and nature of the development of society to the laws of evolution of the biosphere, and others.

_BULLETIN OF UDMURT UNIVERSITY_29_

2013. Issue. 3

UDC 316.42:316.26:167

B.A. Chumakov

TO THE QUESTION OF REGULARITY OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The law of social development based on the concept of materialistic understanding of history is considered. The history of the emergence of one-sided materialistic views of K. Marx is considered. A generalized ITF analysis of society is described. The development of social matter is shown, which led to the formation of the regulatory interaction of human consciousness and his being. An analysis of the materialistic understanding of history is presented, the fallacy of its main provisions is proved. The different character of regulation of the formational and civilizational components of the society is noted. The concept of social development is presented.

Keywords: materialistic understanding of history; mental, civilizational and formational components of society; interaction, social matter, regulative interaction, being, consciousness, regulative understanding of history.

The question of the development of society in historical mathematics was resolved on the basis of “the sociological law that has been in force throughout history of the correspondence of production relations to the nature and level of development of the productive forces. This law expresses the objectively existing dependence of production relations on the development of the productive forces, establishes that production relations take shape and change under the decisive influence of the productive forces. Further, the necessary clarification of the law is given. “Each form of production relations exists as long as it provides sufficient scope for the development of productive forces. But ... gradually the relations of production come into conflict with the developing productive forces and turn into their fetters. Then they are replaced by new relations of production, whose role is to serve as a form further development productive forces" (Ibid.

The explanations accompanying the above law, however, cannot serve as proof of it. It is logical to turn to the original source, which served as the basis of this law. It is the concept of a materialistic understanding of history, described by K. Marx in the preface to the book "On the Critique of Political Economy", published in January 1859. He understood the reasons historical development as follows: “The mode of production of material life determines the social, political and spiritual processes of life in general. It is not the consciousness of people that determines their being, but, on the contrary, their social being determines their consciousness. At a certain stage of their development, the material productive forces of society come into conflict with the existing relations of production. From the forms of development of the productive forces, these relations turn into their fetters. Then comes the era of social revolution. This concept is an extension of the materialistic solution of the fundamental question of philosophy to the life of society, which, according to Marx, determined community development. From the first two sentences it follows that material being is the main thing in the link being - consciousness, since the verb “determines” used twice denotes a rigid assignment, conditionality of consciousness by being, in fact, excluding the reverse effect of consciousness on being. The following sentences reflect the processes on which, in Marx's mind, the development of society depended - the contradiction between the productive forces and the relations of production, which awakened the "social revolution". However, both in the preface and throughout the book, they also did not receive evidence. Unfortunately, the whole small text of the materialistic understanding of history looks really “briefly formulated”, as the author himself warned about it in the preface, a declarative statement that did not receive further development on the pages of the main work.

The stages in the formation of materialistic understanding are interesting, as they can be traced through the published works of the founders of Marxism. In one of the first joint works - "The Holy Family" (1844), Marx and Engels adhered to real views on the relationship between being and consciousness: takes care of everything. History is not some fatal force that uses man as a medium.

power to achieve their goals. History is nothing but the activity of a man pursuing his goals. They singled out the activity side of man, which determined the entire long historical path from simple stone tools to steam engines and electricity. The practical side that connects human consciousness with material existence was also discussed in famous work Marx 1845 "Theses on Feuerbach". He singled out the main "active side, practice" in society, arguing that "circumstances are changed precisely by people." In his final thesis, Marx singled out precisely this transforming side of society: “Philosophers are only in various ways explained the world, but the point is to change it."

The next joint work "German Ideology", written in 1846, but published only in the 20th century, became a turning point for the authors' attitude to the relationship between being and consciousness. From some, elegantly constructed oppositions, one can still hardly understand the equal relationship of being and consciousness. “What is the vital activity of individuals, such are they themselves. What they are, therefore, coincides with their production - coincides both with what they produce and with how they produce. “Consciousness can never be anything other than a conscious being, and the being of people is the real process of their life”, “circumstances create people to the same extent as people create circumstances” (Ibid., p. 37). From other, equally skillfully formulated thoughts, one can already see the primacy of being over consciousness: “What individuals are depends on the material conditions of their production” (Ibid., p. 19). “This understanding of history, in contrast to the idealistic one ... explains not practice from ideas, but explains ideological formations from material practice” (Ibid., p. 37). And finally:<Не сознание определяет жизнь, а жизнь определяет сознание» (Там же. С. 25) - мысль, которая фиксирует полный переход мировоззрения Маркса и Энгельса к одностороннему монистическому воздействию бытия на сознание, отодвинув его на второй план, хотя материализм, в смысле материалистического решения основного вопроса философии, освещает только момент зарождения Вселенной, и, по словам Энгельса, всякое его иное употребление «вносит путаницу». Последнее цитированное предложение почти дословно было повторено в предисловии «К критике политической экономии», закрепив переход от примата практической, осознанной деятельности человека к главенству материального бытия в развитии общества.

However, the self-development of social being without the conscious, creative participation of man is impossible, otherwise humanity would still be in a primitive state. Fortunately, this did not happen. During its historical development, all material changes in society occurred under the influence of human consciousness and intellect. At the same time, a conscious organizational process was manifested: information about the state of being through the feedback channel continuously entered the human consciousness, prompting him to develop the necessary, conscious actions to change being.

In the next work of the founders from 1848 - "The Manifesto of the Communist Party", the second part of the materialistic understanding of history was voiced, shown on a concrete example of the transition of the feudal formation to the capitalist one. “At a certain stage of development of these (feudal - V.Ch.) means of production. feudal property relations have already ceased to correspond to the developed productive forces. They began to slow down production, instead of developing it. They have become his shackles. They needed to be smashed, and they were smashed." But what is the mechanism behind the fact that the inhibition of production resulted in bourgeois-democratic revolutions remained, as they say, "behind the scenes." The theoretical position hangs in the air, not finding its explanation. The fact that “the history of all hitherto existing societies has been the history of the class struggle” (Ibid., p. 424), and the confrontation between the proletarians and the bourgeoisie “turns into an open revolution” (Ibid., p. 435) has at least a basis in “low wages”, “its growing instability”, leading to “an increasingly less secure living situation for the proletarians” (Ibid., p. 432), which is not directly related to the relations of the productive forces and socio-economic relations. The materialistic understanding of history objectively slowed down the class struggle, theoretically making it dependent on the correlation of productive forces and socio-economic relations. This confirms another sentence from the preface mentioned: “No social formation perishes before all the productive forces for which it gives enough space have developed, and new higher

PHILOSOPHY. SOCIOLOGY. PSYCHOLOGY. PEDAGOGY

which relations of production never appear before the material conditions for their existence have matured in the womb of the oldest society itself.

The secret of the transition to such a purely materialistic, one-sided understanding of the development of human society was revealed in Engels's article “Karl Marx. Toward a Critique of Political Economy”, published six months after the publication of the book under review. “The position that the consciousness of people depends on their being, and not vice versa, seems simple; but. it turns out that this proposition, even in its first conclusions, deals a mortal blow to everyone, even the most hidden idealism. Engels called the materialist conception of history no less than a "new outlook" (Ibid., p. 492). Thus, in the name of the struggle against idealism, a theoretical thesis was produced, which did not have a significant impact on the nature of the revolutionary class battles. Sweeping aside "the abstract, idealistic dialectic of Hegel", "the metaphysical method of the bourgeois economists" (Ibid., p. 495), Engels points out that "the only suitable method was the logical method of investigation" (Ibid., p. 497). But what kind of logic can we talk about if the main idea of ​​the preface was not developed on the pages of the work, and the work itself (“Toward a Critique of Political Economy”) remained unfinished.

The study of social development in Soviet philosophy was usually carried out within the framework of formational analysis. In the study of society, he gave an understanding of the development of the most important, socio-economic aspect, which determines the position of a person in the system of social relations. However, the perestroika processes that arose in the late eighties of the last century, which provided a certain freedom of opinion, were reflected, for example, in the emergence of judgments in the history of the history of the need to replace the formational approach to the study of history with civilizational ones. On this occasion, in the journal "Problems of Philosophy" (1989, No. 10), a round table "Formation or Civilization" was organized. From the discussion it became clear that the formational division of the history of mankind is idealized, built on the example of some European countries and, providing a fairly complete picture of the state and development of the socio-economic characteristics of society, has a certain limitation associated with incomplete coverage of social phenomena, mainly of a spiritual nature. The civilizational approach, on the contrary, diligently bypasses socio-economic problems and the struggle of antagonistic classes caused by them, placing the main emphasis on the technical, technological and spiritual development of society. At the end of the discussion, the editors expressed their opinion on the need to create some third approach that would describe the state and development of society as fully as possible. Unfortunately, the subsequent post-perestroika, bourgeois processes consigned the formational approach to complete oblivion, and the very idea of ​​building a new model for the study of history lost its official relevance.

The undoubted potential of the formational approach and the need for the most complete coverage of the studied social events allowed the author of the article to return to the problem posed. “The separate application of both methodologies for the study of human society turns out to be one-sided and completely insufficient. A comprehensive analysis of past periods and possible forecasting of the future of social systems gives a generalization of the formational and civilizational approaches in the study. There is an opportunity to conduct a multidimensional study of society. If earlier the key concepts of both formational and civilizational approaches represented parts of society, then in the proposed generalized version, the entire social structure is divided into three components (components), allowing for a complete three-dimensional study of society. They are called mental (M), civilizational (C) and formational (F) components, and their use in the study of society is called generalized mental-civilizational-formational (MTF) analysis. ICF components represent the following conceptual formations.

The civilizational component includes material culture: productive forces, engineering, technology, natural, technical and humanitarian sciences, all spheres of human activity - education, medicine, art, etc., as well as ideal structures in the form of individual and collective minds that implement local regulation of civilizational development, which indicates its relative independence. The civilizational component

The life of society begins with the first, most primitive tools of labor in anthropoid hominids, even before the appearance of Homo sapiens.

