The development of the language does not occur without lexical borrowings, which are an integral part of the replenishment of the lexical composition of the language. This process has always attracted the attention of linguists. In the second half of the twentieth century, a large number of words of foreign origin began to penetrate into the Russian language, which contributed to the development of research in this direction. Many works appeared that covered the issues of lexical borrowings. Among the authors, L.P. Krysina, A.A. Leontiev, N.M. Shansky, E.F. Volodarskaya, V.M. Aristova and others.

When a foreign word enters the system of the receiving language, borrowing goes through several stages: the transfer of the word by phonetic and grammatical means of the borrowing language; grammatical development; semantic development. The entry of a foreign word into a borrowing language is a multifaceted process.

Foreign borrowings from the point of view of morphological integration acquire a twofold character. The borrowed word either follows the path of inheriting the grammatical principles of the receiving language or follows the requirements of the source language, which makes it an exception in the borrowing language. A borrowed word is considered grammatically mastered when it obeys the rules of the borrowing language, that is, it obeys the structure of the language, which includes "a system of morphological categories and forms, syntactic categories and constructions, and methods of word production".

Following M.V. Oreshkina, by morphological development we mean “correlation of borrowed words with lexico-grammatical categories and norms of the grammatical system” of the borrowing language.

Features of the grammatical structure of the Russian language predetermine the course of changes that occur with English borrowing. When entering the Russian language, the most noticeable changes are in the categories of number, gender, case.

English-speaking units in Russian quickly get formal grammatical features. Vocabulary analytical language is not equipped with markers of grammatical categories that would have to be discarded when borrowing into the inflectional Russian language. Some words are borrowed without taking on forms of inflection, so, for example, there may be a category indeclinable nouns (PR, talk show, luxury).

English-language nouns acquire the category of gender in Russian, which arises on the basis of natural gender or the grammatical principle of the Russian language, or depends on the gender of the equivalent in Russian. English word school with the advent in Russian acquires feminine, for example: Milner even wrote a book about his bad experience, andHarvard business schooldeveloped a special case for this episode. According to R.S. Kimyagarova, “the assignment of inanimate borrowed nouns to some other gender is explained by two reasons: 1) the word tends to preserve the gender of the source language; 2) the word acquires a gender in the receiving environment depending on the absolute end of the word. In this example, the English word takes on the feminine gender of the Russian equivalent.

Exploring the problem of gender expression in borrowed nouns in Russian, A. B. Superanskaya divides all borrowings into two categories:

a) words with a morphologically expressed gender, “by the form of which one can immediately and unmistakably determine to which gender they belong” (ending in a hard consonant and -a);

b) words with a morphologically unexpressed gender, "the appearance of which, without knowing their lexical affiliation or subject correlation, does not give any indication of their gender" (ending in a soft consonant and a vowel).

The formal criterion takes into account the appearance of the English borrowing: shortlist, headhunter, oil trading are masculine nouns because they end in a consonant. Borrowings ending in -а, -я and a soft consonant in Russian feminine and endings in -е, -о, -у, -and refer the English element to the middle gender ( polo, interview) .

The category of number is expressed if the word is grammatically mastered, cf.: It was planned to build about 400 housing units on the territory of the microdistrict: in factory buildings - lofts, in new buildings - luxury apartments. Translated from of English language loft means ‘1) a space under the roof of a building, often used for storing things; 2) the upper floor in a farm building used for storing hay: 3) an upper floor built out from the wall in a church, where the organ is often found; 4) an upper floor in a factory or similar building that has been made into flats’ (hereinafter, our translation is V.O. - 1) the space under the roof of the building where things are stored; 2) the top floor of an agricultural building where hay is stored; 3) the top floor in the church, where the organ is located; 4) the top floor of a factory or similar building that has been converted into apartments). We have recorded cases of changing the category of the case, for example: Now topic lofts very popular, but not everyone succeeds. Thus, this English word has been mastered by the Russian language, that is, it is inclined in accordance with the rules of the Russian language.

If the word is indeclinable, then the category of number is expressed syntactically, cf.: Even at the beginning of President Ronald Reagan's reforms, 10-yearUST — bills gave over 12%…. As you know, in English the plural of nouns is expressed by adding the ending to the word plural–s / –es. In this example, the English word UST— bills, which means treasury bills - US Treasury bills - has retained the Latin spelling and therefore the category of number is reflected in agreement with the adjective and verb.

Even when in English the word is used in the singular, the sentence is agreed upon in the plural, cf .: Apple (company) got it first, and today'siPhone andiPad are in some way the gadgets of the future - the ones that our children will use instead of computers. Even though the words iPhone and iPad recorded by graphics foreign language and not assimilated at the graphic level, the host language recognizes the plural category. Such use is accompanied by the appearance of a tinge of collectiveness at the semantic level. About the semantic processes of the formation of plural forms, which are based on the mental and logical meanings of plurality and depend on the nature of the denotation, is written in the works of A.A. Potebni, V.V. Vinogradov and others.