The mental component of society (social mentality) appears among the anthropoid hominids of a new species - Homo sapiens, which differs from its predecessors in the formation of an articulate vocal apparatus associated with a genetic mutation that has occurred. The use of the vocal apparatus led to the gradual naming of surrounding objects and phenomena and the development of an external, communication video-speech information shell of the brain - consciousness. With the advent of the community, social relations among people began to develop, the mutual relations of man and the collective, as well as the interaction between the community and nature, began to be determined. The rudiments of spiritual culture appear: morality, worldview, strong-willed, intellectual, etc. mental qualities. The stratification of primitive society objectively divided a single mental component into parts representing the consciousness of hostile forces: the haves and have-nots, free and exploited classes. These processes not least led to the emergence of religious consciousness, which, according to the opinion of the possessing minority, was supposed to unite society, reducing the opposition of classes. Religion was dominant in the public mentality for a long time, until the development of the scientific worldview pushed it into the background. The "technological" basis of the mental component lies in the relationship of people, in their information security. The mental component is basically the ideal, spiritual basis of society, interacting with the civilizational and formational components.

The formational component originates from the moment of the stratification of primitive society along property lines and the gradual separation of antagonistic classes, comprising material socio-economic (production - according to Marx) relations, class interactions, and also manifests itself in the political sphere and the legal regulation of socio-economic relations and associated social institutions, such as the judiciary, police and other government agencies. The existing ideological structures of the opposing classes consist in constant information confrontation with each other, expressing the antagonism of the possessing and non-possessing classes. The formational component is the essence of society, which determines the socio-economic formation and develops until the onset of the classless, communist phase of the development of society. The totality of the civilizational and formational components represents the mode of production of the socio-economic formation.

Figuratively, we can say that the formational component - socio-economic relations, the political factor and their institutions constitute the backbone, the skeleton of society; its flesh and blood is the civilizational component of society, and the mental component is the central nervous system. Society is represented as a total interaction of relatively independent components of a generalized formational analysis. Unlike the previously used formational approach, in which the superstructure was determined by socio-economic relations, in a generalized formational analysis, the mental component itself is able to make decisions and even determine the action of the formational component, in particular, the nature of the class struggle. The use of generalized formational analysis makes it possible to conduct a reliable study of the state and development of society. Of course, a more precise content and distribution of social functions between the components requires additional research. In this article, the concepts of the generalized ICF analysis and related concepts: the mode of production or social being equivalent to it, as well as social consciousness, equivalent to the mental component, the author used to identify the mechanism of social development.

Understanding the reasons for the evolution of social matter comes as a result of studying the process of its formation as a continuation of the development of living matter. It is known that during the long evolution of the Universe, amazing transformations of the material world took place. An analysis of these metamorphoses leads to the understanding that the main process that contributed to the evolution of matter was the interaction, which only in some cases turns into a one-sided effect. Interaction in inert matter occurred due to the presence of interaction forces that exist between homogeneous elements and control their movement and development. The objectivity and regularity of our world is such that the forces of interaction lead to

PHILOSOPHY. SOCIOLOGY. PSYCHOLOGY. PEDAGOGY

structuring and formation of ever larger elements of matter. Are there any special relationships between the formed element and its constituents, between, as they are also called, “higher” and “lower” elements? Only that the "higher" structures have properties and patterns of development, due to the properties of its "lower" components.

On Earth about 4 billion years ago, in the process of interaction of various factors of inert matter, the conditions for the emergence of life were formed. The evolution of living matter has led to the emergence of entire classes of diverse plants and animals. Nature, external conditions, "being" determined both evolution and the behavior of living organisms, which ensures the preservation of life, nutrition and procreation. Inert matter acted, so to speak, vertically on living matter, between which, in turn, there was a mechanism of interaction horizontally, and all of them contributed to the development of species diversity. The end result of development was the emergence of Homo sapiens. Social matter was added to inert and living matter. Man, possessing sense organs, a developed brain and strong forelimbs, began to increasingly intervene in nature, transforming it to fit his understanding of a safe and comfortable existence. The evolution of social matter occurred as a result of the interaction of human consciousness and the external environment - being, which included both natural and social conditions. The interaction was like the operation of a technical system of regulation. Man was the regulator (subject of regulation) of being - the subject (object) of regulation, between which there were channels of direct (control) and reverse (information) communication. A ring of regulative interaction consciousness - being appeared. The nature of this relationship changed over time, reaching the point that man began to prevail over nature, transforming it to suit his needs, based on the information received. Man began to define his being. The process of regulating relationships also took place in large social formations: social life and social consciousness. These integral characteristics of society consist of a multitude of individual living conditions and personal consciousnesses of people - "lower" elements, which, as it was indicated, form the properties of "higher" elements, and, in particular, the appearance of the properties of regulatory interaction between them. The interaction of a person with being does not have any natural objective justification, any force, as is the case in inert matter, except that a person is endowed with reason and consciousness, the main "driving force" of this interaction.

The study of the formation and development of social matter points to the first fallacy of the materialistic understanding of history, which lies in the thesis "being determines consciousness." Determine, influence, as it was shown, inert matter is capable of living matter, but in no way on social matter, causing an erroneous and humiliating judgment about the equality of man and animal. All people participate in a regulatory relationship with their private being, actively influencing it, although most people are content with the existing social being, partially confirming Marx's idea that it determines their consciousness. However, psychologists say that among people there are approximately 10-15% of individuals who are acutely perceiving reality, who have doubts, who see the shortcomings of social life and are able to deal with them. They include inventors, scientists, politicians, leaders of political parties, public figures, entrepreneurs, etc. These people consider social life as the arena of their vigorous activity. The ideal activity of individuals, materializing, gradually becomes the ideal property of the majority of the masses, the basis of social consciousness, the mental component of society, prompting the class relations of the formational component of society to collective actions to change social life. Such people can be called "progressors", using a well-known name taken from the book "It's Hard to Be a God" by the Strugatsky brothers. Regulatory interaction of social consciousness with social being becomes the main factor of social development.

The analysis of human history shows the absence of a direct connection between the "contradictions" and "conflicts" of the productive forces and socio-economic relations, and the class struggle that follows this, the "onset of the era of social revolutions", which is the second misconception of the materialistic understanding of history. Marx, apparently, did not understand the essence of this connection and the existence

the nature of the social "detector", sensitive to the discrepancy between the productive forces and socio-economic relations, which should give a signal for the social reorganization of society. The textbooks of the Historical Mathematics mentioned the "dialectics of the productive forces and socio-economic relations", but also did not explain the mechanism of the influence of these contradictions on the aggravation of the class struggle. It is not clear which law of dialectics was used in this case and what gives the signal for the beginning of a social revolution. The only element that can open the "epoch of social revolutions" is the public consciousness - the mentality of society, but it cannot feel a slowdown in the development of productive forces, moreover, it is impossible to determine in advance the level of their development that they could achieve under other socio-economic relations. .

On the other hand, the indicated presence of "contradictions" and "conflicts" between the productive forces and production relations is not proven. Are there any contradictions between them? Real contradictions, which are the main actors of the law of unity and struggle of opposites, are in a state of constant opposition, existing in an organic relationship, being related, homogeneous objects that are in direct relationships, having the same essence. An example is the proletariat and the bourgeoisie, which are related, homogeneous objects. According to K. Marx, said on another occasion, homogeneous “extremes converge”, “the north and south poles are equally poles, their essence is identical. North and south are opposite definitions of the same entity. They are a differentiated entity." But the productive forces and production relations are not such. They refer to this type of objects, about which Marx further stated the following: “The true, real extremes would be the pole and the non-pole, the human and the non-human race. In one case the difference is the difference of existence, in the other it is the difference between essences, the difference between two essences. These different entities include productive forces and production relations, although they are connected by the human factor. Their composition is heterogeneous, their purpose is different, which is why they cannot be bound by the pattern of unity and struggle of opposites, which always exists between conflicting parties, and not only at moments when, according to Marx, “at a certain stage of their development, the productive forces of society enter into in contradiction with the existing relations of production. The October Revolution, which took place in 1917, refuted the arguments of K. Marx about the "social revolution", which is the result of "contradictions" between the productive forces and socio-economic relations.

At some point in time, a consideration appeared in historical materialism, which began to be presented as proof of the “contradiction of the productive forces with the existing socio-economic relations”, as a result of which “the epoch of the social revolution was coming” (Ibid.). It was based on the fact that in the mode of production the content was artificially singled out - the productive forces and the form, consisting of socio-economic relations, between which there is an internal contradiction. From the general ideas of dialectical materialism, it followed that the content - productive forces are the active, defining side of the mode of production, and socio-economic relations - the passive, dependent part, which allegedly confirmed the theoretical constructions of K. Marx.

The concepts of content and form in philosophical literature were determined mainly for integral, unified objects, objects, things. When analyzing complex, composite objects, difficulties arise in separating content and form, as evidenced by the lack of examples on this topic in textbooks on diamat. For such systems, it is necessary to include in the content all the elements that make up the system, and as a form to consider the interaction of the elements connecting the object into a single whole, not forgetting to reflect the connections responsible for the integrity of the external "loop" of the system. Even for an example as simple as a bucket of water, both the liquid and the bucket must be included in the contents. In this case, the form should be understood as the interaction of water with a bucket as a shell, caused by the law of universal gravitation. The introduction of each new element complicates the selection of content and form in a composite object, what can we say about such a super-complex artificial concept as a mode of production, made up of many socio-economic elements. The allocation of productive forces and socio-economic relations in it as content and form is an unforgivable delusion of the person who first put forward

PHILOSOPHY. SOCIOLOGY. PSYCHOLOGY. PEDAGOGY

who provided such a simplified proof of the materialistic understanding of history. Such a shortcoming is mentioned, for example, in the book “Materialistic Dialectics as a Scientific System”: “Based on the definitions of the categories of content and form, one cannot count. relations of production - a form of productive forces. Both productive forces and production relations are elements of the mode of production and thus enter into its content. The arbitrary removal of production relations from the content of the mode of production is the theoretical impoverishment of its content. This is another refutation of the proof of the materialistic understanding of history.

Dialectical materialism sets out abstract, contradictory arguments about the relationship between content and form. On the one hand, it is argued that the content organizes the corresponding form, there is a certain unity between them. On the other hand, it is stated that form and content are represented by opposites, between which there are contradictions that are resolved through the struggle of opposites, although the impossibility of such an interaction was shown above. Practice also shows the absence of contradictions between content and form, at least for inert matter, as a result of which no independent transformation of objects is observed in objects. To change a composite object - a bucket of water - it is required to apply some external force to overturn the bucket and change the content of the object. In social matter, due to the great difficulty in identifying the content and form of composite socio-economic objects, it is difficult to identify their opposites, and even more so to talk about the transformation of objects due to far-fetched internal contradictions. In reality, there is a stronger impact on the existence and change of being, which has a reasonable, regulative interaction of a person with it, or, moving to the scale of society, the regulative interaction of the mental component with social being. Is it possible in general to consider the artificially formed composite concept of "mode of production" as a single object of study, having content and form?

Productive forces and socio-economic relations are purely heterogeneous concepts, although they are related to each other by the human factor. This connection determines the co-evolutionary development of these concepts, between which there is a correlation. History shows that before the emergence of capitalism, there were practically no changes in the productive forces. Wind and water mills, horses, carts and plows, and hand tools were the main means of labor. It will not be possible to detect contradictions between the productive forces and socio-economic relations here, although there has been a change in two formations: slave-owning and feudal. The formation of capitalism showed the development of both concepts almost simultaneously, in terms of historical scale, although a more detailed study shows the initial change in socio-economic relations that were caused by bourgeois-democratic revolutions, for example, in England in the 17th century, and in continental Europe in the middle of the 19th century. centuries. Academician V.A. Kirillin, chairman of the USSR State Committee for Science and Technology, admitted back in 1986 that “the 17th and especially the 18th centuries turned out to be a time of significant acceleration in the development of technology. The reasons for this was the replacement by the bourgeois revolution in the most economically developed countries of the feudal social system with the capitalist one.

The activity of the “progressors” contributes to a change in the social consciousness of the working masses, who begin to sharply perceive the injustice and depravity of existing socio-economic relations, prompting society to change them, activating the class struggle. The main reason for the onset of the "epoch of social revolutions", which preceded the onset of capitalism in the XVI-XIX centuries. in Europe and socialism in the 20th century. in Russia and some Asian countries, is the degree of exploitation and humiliation of the masses, that is, ultimately, the form of ownership of the means of production. The change in social consciousness is subject to the dialectical regularity of accumulation - the transition of quantity into quality. When people's patience comes to an end, there comes a qualitative leap in the social consciousness of the working people, which, by means of the regularity of unity and the struggle of opposites, which always exists between the haves and have-nots, "turns on" the beginning of the active phase of the class struggle. With favorable

In a clear confluence of subjective and objective circumstances, the regulatory interaction of social being and consciousness passes into the phase of an acute revolutionary impact of social consciousness on social being, which can lead to a change in socio-economic relations, that is, to a change in the formational component. At the same time, the further development of the productive forces takes place, leading to new opportunities for ensuring the progressive development of the civilizational component of society.

The development of society represents the work of a huge regulatory device, consisting of many objects that are subject to social regulators of similar complexity. Of course, the regulation of society has significant differences from technical regulation, in which the possible range of random changes in the object is known and the regulator is calculated on the fastest elimination of disturbances in the object of regulation. Social being as an object of regulation and the consciousness of society as its subject of regulation have colossal volumes and inertia; besides, being in the form of traditional socio-economic relations actively resists any changes, and the impact of consciousness is quite small, which requires considerable time to accumulate a significant impact on changing being. For this reason, the development of society occurs at a slow pace, manifests itself in a trend, having a probabilistic character, although it tends to accelerate as one moves along the steps of formational changes. According to F. Engels, the development of society is formed from a multitude of multidirectional "wills", the resultant of which determines the direction of society's movement, being, in the first approximation, the regulatory function of the social regulator.

The regulation of the civilizational and formational components have significant differences. The regulation of the objects of existence of the civilizational component is carried out by many internal local control schemes of a small scale: industries, companies, enterprises, institutes, laboratories of an inventor or some enterprising person. In accordance with this, the regulatory impact of the mental component narrows, the main signal for the possibility of the growth of the civilizational component comes from the formational component. Great importance is given to the immediate leader of the facility and his team - the main elements of the regulator of productive forces. The regulation process basically does not go beyond the civilizational component, the progressive change in the formational component only encourages an increase in the rate of development of the productive forces.

A completely different character and pace of regulation of socio-economic relations. To change the existing form of ownership of the means of production in society, it is necessary to use the maximum possible amount of public consciousness of the poor masses, which leads to significant inertia and, as mentioned above, to the cumulative, intermittent nature of the regulation process. The social consciousness of the poor class, through individuals, perceives the degree of exploitation and humiliation, and as the amount of confrontation and hatred for the oppressors turns into an effective, decisive quality of the class struggle, it changes socio-economic relations, reducing the level of exploitation. After real changes in the formational component, the local regulators of the civilizational component, receiving additional freedom of action, contribute to its rapid quantitative and qualitative growth.

The executive mechanism for changing the civilizational component of society is the hands of inventors, scientists, designers, workers in factories, rural workers in the fields. To change the formational component, the executive mechanism is the leaders of popular movements, parties and their leaders, and, of course, the rebellious people themselves, that is, what is called the class struggle. The executive mechanism in this case materializes the control signals coming from the regulator - public consciousness. Such an understanding of the development of social processes seems to be the most reliable correspondence to historical reality. F. Engels at the end of his life had to correct the categorical judgment of his friend regarding the primacy of being. In a letter to Konrad Schmidt dated August 5, 1890, he completes Marx's thought in the following way: "... ideological realms, in turn, have an opposite, but secondary effect on these material conditions." , unfortunately, only a “secondary”, insignificant influence, in which Engels did not see the regulative nature of the interaction of being and consciousness in historical processes.

PHILOSOPHY. SOCIOLOGY. PSYCHOLOGY. PEDAGOGY

V. Lenin, extolling the materialist understanding of history in such works as "Three Sources and Three Components of Marxism", "Karl Marx" and others, actually opposed these provisions of Marxism, deliberately breaking the bourgeois life that existed in Russia. And in theory, his views were somewhat different from Marx's understanding of social relations. Analyzing in the book "Materialism and Empirio-Criticism" the connection between social being and consciousness in the paragraph "How Bogdanov corrects and "develops" Marx", Lenin points out the fallacy and "incorrectness" of Bogdanov's conclusion that "social being and social consciousness, in the exact sense these words are identical. Lenin continues that they are “not identical. just as being in general and consciousness in general are not identical. Social consciousness reflects social being - this is what Marx's teaching consists in. Consciousness in general reflects being - this is the general position of all materialism ”(Ibid., p. 343) (emphasis added by V.I. Lenin). And in this he contradicts Marx, who argued that being determines consciousness. Continuing Lenin’s thought, we can say that consciousness “reflects”, that is, perceives information coming from outside with the senses, processes it and issues commands to the corresponding muscles of the body to perform certain elementary movements or more complex operations to change being. The circularity of the regulative interaction of being and consciousness fundamentally does not make it possible to single out the primary and secondary in their relationship. One can speak only about the active, transforming role of man and his consciousness and the passive role of being. Ring regulative interaction suggests that Bogdanov's assumption about the identity of being and consciousness was some prerequisite for his understanding of their regulative relationship.

Summing up the study of the process of social dynamics, it can be argued that the progressive evolution of mankind occurred as a result of the action of the regulatory mechanism of development, based on the regulatory interaction of social consciousness with social being. It is regrettable that philosophers have taken the time to develop dualistic views in which the idealistic and materialistic components are separated and independent of each other. A study of the history of mankind shows their joint and interrelated development. Representatives of the naturalistic approach came closest to the regulative understanding of history, they considered the development of society from biological positions, offering as models of social phenomena the human body, "entangled" in numerous relationships, although not understanding the regulative nature of social development. Regulatory understanding of history should be viewed as a dialectical regularity of social existence.

Generalized formational analysis and regulative understanding of history make it possible to study the development of human history and predict it with maximum reliability.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Fundamentals of Marxist-Leninist philosophy: textbook. M., Politizdat, 1978.

2. Marx K. To the criticism of political economy // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. T. 13.

3. Marx K., Engels F. Holy family, or criticism of critical criticism. Against Bruno Bauer and Company // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. T. 2.

4. Marx K. Theses on Feuerbach // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. T. 3.

5. Marx K., Engels F. German ideology // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. T. 3.

6. Marx K., Engels F. Manifesto of the Communist Party // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. T. 4.

7. Engels F. Karl Marx. On the Critique of Political Economy // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. T. 13.

8. Chumakov V.A. On the issue of formational-civilizational analysis of socio-economic systems // Laws of the economic sphere of society: materials of the 9th Intern. Nizhny Novgorod Fair of Ideas (34th academic symposium). N. Novgorod, 2006. S. 138-142.

9. Marx K. To the criticism of the Hegelian philosophy of law // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. T. 1.

10. Material dialectics as a scientific system // ed. prof. A.P. Sheptulina. M., 1983.

11. Kirillin V.A. Pages of the history of science and technology. Moscow: Nauka, 1989.

12. Engels F. Letter to Konrad Schmidt of August 5, 1890 // K. Marx, F. Engels. Op. T. 37.

13. Lenin V. I. Materialism and empirio-criticism // Full. coll. op. T. 18.

Received 08/05/13

On the question of the law of social development

The article describes the law of social development, the law is based on the concept of the materialist conception of history. The history of the emergence of unilateral materialist views of Karl Marx is considered. The generalized MCF-analysis of the society is described. The author shows the development of social matter, which has led to the formation of a regulatory interaction between human consciousness and human existence. The analysis of the materialist conception of history is presented, the fallibility of its key provisions is revealed. Consideration is also given to the differences in the nature of regulation of the formational and civilizational components of society. The concept of social development is introduced.

Keywords: materialist conception of history, mental, civilization and formational elements of society, interaction, social fabric, regulatory cooperation, being, consciousness, understanding the regulatory history.

Chumakov Valery Alexandrovich,

Member of the philosophical club at NNGASU

Nizhny Novgorod.

Email: [email protected]

a member of the philosophy club at NNGASU Nizhny Novgorod. Email: [email protected]

N.L. Rumyantsev

Factors and patterns of human development. Part 1. Patterns of human development

Introduction

We are experiencing a global crisis of civilization, not only financial and economic, but in general moral decay and physical extinction (according to UN statistics, the population of Western Europe, except for Muslim Albania, is not reproduced) of the people of an advanced civilization. Is it possible to rely on any concept of Man that would resist decay? There are many such concepts, however, and at present the task remains "to reveal the dialectics of the social and biological in man" (Frolov I.T.)

The task of the proposed concept of Man is to reveal this dialectic, to understand the process of ascent to a harmonious Man.

When constructing the concept of human development, we will rely on the categories of system analysis of activity, denoted as initial data and method. The initial concepts that will be further developed are the concepts of: I. Pavlov, who designated its preservation as the goal of life; Marx, who revealed the essence of social relations under capitalism as a basic external factor in human development; Vygotsky L.S., and his followers, who developed the fundamental principle of the primacy of the sociocultural factor in human development; Promptov, Lorenz, Fet and other scientists who substantiated the development of the biological factor in the socio-cultural environment in a developing person; Zinchenko V.P., who outlined the contours of the laws of human development.

The research method is system-dialectical, which means, firstly, that a person is an element of the system-society in which he is socialized, but, in turn, he himself is a system. And, secondly, this method means considering a person as an element of the system and as a representative of the Homo sapiens species, in development (ontogeny and phylogeny), and, at the same time, the development of the factors themselves that determine human development is analyzed.

To highlight the basic factors and patterns of human development, let us turn to the history of the human race. It has two stages: the stage of biological evolution and the stage of social evolution, when an unnatural component of human life activity began to take shape - culture (including religion). Two aspects of human development are derived from this - biological and socio-cultural. Culture, its values ​​have long been the basis for organizing the social or socio-cultural life of people, however, in recent centuries, the ideology of society, its values, have begun to diverge from cultural values, which makes us separate the social aspect from the cultural one. We will build the concept on the synthesis of these aspects of considering a person: as a biological species (growth and maturation); as a social being (socialization); as a bearer of culture (mastering and reproducing its values). But these principles are not independent, and already the biological element contains cultural memory as a deposit, nothing more.

The main type of biological principle is a material body with some inherited properties (energy, temperament, illness, inclinations). Its maintenance and development is carried out according to the laws of nature, but human culture (body culture) also exerts its influence within the framework of these laws. Another type of biological principle is instincts that are developed by society into bio-complexes of life preservation, bio-complexes form needs, needs cause desires or will, will causes actions. The third type of biological inclinations is the inclination of thinking, which is developed by society into thinking. The fourth type is ethical inclinations (“collective unconscious” according to Jung, “spiritual code of culture”, “cultural code”, “cultural-spiritual code”, etc. in different conceptual systems), which are developed by the culture of society along with developing thinking, including the individual in one or another ethical system.

Development factors can be divided into internal and external, initial and emerging. From the two initial aspects of considering a person, three grew, and then from the three named principles of a person, six internal factors of his development were formed: the body, instincts - biocomplexes, thinking, ethical system, will, needs. The initial internal factors are the physical body with biological inclinations. External factors - cultural (ethical) and social (values ​​of the ideology of society) and the requirements of society arising from them. The dialectic of the interaction of external and internal factors transforms socially significant internal biological factors into bio-cultural-social ones, and mastered and appropriated external (ethical system) - into internal ones. Such developing internal factors of human development are, in addition to the body, developing thinking, a will striving for freedom, a biocomplex of life preservation, formed on the basis of instincts in the socio-cultural environment, a mastered and appropriated ethical system and the needs generated by all these factors. In this concept, culture means the spiritual culture of the society, being included in which a person is cultivated. But a broader concept of culture also includes bodily culture, joining which a person strengthens his health.

Patterns of human development

First stage (biological)

Following I. Pavlov, let's introduce the concept of "instinct to preserve life" to denote a natural means of achieving the goal of life designated by him - its preservation. The preservation of the life of the animal world is based on the instinct for the preservation of life. What is this instinct? The instinct to preserve life (population) in an animal (according to the studies of Lorentz, Efroimson, Kropotkin) includes the following main types: self-preservation, reproduction, and the instinct of society or collectivity. In humans, instinct as the ability to behave that preserves life dies off, turning into a deposit, being replaced by new means of preserving life - conscious labor activity and culture. The same types of instinct for the preservation of life as in an animal, but only as a deposit, can also be distinguished in humans: self-preservation, the preservation of the family and the preservation of the collective. The latter can be broken down into several levels, from a group of friends, countrymen, etc. up to the preservation of the people of their country, humanity, all living things. Together they form a complete instinct for the preservation of life. In the “developed” countries with endangered populations, the instinct of publicity or the preservation of collectives of different levels as a deposit has long been “forgotten” (K. Jung) and is not developing, now before our eyes it is not developing as a deposit and the instinct of preserving the family. And there is a danger of their complete extinction. The situation is similar in the animal world - once needed, but the organ-function that has become unclaimed gradually dies off.

In a developing person, the instinct to preserve life, its named types, develop (with the exception of the infantile period) into a biocomplex of preserving life and its corresponding types, if there is a favorable socio-cultural environment, as a grain sprouts in a favorable environment or (in the cybernetic terminology of A.I. Fet) how open programs are supplemented by subprograms and only then “work”, forming needs, and needs, in turn, desires. Desires I will also call will. The will strives for freedom - this is its main property, its law. But we note here that the biocomplex of preserving human life is not the only source of his need. Therefore, human behavior cannot be unequivocally associated with this biocomplex.

The man was born. He, his behavior, his attitude to the world is determined by the instinct of self-preservation and nothing else. In a born person, the will naturally leads to action, i.e. free, because the will itself is still very primitive and is determined by the instinct of self-preservation and, as a result, does not evoke external opposition. The remaining instincts (except for self-preservation) are present in a born person as inclinations or open programs, potentially, as unformed sources of need, which will gradually form into appropriate biocomplexes, and how they will form depends both on the genetic program and on the environment, in which they will fall. In a born person, only the first kind of instinct works as a need, connected with the simple biological functioning of his body, and love for relatives develops at first precisely as love for oneself, i.e. the need for them in the child is the need for means of self-preservation, which they are for him until he has mastered these means himself. This stage can be called not just biological, but "vegetative" ("vegetative soul" according to Aristotle). Communication with the world at this stage is emotional and sensual, thinking is not developed, there are no ethical categories. Already at this stage, the first crisis of development arises - the crisis of the 1st year, described by L.S. Vygotsky. Evolution is biological. Biological development takes a person to the next stage.

Second stage (communicative)

Further, a person, developing, learns to control his body and this gives him greater freedom of action, begins to master the space. A person connects to the culture of society, the process of deobjectification begins; he begins to master the language and, along with it, knowledge through activity and communication with the environment. The factors identified in our approach at this stage develop as follows: thinking develops along with language acquisition; in a collectivist environment, a biocomplex of collectivity begins to form (according to J. Bruner). It is transformed (according to Vygotsky, Fet, etc.) into a biocomplex and the instinct of self-preservation under the influence of the environment and external lack of freedom, this change depends on what kind of environment it is. Communication with the environment, in addition to intellectual influence that develops thinking, is also a process of organic inclusion of a person in this environment and subjecting him to its laws. A person becomes an element of the system and at the same time loses free will because of the connections by which he is included in the system. He cannot now always act as he wants, because. its inclusion in the system is regulated by the relation “possible-impossible” or “good-bad”), passing (according to Piaget) the pre-moral stage, then the stage of heteronomous morality. The socialization of the individual begins, which is still very limited by the framework of the family or children's institution. Here arise "external requirements" that make the will non-free (external non-freedom).

This “impossible” will accompany a person for a very long time, and often throughout his life, like those laws or the necessity that his environment forces him to obey from the outside.

The subordination of a person to this “impossible” is not passive, but active, even active-aggressive. Here the basic law of the will is manifested and will continue to operate all the time - its desire for self-determination or freedom. Psychologists (Erikson, Vygotsky, Bozhovich, and others) note periods of activity of the will emerging from external restrictions in childhood (and then in adolescence and youth) and leading to crises of this period.

Both intellectual development and organic inclusion in the system, i.e. into society is carried out through the ethical norms of this society, through the main ethical categories, “good - bad”. So far, at stage 2, the ethical system of a person has not yet been formed, and for him “good - bad” is still almost equivalent to “possible - impossible”, i.e. just a less categorical formulation of the same relationship through which he is included in society.

External demands and the “external unfreedom” of the will caused by them prevent the will from realizing its constant desire for freedom. And already at this stage, the desire to “throw off” unfreedom leads to a backlash from the environment, bringing resentment, disappointment, grief and forcing a person to look for a way out of this contradiction. One of them is split. This bifurcation manifests itself when the child "lies", and in such a way that it is not detected. The need for socialization takes him to the next stage.

Third stage (existential)

A person grows and joins various teams - educational, then labor. This inclusion takes him to the next stage of development. This stage is the stage of mastering the ethical system. The environment gradually develops a system of its moral values ​​in front of a person, and this result of the centuries-old development of culture is passively imprinted in the human mind through the categories of "good - evil". For a still dialectically undeveloped mind, any ethical system created by centuries of social development looks logical, consistent and provides answers to those numerous “whys” that gradually form a person’s self-consciousness. In Kohlberg's classification, this is the conventional level of morality. In parallel with this process, and at first glance, independently of it, biocomplex needs are formed: as independence develops, mother and other relatives are alienated from his “I” - love for relatives is separated from love for oneself and becomes its denial; the simplest groups of “friends” may arise, love for friends (or friendship) may arise, incl. to members of the other sex.

The degree of formation of one or another type of biocomplex need at this level is determined by the environment in which a person lives, those social relations that prevail in society and the culture in which he is included. By environment, I mean, first of all, the family and the immediate environment - the provision of the family with the basic means of existence, action and interaction of the people around. The more financially difficult it is for a family to live, the more it needs help, the unity of its members with each other and with other people, the more actively the biocomplex of preserving collectives and the corresponding needs are formed. Similarly, those manifestations of mutual assistance that a person experiences and observes also affect.

All these biocomplexes, being species of one biocomplex of life preservation, are in constant struggle in the human soul, denying

each other. In the same struggle, the concept of good develops, passing through denials. These factors form a person still unconsciously, unreflected.

Inclusion in collectives requires from a person already a larger-scale socialization, more and more limiting his freedom of will. The law of the desire of the will for freedom also explains the desire of a person to get out of the power of external unfreedom in that part of his activity that is limited by it. This protest can result in dramatic events that are hard to endure and push a person to move to the next stage of development - reflexive. Another continuation is also possible - exactly the one that the individualistic ideology suggests, i.e. an ideology based on the priority of private interests over the general interests of society: bifurcate. It helps to maintain one's free will when "there are no witnesses" and to learn to play roles when a person interacts with other people. Moreover, it is precisely on the priority of the biocomplex of self-preservation (and, more broadly, individualism as a priority of individual interests) that the ideology of an individualistic society is based, supporting it as the basis for success, albeit under the “cover” of role-playing behavior dictated by legal norms and moral postulates, in particular, Christianity. If a person does this well, then this means his successful “socialization”. This bifurcation begins at the second stage and manifests itself when the child is "lying". Such a state, as a rule, does not stimulate the further development of a person, and the economic system adopted in society forms an implicit ethical, mixing good and evil with wealth-poverty, or power-subordination, or strength-weakness, does not attach importance to distinguishing between lies and truth, ( more precisely, it replaces the truth with a lie, a simulacrum).

It is the third stage that is typical for an active person in a modern individualistic society, and even the third stage, due to its “inhibiting” influence on active work, is only partially passed, i.e. to the extent that the struggle of biocomplexes does not prevent the individual from acting actively, does not obscure the hierarchy of goals learned and built in the process of socialization (money, success, power, self-realization, etc.).

The performance of "roles" at this stage is regulated by the categories of "good-evil" formed in society. In an individualistic society, they are replaced by laws designed to reflect "good" and prevent "evil", understood in the individualistic paradigm. So far, conscience is almost not disturbing, truth is almost merged with lies, almost indistinguishable (because it is not reflected), “selfhood” is not open, or rather, not built. The person splits in two, losing integrity. Collectivist society, i.e. a society with the priority of common interests over private ones in ideology, through social relations and familiarization with a collectivist culture, pushes a person to another way out, to search for integrity, to the next stage. In modern Russia, an individualistic ideology has been adopted, and the culture that has been preserved so far is collectivist. Therefore, in it, the socio-cultural evolution of a person at this stage bifurcates: the social one pushes a person onto one path, and the cultural one - onto another. It is this contradiction in the developing person for Russia that is the main reason for its unstable state and the main problem that needs to be resolved.

Fourth stage (reflexive)

A person, trying to remove external lack of freedom and contradictions with the outside world, experiencing them, begins to realize himself as an imperfect being. The stage of self-knowledge and self-improvement begins. This is a long way of reflection, a dialectical way of becoming a spiritually developed personality, the formation of one's worldview, first of all, one's own ethical system. This is the way of denying the ethical values ​​previously imprinted in the consciousness, then affirming, etc. As a result, the spiral of denials twists into some synthesized, relatively stable worldview. This stability is determined by the degree of awareness of the rules of life of human society, expressed in "external requirements". The more humane the society in which he lives (we define a humane society as “a society that contributes to the satisfaction of vital needs and the elevation of a person), the more a person is freed from the pressure of external requirements, translating them into his own rules of life. In the ideal case, “external lack of freedom” is completely removed for a person, external requirements now do not exist for him, because. his own demands on himself replace them entirely. However, there are no ideal societies, or at least they are very rare. They are approached by a Christian or other religious community, but "worldly" life takes place in other groups.

External requirements sometimes prescribe behavior to a person that contradicts his morality, the ethical system he has formed. In these cases, the behavior of a person at level 4 differs from behavior at level 3, when he obeys the requirements of society. Now he does not obey them, thereby showing his “external freedom”, but obeys the ethical law achieved within himself (post-conventional ethical level according to Kohlberg). This disobedience can turn into a conflict between a person and society up to death. It is at the cost of the death of one person that it is possible to change the laws of the life of society and its advance towards the humane. These are the results of the death of Socrates, Jesus Christ, J. Bruno and others. Life is at stake for the rebirth of mankind. Pioneers always suffer if they don't die, and geniuses are more often appreciated by society after death than during life. Simultaneously with the awareness of social laws, there is an awareness of the laws of human life - it is stimulated by those experiences, or rather the suffering that a person experiences when communicating with people, the empathy that he experiences when he joins high art.

The developing ethical categories of "good - evil" remain the main factor of development at this level. However, at this level, another development factor is the development of reflection and, along with it, an understanding of oneself, one's imperfection and other people, gradually shifting a person from an egocentric position.

The gradual removal of external lack of freedom at this level turns into “internal lack of freedom” for a person. It should be noted here that we denote by this term the lack of freedom of will-desire from the mind, while in psychology this term has a different meaning. For example, Leontiev D.A. inner lack of freedom - "in a lack of understanding of the internal and external forces acting on a person, in the lack of orientation in life, in indecision" . This difference is due to a different concept of will in this study, will-feeling, and not will-mind. In this text, inner lack of freedom means that between the will and its implementation, a person himself puts an obstacle for himself, or, more precisely, a “censor” in accordance with his ethical system. Speaking about this stage of human development, L.I. Bozhovich characterizes it as follows: “at younger ages, the deprivation of newly arisen needs is associated mainly with external obstacles (prohibitions of adults, etc.); in the crisis of adolescence, internal factors also play an equally important role: prohibitions imposed by the adolescent on himself, previously formed psychological neoplasms (habits, character traits, etc.), which often prevent the adolescent from achieving the desired and, above all, his own chosen model. And she sees the main reason for this new contradiction in a person not in external conditions, and not in puberty (as many psychologists believe), but in the development of reflection, in “the appearance in a teenager of the ability to know himself as a person who possesses it, in different from all other people, inherent qualities.

A person is now in a constant struggle with himself, this eternal contradiction of “mind and heart” is sometimes so strong that if a way out of it to the next 5th stage is not found, then a way out can only be found in self-negation, i.e. suicide. In particular, because of the intolerance of suffering associated with the aggravation of internal contradictions, psychologists strive to free their “wards” or pupils from this level, pointing out the undesirability of “too much attention paid by a person to his Self”. Freud and his followers came especially close to solving the question of how to free a person from this internal struggle, who prepared, so to speak, the “scientific foundation” of the sexual revolution that erupted after his appearance. But only after overcoming this stage, having survived this internal struggle, a person further comes to an understanding of the moral law of human life and human society.

A person can at this stage act in accordance with his will - against his mind - or in accordance with his mind - but against his will - in any case, the contradiction within him with an active mind is not resolved, but aggravated, because. the more actively the mind struggles with the will, i.e. asserts its right to determine human behavior, the more actively the same right defends the will as its own law - the desire for freedom. This stage thus leads (with a strong mind) to the denial of human nature, which has not yet been freed from the predominance of the biocomplex of self-preservation and self-affirmation. But the collectivist ideology, culture, environment, contributing to the removal of this predominance, and with it internal contradictions, pushes a person to the next stage.

Fifth stage (spiritual)

The next stage of development comes along with the formation of a complete bio-complex of life preservation, in which the bio-complex of collectivity takes its place (that is, activated when something threatens the collective of one or another level). This process directly depends on the influence of the environment and is ultimately determined by the ideology and culture of the society, and through them by the production relations and ethical systems embedded in the ideology. Ethical systems entered into a person and his own formed with their participation - this is the main force that forms and implements a complete bio-complex of life preservation and contributes to finding a measure of each of its types.

At the same time, self-knowledge continues, but not just its nature, but the knowledge of its movement, i.e. reflection of the passed stages at the same time with a completely new "measurement", a new tool of knowledge. Such reflection is stimulated by the aggravation of internal contradictions that arose at stage 4 and the desire to remove the internal lack of freedom created by the mind.

Now the instrument of man's knowledge of himself is the category "natural (true) - unnatural (false)". These categories are a denial of the ethical categories of "good - evil", on which the human ethical system was built at previous stages, and thus its denial. Now it is realized that a rational and internally not free person was often forced (or sometimes, depending on the degree of formation of the biocomplex) to lie, communicating with the outside world, “playing a role”, denying his “sinful” nature, i.e. their "lower" biocomplexes, first of all, self-preservation. Moreover, at the 4th stage, the mind took over the management of those needs of its own body that are not related to communication (P.Ya. Galperin called them “organic”), believing that, having knowledge, he better understands what this body needs , (later a person will understand the imperfection of knowledge and reason), "curbing" his "unreasonable" desires (and he was right to the extent that he helped the body to distinguish pleasures from true needs).

At stage 5, the mind recognizes the “true”, which has become “natural”, as the main ethical value, thus, it itself removes its violence against human nature, now a new nature, as an inevitable source of lies. Spiritual evolution.

The moment of onset of the 5th stage is determined by the formation and implementation of a complete bio-complex of life preservation as a source of needs, finding a measure of each of its types: it is now that there is no need for their control and mind control, and now they can manifest themselves freely. Now the eternal struggle of "mind and heart" finds its solution. In the Gospel of John we find the exact description of this spiritual stage: "and you shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free." If at the third stage a person, obeying the demand of society, gave way to the old woman in the transport, and at the fourth stage he gave way, obeying the demand of reason and conscience, now he gives in, fulfilling his own desire to give in, feeling compassion for the weak, a desire to help a weak person, coinciding with already unnecessary requirements of the mind. Now a person achieves inner harmony: each time, one of the biocomplexes that is threatened by something turns on or prevails; love for a child pushes for self-sacrifice for his sake; love for the Motherland, if something threatens it, pushes for behavior called “feat” or “heroism”. Only here, at stage 5, a new natural "I" is formed in harmony with all types of the biocomplex of life preservation. At this stage, the need to have gives way to the need to give. Reason finds (although it can find it even earlier), finally, the law of human life and human society. We find this law in I. Pavlov, T. De Chardin, V. Vernadsky, N. Moiseev and others - the law of the preservation of life of Homo sapiens. Different philosophers have looked for it in different forms: Kant has it “act so that your rule has the force of a universal law”, A. Schweitzer expresses it in ethical categories: “good is something that serves to preserve and develop life, evil is something that that destroys life or hinders it. In Christianity, this law is love, and the main commandment is “love your neighbor”, but the paradox lies in the fact that you cannot say “love” to a person; after all, this (like any word) is an appeal to the mind, and the mind will fully agree with this and lead a person to a maximum of stage 4. But stage 5 differs from the previous ones in that only here the moral requirements of the mind and the revealed law of nature coincide with a person’s own formed nature, with the realized potential, which gives rise to this love, this respect, this compassion. Here is what P. Kropotkin writes about this: “The words “love for one’s neighbor” incorrectly express the feeling that moves a person when he sacrifices his immediate benefits for the benefit of others ... But the word “altruism”, as well as the word “self-sacrifice”, is incorrect expresses the character of such actions, since they are good only when they become natural, when they are performed ... by virtue of an irresistible inner impulse.

Here there is a harmony of awareness of oneself as a part of the whole and a sense of collectivism as a feeling of oneself as a part of the whole, generating behavior that contributes to the preservation of this whole. Here Vl. Solovyov’s definition of morality also finds its completion: “morally good actions are those that have as their goal the own good of other subjects, ... and not the exclusive good of the acting subject.”

Here, Hegel's rationalism is overcome in the unity of reason and feeling that he guessed (but not developed), here, finally, K.Kh. Delokarov the question: “In modern conditions, a new rationalism is needed, which includes the experience of comprehending the mistakes of the past and therefore based on the unity of science and morality, reason and feeling. Therefore, it is logical to raise the question of the need to limit its claims to generality and universality. “I think” does not cease to be a fundamental requirement, only “I think” should not displace “I feel”, “I believe”, etc.” .

We find the features of this stage in a different terminology in K. Jung, V. Frankl, A. Langle, A. B. Orlov and other psychologists, however, in these concepts there is no separation of everything following the existential path of human development: reflexive, spiritual, spiritual vision.

Here it is necessary to make such an important clarification: the movement from stage to stage, from level to level does not proceed by replacing one with another, but by layering the next on the previous one. This layering is not carried out immediately, but gradually, as the development progresses, the previous layers decrease and the last one begins to predominate. In this vein, one must also understand “harmony” - it is in the opposition of stages and the gradual displacement of the previous ones by the subsequent ones, which does not happen by itself, but is given by difficult spiritual work - holding the dominant in the central nervous system. Ukhtomsky describes this process in the following way: “The dominant is a fairly stable excitation that flows in the centers at the moment, acquires the significance of a dominant factor in the work of other centers: it accumulates excitation from individual sources, but inhibits the ability of other centers to respond to impulses that have a direct effect on them. attitude." As A.A. Gagaev explains, "dominants are in biological affinity with heredity and the history of a unique organism, the history of culture, populations." It is the formation of a dominant, which enhances the excitation of some centers and inhibits the excitation of others, that changes a person's behavior, his reaction at different stages of development to external signals. Considering harmony as a synthesis of the general, particular, individual, Ukhtomsky believes that “in this process, the selection and formation of new instincts is carried out” (new bio-complexes of life preservation in our terminology). What is this synthesis? Ukhtomsky speaks of following his subconscious nature in discovering the truth, which is identical: 1. to the world, to the whole, 2. to himself, and We, and I. But how can this be achieved? “If you want to maintain the same vector at the same height, you need all the time, I would say, to educate this dominant, carefully groom it, make sure that it does not get overexcited, does not step over a certain value, but everything time corresponded to the current conditions in the centers - on the one hand, and in the environment - on the other.

Sixth Stage (Spiritual Vision)

The harmony achieved at the 5th stage is harmony, one might say, “with oneself”, as achieved free will, but not always harmony with the people around. After all, the surrounding people, not all (or very few) have reached the same level and are also harmonious inside, i.e. follow the same moral principles. Moreover, this harmony with society is not always found, in which, even with a collectivist ideology and culture, but under a government that does not carry this ideology and culture (which happened in the USSR), it may never be found, but, on the contrary, a moral law found leads to vigorous activity for the reconstruction of such a society; harmony between man and society is possible only in a humane society in which the condition is fulfilled: “every social organism should be for each of its members not an external boundary of its activity, but a positive support and replenishment” (Vl. Solovyov).

Therefore, there is still a feeling of injustice when a person is not treated the way he treats others. They do not always understand him, sometimes they try to “reveal” his non-existent insidious or mercantile plans, prescribing his behavior to a particular role or self-interest. This can be clearly seen in the assessments of some "commentators" who analyze the behavior or statements of high officials of the country.

A person is still tormented by resentment (although no longer the desire to repay the same and, moreover, not revenge), especially on the closest people. A person does not always understand others, he cannot always move to the position of another. Therefore, continuing reflection, experiencing one's grievances and misunderstandings takes him to the next, 6th stage. At this stage, a new moral law operates, which is the dialectical completion of the completed turn of the spiral; “true goodness” is recognized as the main moral value. What does this mean? After all, good was a moral criterion before. But from the original, subjective good to true good is a very long way. Disappointment and resentment await a person on this path, but only after passing through them, a person leaves the closed space of egocentrism into an open one - polycentrism, learns to distinguish and do true good, learns to understand another person. The criteria for singling out true goodness can be divided into 2 groups: 1st - refers to oneself, 2nd - to others.

The criteria of the 1st group include the development of moral foundations found at the 5th stage. Now the imperative “do not do to another what you do not wish to yourself” is not enough. he does not tell, but what to do? After all, it is not always good for another person what is good for you. The desire to do good, sometimes mutual, up to one's own sacrifice, but from one's own point of view, also leads to disharmony with others. Kindness cannot be imposed on others. A refinement of the above imperative is “do not judge” (a person, but not his deeds or words), “do not offend” (but at the same time, if you do not agree with the judgments - do not agree, argue, if it makes sense, if you do not approve of the act - do not approve, etc.), "be tolerant", etc. (These clarifications can be formed at the previous stages as well). But "true goodness" is not tolerance or compromise (as at the stage of contract legal orientation in Kohlberg), but benevolent complicity, assistance.

Criteria of the 2nd group, i.e. true goodness in the surrounding world is also formed gradually. The simplest is trust in the words of a person.

This criterion already made it possible to distinguish between the goals of people and support some and not support others. But in the modern world of information wars and "double standards" (lies), it usually does not work. The next criterion is "believe not words, but deeds." With this criterion, the circle of people whom a person trusts is significantly reduced. But still, here, too, the criterion does not go beyond the scope of the observed, i.e. phenomena.

The next criterion is the correspondence of not only words, but also deeds to thoughts. Separate "good deeds" (for example, a gift for the holiday) do not yet indicate good intentions. And, finally, the last criterion is the correspondence of affairs not only to a conscious decision, but to one's own need for free will. This is how the “relative” truth of goodness moves and develops. The question arises, how can one find out what deeds or actions correspond to? This can only be judged by observing a person in different circumstances, comparing different deeds or actions, and the longer the observations and the more extreme the conditions in which actions are performed, the more reliable the conclusions can be.

At this stage, love, which accompanies a person all his life and brings him the highest joy and severe pain and torment, reaches its harmonious state, turning into a voluntary service, but no longer accompanied by insults and not expecting the same answer. A person at this stage cannot be offended. Spiritual evolution.

The development of a person does not end with stage 6, it continues throughout life and consists in maintaining the found thin border of the considered opposites and in increasing the scale of reality that he is able to embrace. Thus, the development of a person is, in essence, a way of completing the initial biological inclination with a sociocultural one, i.e. the formation of the socio-cultural nature of man.

Table 1, moving from stage to stage, shows the pattern of human development as a result of the dialectical development of the main factors:

• non-reflexive thinking - reflective thinking;
• free unconscious will - externally not free will - internally not free will - free conscious will;
• mastered ethical categories: good - truth - true good;
• instinct as a deposit - consciousness - a "complete" bio-complex of life preservation.

Table 1

The main question of philosophy - the primacy of matter or consciousness, is dialectically resolved in this concept in a developing person by the following triad: from the primacy of matter (i.e., the instinct of self-preservation and free will) at the biological stage to the primacy of consciousness (suppression of the biocomplex of self-preservation by consciousness and internally non-free will) at the reflexive stage and again to the primacy of matter, but already spiritualized (formed as a source of needs, a complete bio-complex of life preservation and free conscious will) at the spiritual stage.

All these chains are coils of a dialectical spiral into which any development is embedded.

How is the proposed concept related to known system concepts? Let's compare the proposed concept with the most fundamental concept of human development - Hegel's concept.

With a difference in the conceptual apparatus, the “genuine, moral way of thinking” of individuals, which is “knowledge of substance and the identity of all their interests with the whole,” Hegel coincides with the content of the concept of “collectivism” at a reflexive level, defined as awareness of oneself as part of a whole, generating behavior contributing to the preservation of this whole.

The main content of both concepts of human development is the promotion of a person to a moral state with free will and reflective thinking, which is equally understood in both concepts as: True freedom as morality is that the will has as its goals non-subjective, i.e. selfish, interests, but universal content. It would be absurd to exclude thinking from morality…”. The will of a natural, living person, striving for freedom, in the concept of Hegel receives this freedom (already, however, not a natural, but a rational person) at the final point of development. This coincides with the idea of ​​free will in the concept developed in this paper. This progress consists in the transition of the original egoistic will through its lack of freedom into a rational will and through this rational will, i.e. the will of the mind - to the "feeling soul", to the will of the feeling (sympathizing) and experiencing (empathizing), i.e. again a natural man, but with a new, mind-transformed nature.

But the differences are in the patterns of progress towards this state.

The main difference is in the absence of a transcendent spirit in the proposed concept, therefore, there are completely different reasons for ascent, namely: overcoming suffering caused by the desire of the will for freedom, the growth of contradictions of both internal factors, and the clash of internal factors and external ones.

Hegel's mind, the ascent to the absolute determines the development of man. The feelings of this person are vicious and must be overcome by reason. In the concept developed by us, the final point of the turn of development is in the triumph of a new nature, new feelings, coinciding with the requirements of the mind.

For Hegel, duty comes from the absolute idea. In our concept, obligation (non-freedom) comes from “external requirements” at the existential level and from “internal” requirements of reflexive thinking (coinciding with external ones in a humane society) - at the reflexive level. But in any case, not obligation, but the desire to remove it, the desire for free will as its law transfers a person from the existential to the reflective and further to the spiritual level. The duty, however, leads only to “entering into roles”, the fulfillment of which is required of him first by society (“social roles” at the existential level), and then by his own reflective thinking (at the reflective level). And, further, the desire to remove these roles (at the spiritual level) advances a person further, from the spiritual level to the level of spiritual vision. In Hegel, a person is brought only to the reflective level, his development as self-knowledge goes through reflective thinking, which “should be”. Stages when it is not yet formed and a person finds other ways of life in society (mastery of roles) are absent in Hegel. Therefore, we will not find in him an explanation of the modern man of the Postmodern. As well as there are no post-reflexive stages - spiritual and spiritual vision. But Hegel's rationalism was rejected.

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N.L. Rumyantseva, Factors and patterns of human development. Part 1. Patterns of human development // "Academy of Trinitarianism", M., El No. 77-6567, publ. 23705, 09/06/2017

"Regularities" of social development

The authors of statements about the regularity and recurrence of historical events tried to find some common characteristics in realities at different times (Hegel, Marx, Spengler, Toynbee), meaning the repetition in the main of the same phases, periods, etc., and trying to basis for predicting future events. The differences between the authors are more of a terminological nature and fundamentally do not change the point of view on the presence of repetition of periods of history.

Others come to the conclusion drawn by Bertrand Russell: ... Those generalizations (of the historical process) that have been proposed, excluding the sphere of economics,for the most part so unsubstantiated that they are not even worth refuting. Russell goes on to write: I appreciate history for the knowledge it gives about people in circumstances very different from our own, (it's) mostly not analytical scientific knowledge, but the kind of knowledge a dog lover has about his dog.

A similar view of the "philosophy of history" is expressed in the anniversary edition dedicated to the 50th anniversary of the Bakhmetiev Foundation. Discussing regularity and chance in history, Bakhmetiev cited his conversation with the famous historian of antiquity M.I. Rostovtsev. Rostovtsev spoke on the basis of his 50 years of experience in studying history: ... There is nothing inevitable about it. Most events are completely random.

Many understood sociocultural cyclicality as simply the alternation of ups and downs, flourishing and fading, acceleration and deceleration. The process is considered as two-phase. However, there is often a division of the cycle into a larger number of phases - from three to one and a half dozen. The duration of the studied cycles ranges from several years to several centuries. In his main work, The Decline of Europe, Oswald Spengler (1880-1936) identifies eight cultures in world history: Egyptian, Indian, Babylonian, Chinese, Greco-Roman, Byzantine-Arab, Maya and Western European. Each culture is treated as an organism isolated from other cultures. The lifetime of a culture is about a thousand years. Dying, culture is reborn into a "civilization", which no longer needs artistic creativity.

Under the influence of Spengler, the English historian and sociologist A.J. Toynbee (1889-1975) developed his concept of world history by referring to thirteen relatively closed civilizations. Each civilization in its development goes through four stages: emergence, growth, breakdown and decay. Toynbee tried to deduce the empirical laws of the recurrence of the phenomena of social development, while remaining extremely subjective in his assessments. Marx also spoke of a logical change in socio-economic formations, the highest stage of which should be communism. William Strauss and Neil Howe, authors of the popular bestsellers Generations and The Fourth Turn, published at the beginning of the 21st century, also devoted their books to the cyclical nature of history. According to their idea, 4 turns can be distinguished in history, which are constantly repeated one after another. In 2005, another cycle ends, called by the authors the "unraveling era" - it lasted 21 years, which is always marked by the death of established traditions and values, as well as changes leading to a crisis. The society will reap the fruits of these changes in the next 22-year cycle, which is called the “era of crisis”. This is a time of fierce wars and radical political changes, after which the peoples adopt a more traditional way of life and establish common values ​​that they will adhere to until the next “unraveling age”.

All this is nothing more than an “adjustment” to the desired result, and not a word is said about the reasons for the “cyclical nature of history”, except for the arguments about some kind of mystical “passionarity” of Lev Gumilyov.

Everything is easier. Under the "patterns" of the historical process they adjust the same, constantly noted contradictions between the expediency of the humane socialization of mankind and the real development of civilization, the stimulus of which is human egoism. The behavior of mankind is similar to the behavior of a child walking along a road that ends up in a dead end, but on the next attempt, the child does not choose a detour, but again the same road and, naturally, again runs into a dead end. Therefore, the idea of ​​the "laws of social development" can be explained by the fact that humanity is at an infant stage of development and is not able to realize that natural egoism cannot be the basis for the progressive development of society.

Just as an adult is not fully able to understand the causes and motives of a child’s behavior, voluntarily or involuntarily endowing him with his experience, so we, who live on the crest of human history that is constantly moving into the future, do not always understand that the behavior, actions and interpretation of events by our ancestors corresponded to the child’s period of mankind. The child does not yet have the wisdom and knowledge of an adult, and therefore, driven by the instinct of recognition and his imperfect understanding of the world around him, he repeats the same mistakes without realizing it. But these are only stages of recognition of the environment in which the "child" will live, as well as those real reasons that determined life in the prehistoric period. One religious figure, who listened to the confessions of parishioners all his life, when asked what he thinks about people in general, answered very briefly: there are no adults. Similar considerations - the "immaturity" of our ancestors and many contemporaries - we should be guided by in assessing the numerous phenomena, events and views on history (prehistory), characteristic of the childhood of mankind.

Sometimes "historical laws" are even credited with the meaning of laws in the natural scientific sense, which are objective, i.e. independent of the will of man. Under the same initial conditions, natural science laws determine the same behavior and state of the system. The laws of nature - whether we are talking about dynamic or statistical laws - have always been fulfilled, are being fulfilled and will always be fulfilled, regardless of whether a person exists at all. Obviously, when analyzing the behavior of a community of thinking beings, it is fundamentally impossible to talk about the "same" conditions - objects of wildlife endowed with consciousness have memory and content, determined by the previous experience of existence, and not just " condition". Therefore, in the history of mankind, i.e. in the history of the "system-society", there can be no analogues of reproducible and repetitive physical and chemical characteristics.

The illogicality also manifested itself in the fact that the assumption of “laws of social development” is equivalent to the assumption of the existence of a development program: only those types of behavior that are either programmed or are the result of the same motives or mistakes can be repeated. Motives and errors are a trivial case, hence programming. But then someone must be a "programmer" and the emergence of civilization and its future. This is already obvious religiosity, which has nothing to do with science.

Some historians are inclined to explain their models of regularities by the fact that they appear only on average, as a result, due to the invariance of the natural instincts of a person, which remain the same at different levels of technological development. Instincts, indeed, remain the same, but this has never interfered with their awareness and development of ever new rules of behavior and moral norms, i.e. the progress of society. There are no natural prohibitions for continuation this process - the development of new rules of conduct. The statement about the existence of "historical patterns" is equivalent to the statement that humanity suddenly loses the ability to change the rules of behavior! What a good "regularity" if it rests on such an assumption!

It follows from the foregoing that the regularity of the historical process is a myth that does not really correspond to any regularities. And it's good that this is a myth! If this were not so, then it would be pointless to think about a consciously constructed future. After all, humanity would then be doomed to follow the path determined by obscure laws, no matter what speculative pictures of the future we build. Breaking with this myth should demonstrate another lesson learned in the way of humanity's maturation.

If we return to general biological laws, then in all eras the primary biological instincts: reproduction, care for offspring, self-defense, hunger, were enduring and objective. But as soon as the presence of reason is included in the consideration, human behavior becomes unpredictable, arrhythmic and irregular. Thus, it is obvious that if a person is considered only from the point of view of instincts, i.e. biological nature, then his behavior is really, to a certain extent, predictable and will obey general biological laws. However, these will not be "historical patterns", but the rhythmic reproduction of the same stages of an animal's life, determined by innate instincts.

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The struggle of technology development. Development codes

v Law of acceleration of history : each subsequent stage of development takes less time than the previous one.

Each subsequent social stage is shorter than the previous one. The closer to the present, the faster society develops, the more compacted historical time (more events, technical inventions, scientific discoveries, etc.).

v Peoples and nations develop at different speeds .

In the modern world, regions and peoples coexist at different stages of development: pre-industrial, industrial or post-industrial. This is due to geographical, historical, political, religious and other reasons.

social change

v Evolution - these are gradual, continuous changes, passing one into another without jumps and breaks.

v Revolution - a complete change in all or most aspects of public life, a revolution in the social structure of society, a change in the social system.

Evolutionary the path of development of society is the path of reforms.

reforms - reorganization of any side of public life while maintaining the existing social order.

Reforms are usually carried out "from above", by the ruling forces.

Types of reforms:

v economic reforms (eg new tax system);

v political reforms (eg new electoral system);

v social reforms (eg introduction of universal secondary education).

Reforms can be progressive or regressive

In addition to socio-political revolutions, there are also technological revolutions:

v neolithic revolution (transition from appropriating forms of management - hunting and gathering - to producing - agriculture and cattle breeding; 10 thousand years ago);

v Industrial Revolution (transition from manual labor to machine, from manufactory to factory; XVIII - XIX centuries);

v Scientific and technological revolution - This is a leap in the development of the productive forces of society, based on the widespread use of scientific achievements in production.

v Globalization - the historical process of rapprochement of peoples and states, their mutual influence and interdependence, the transformation of mankind into a single political and socio-economic system.

Consequences of globalization.

Positive effects:

v Stimulates the economy, its growth and development (goods can now be crafted anywhere in the world depending on where it costs less to produce® production costs are reduced, additional funds for its development appear).

v Brings states together, makes them take into account each other's interests, warns against extreme actions in politics and economics (Otherwise, the international community may use various sanctions: restrict trade, stop aid, freeze the provision of credit, etc.).

v Standardizes production, technology (e.g. requirements for safety, quality, product compatibility).

Negative effects:

v Bankrupts small and medium producers (large firms have the opportunity to spend large amounts of money on advertising; the consumer seeks to buy a world-famous product, a well-known brand).

v Often hinders the development of domestic production (some enterprises do not have the means to comply with quality requirements, environmental safety, do not compete with foreign manufacturers that are either technologically advanced or subsidized by national authorities).

v Local problems in the economy of individual countries cause a global economic crisis.

v Depersonalizes national cultures, standardizes the way of life of people in different countries (Americanization, the imposition of Western values ​​and lifestyles on the whole world).

v Caused the emergence of global problems of mankind (more on that in the next lesson).

Anti-globalism- a political movement directed against certain aspects of the globalization process, in particular against the dominance of global transnational corporations and trade and government organizations such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). Anti-globalists regularly hold social forums and various protest actions in different countries of the world

World system.

At the global level, humanity is turning into a world system, which is also called the world community. It includes all countries of the planet.

It is customary to divide the world system into three parts:

v Nucleus - The countries of Western Europe, North America, Japan are the most powerful countries with an improved production system and a developed economy.

They have the most capital, high-quality goods, the most advanced technologies and means of production, and an efficient market infrastructure. They export sophisticated equipment, the latest technology.

v Periphery are the poorest and most backward countries in Africa and Latin America.

They are considered to be a raw material appendage of the core (they mainly export raw materials for industry, natural energy carriers, fruits). Most of the profits are appropriated by foreign capital. The local elite takes capital abroad and serves the interests of foreign companies. Huge gap between rich and poor, very narrow middle class. Political regimes are unstable, revolutions and social conflicts often occur.

v semi-periphery - sufficiently developed industrial countries, but they lack the political influence and economic power of the core countries (China, Brazil, Russia, India, etc.).

They produce and export industrial and agricultural goods. Production is mechanized and automated, but most technological advances are borrowed from the core countries. These are intensively developing countries (leaders in terms of economic growth rates). The market infrastructure is not yet sufficiently developed. Political regimes are stable.

The countries of the semi-periphery are seeking to strengthen their role in world politics and the economy, to match their economic potential with political influence, and to transform the unipolar world into a multipolar one.

Global problems.

Peculiarities global problems:

v have a planetary character, affect the interests of all people;

v threaten degradation and destruction of all mankind;

v need urgent solutions;

v require the collective efforts of all states.

Global problems:

● environmental crisis;

● demographic problem;

● the threat of a new world war;

● the North-South problem;

● international terrorism;

● energy, raw material problems;

● food problem;

● health protection, etc.

The reasons global problems:

● globalization of society (in the context of strengthening interconnection and interdependence of countries and regions, individual events, contradictions, conflicts outgrow the local framework and acquire a global character);

● active transformative activity of people, the inability of humanity to put it under reasonable control.

Environmental problems

v Atmospheric pollution.

Every year, industrial enterprises and transport emit more than 30 billion tons of carbon dioxide and other substances harmful to humans into the atmosphere. This destroys the ozone layer, which protects the Earth from the effects of harmful ultraviolet radiation, and leads to the accumulation of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, which poses a threat to global warming. The latter threatens with a "global flood", because. lead to the melting of glaciers and the rise in sea levels. Cities located on the coast or in the lowlands will be flooded

v Pollution of water bodies and the World Ocean (up to 10 million tons of crude oil and oil products get into it every year, which leads to the extinction of entire species of animals and plants).

v Depletion of natural resources (In the 50 years after the World War, more mineral raw materials were used than in the entire previous history; all the known reserves of oil, gas, and coal in the world will last less than 50 years).

v Deforestation (more than 20% of the Amazonian jungle has already been destroyed; in Russia, more than 180 million cubic meters of forest are cut down annually; in the world, deforestation is 18 times higher than its growth).

v Destruction of soil, desertification of territories (for this reason, 2 thousand species of plants and animals are on the verge of extinction, about 50 million people will leave their homes in the next decade to escape the desert).

v Pollution of the planet with waste, household waste (most of it cannot be disposed of or recycled; many countries do not have recycling technologies).

Ways out from the crisis:

v environmentally friendly production (development of technologies that reduce the negative impact on the nature of industry: waste-free production, closed cycles, development of resource-saving technologies, alternative energy sources, nature recovery industries, etc.);

v ecological expertise (organization of effective public control over enterprises);

v environmental education (change in consciousness and lifestyle of people; transition from aggressive consumerism to moderation, to the harmony of nature and society);

Modern science considers nature and society as a single system - Noosphere (this, according to Vernadsky, is the biosphere controlled by the scientific mind).

v Rapid population growth is provided by developing countries. This leads to an increase in poverty in these countries, food shortages, sharply exacerbates problems with housing, education, and health care.

v Declining and rapidly aging populations in developed countries. Already, the number of pensioners in some countries exceeds the working-age population. From the collapse of the social security system in European countries, so far, labor migration to the EU zone of immigrants from Asia and Africa is saving. But, on the other hand, it gives rise to a whole tangle of new social, ethno-confessional and other problems.

v Overpopulation of several countries of the world.

Regions of the highest population concentration: East Asia (east of China, Japan, Korea), South Asia (India, Bangladesh, Pakistan), Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand), Zap. Europe.

The share of developed countries in the world's population is just over 10%. At the same time, almost 90% of the world's population live in conditions of poverty, high unemployment, disease, social and political instability. A clear program of measures to help development from the rich North to the poor South is needed.

The North-South Problem.

With each decade, the trend is growing growth of the economic lag of developing countries from developed ones.

The ratio of developed and developing countries in terms of GNP per capita: in 1960 - 25:1, now - 40:1. But in addition to the income gap, the technology gap is widening. As a result, the problems of internal sources of financing for their own development have not been resolved in most developing countries. Developing countries owe the West over $1 trillion.

Annually approx. 50 million people the world is dying of hunger. More than 75% of the population in developing countries lives in unsanitary conditions. 1.5 billion people deprived of elementary honey. help. Child mortality is 4 times higher.

All global problems are closely related to developing countries

The problem of preserving the world.

v Statistics:

Ÿ of the 4 thousand years of history known to us, only approx. 300 were peaceful;

Ÿ today, for every person on the planet, only in the form of nuclear weapons, there are 10 tons of explosives; this number of weapons can destroy the Earth several dozen times;

Ÿ spending on armaments in the world today is approx. 1 trillion $ per year.

v The problem of nuclear war. If it starts, then all of humanity will perish: both those against whom it starts, and those who start it. The "nuclear winter" will come. That is why this problem is global.

v Modern warfare is a war against civilians.

The ratio between the number of dead civilians and the military:

Ÿ World War 1 - 20 times less;

Ÿ World War 2 - the same;

Ÿ War in Korea (1950-53) - 5 times more;

Ÿ The Vietnam War (1964-68) - 20 times more;

Ÿ Modern military conflicts (beginning of the 21st century) are 100 times more.

v The problem of local armed conflicts. The danger is that today's local conflicts can escalate into regional and even world wars.

v Solve the problem: rejection of war as a means of resolving conflicts, search for consensus, negotiations; recognition of the right of peoples to self-determination; improvement of the global collective security system, etc.

. International terrorism.

The breeding ground for the development of terrorism is extremism is a commitment to extreme, predominantly violent means to achieve goals.

Terrorism - Violence for the purpose of intimidation and achievement of certain political goals.

Causes of terrorism:

Socio-economic (low standard of living of people, unemployment; an increase in the number of lumpen and outcasts in society; terrorism today is a very profitable business, the trade in weapons, drugs, hostages allows you to make huge profits

v Political (political instability; lack of measures to ensure the security of the population; the eternal conflict between the West and the East).

v Religious (there are religious movements that promote violence. The most common of them is Wahhabism (a radical trend of Islam).

v Spiritual (crisis of modern society, distortion of legal and universal values).

Subjects terrorism: international and national terrorist organizations, as well as individual terrorists acting as executors of the decisions of these organizations (including the most dangerous of the perpetrators - suicide bombers

Means and methods terrorists:

v direct physical damage to life, health and restriction of freedom of people (murders, injuries to individuals; kidnappings and hostage-taking);

destructive effect on various material objects (explosions, arson, destruction of industrial enterprises, life support facilities for the population, energy facilities, communications; terrorist attacks using aircraft

v biological and chemical terrorism (eg, through the water supply system, through the subway, etc.);

v psychological terror (open or anonymous threats against state and public figures, their relatives);

v electronic terrorism (hacker attacks on the servers of state institutions, banks, payment and exchange systems).

Difficulties in the fight against network terrorism are that terrorist structures:

v do not have a clear geographical location (a single base zone, their funding sources are in different countries);

v have no formal structure (they are decentralized, devoid of vertical hierarchical connections);

v have some social support (as fighters for freedom and justice; in some countries this social base is very wide);

v do not bear any responsibility (neither to the population of certain countries, nor to its ordinary members);

v are not limited in the choice of goals and means (there are no moral or legal constraints).

Ways to fight terrorism:

v close coordination of actions of different countries in the fight against terror (combining the efforts of governments, state security and intelligence services, police and army structures);

v depriving terrorism of its financial base;

v the use of harsh force methods, up to the physical destruction of terrorists;

v never make concessions to terrorists (fulfillment of the terrorists' demands gives rise to new terrorist acts);

narrowing the social base of terrorism (on the one hand, by anti-terrorist propaganda, on the other hand, by political methods, solving problems that push people to fight