Adjectives are also assimilated, cf .: The Starbucks coffee shop opposite has turned into a mobile office for several recruiting offices. Adjectives in the function of definition acquire endings and decline according to the rules of the Russian language.

Verbs and adjectives receive the corresponding completion in Russian. So, nouns device, gadget, headhunter) and adjectives ( affiliated, captive), borrowed from English into Russian, acquire grammatical categories gender, number and declension. Verbs ( friend, hedge) acquire the categories of person, conjugation and aspect. If borrowed words in Russian are not declined, then they are not fully assimilated by its language system.

Grammatical mastering also implies the elimination of the possible variability that exists in this aspect of adaptation. About the causes of grammatical variation in nouns, A. V. Superanskaya writes as follows: “Often, borrowed words experience fluctuations in gender, which can be combined with fluctuations in forms and can occur independently of the latter)”.

We analyzed 256 English borrowed lexemes (their phraseological paradigms and derivatives) and found that most of the borrowings are nouns (197 units, 77%), which emphasizes the substantive nature of the Russian language ( bayer, friend, performance, eycher, coach). In Russian, constructions with nouns prevail, so the vocabulary of this particular category is more often borrowed.

Abbreviations are common (20 units. 8%), they are very productive, save space in the sentence ( EDLP, base, OLAF, IHSBM, CEO). Entire phrases are borrowed (18 units, 7%), mostly these are foreign-language inclusions that are occasional in nature ( must have, self— made man, under pressure). Adjectives (15 units, 6%) are formed after the penetration of a foreign noun ( development, secular, post-secular, affiliated). The fewest were verbs (5 units, 2%), which were also more likely formed from assimilated nouns ( diversify, hedge). Thus, we can conclude that among the newest English-language borrowings, most of all nouns fall into the Russian language.

The analysis of the above examples shows the place of English-language borrowings in the morphological system of the Russian language and their functioning during morphological development. It should be noted that the frequency of using a word affects its stabilization in the system of the recipient language. Thus, the more a word is used, the faster its gender, case, etc. stabilizes, which allows it to approach the norms of the host language and fully assimilate.

Literature

1. Kimyagarova, R.S. Types and types of adaptations of borrowed vocabulary in the Russian language of modern times (XVIII-XX centuries) // Moscow University Bulletin. Series 9: Philology. - M., 1989. No. 6. - p. 69-78
2. LES: Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / Ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. - M .: "Soviet Encyclopedia", 1990. - 683 p.
3. Oreshkina, M.V. Turkic words in modern Russian: Problems of development / M.V. Oreshkin. - M., 1994. - 160 p.
4. Superanskaya, A.B. Gender of borrowed nouns in modern Russian // Questions of the culture of speech. Issue 6. - M., 1965. S. 44-58.
5. MacMillan English Dictionary, London, 2006, p.1692
6. Rosikova Alena. English borrowings and their adaptation in Russian. (According to the materials of the Russian press, aimed at representatives of the middle class Russian Federation). Diss. Masarykova univerzita v Brne 2011 p.237
7. Expert No. 17, 2006
8. Expert No. 2, 2012
9. Cosmopolitan #1, 2013
10. Forbes #1, 2013
11. National Corpus of the Russian Language - [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.ruscorpora.ru/
12. Electronic dictionary - [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://dic.academic.ru/.

    MORPHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF A BORROWED WORD (BY THE EXAMPLE OF ENGLISH BORROWINGS)

    Written by: Tinakina Victoria Olegovna

1) changes phonetic appearance of the word; the phonetic mastering of borrowings by the Russian language is also manifested in stress change in them. Wed stress English words abstract [ǽbstræct] ballast, bedlam and anglicisms abstract, ballast, bedlam In russian language.

2) graphic development borrowings

3) orthographic development- adaptation of foreign words to the spelling system of the Russian language. Examples of unstable orthographic forms: the first part compound words audio(from lat. audio- I hear) should be written and written in accordance with the rules together (audio album, audio cassette, audio player), but with an adjective audiovisual in " explanatory dictionary of the Russian language of the end of the 20th century" is indicated as a valid doublet of the word audiovisual. The words business suit, business club, business lunch, but the noun businesswoman; label and label; price list and price list.

4) changes and morphological shape of the word: suffixes and endings are Russified, grammatical categories are changed.

5) occur changes in meaning borrowed word, usually in the borrowing language the word retains not all, but only some of the meanings.

A peculiar form of borrowing is tracing - literal translation (copying) of someone else's word. In this case, it is not the sound shell of someone else's word that is borrowed, but its morphological structure and semantic motivation. In this case, the words are, as it were, translated in parts: each meaningful part of a foreign word is replaced by a morpheme that is available in the Russian language. For example, the German selbstbildung is tracing as self-education(from selbst - self, bildung - education), French from Latin disposition - like location(dis - times, position - position, position).

Types of cripples:

Derivational tracing paper a word is called, formed by means of a literal translation into Russian of each of the significant parts (prefix, root, suffix, etc.). For example, the French subdivision - subdivision, where sub is under, root divis – chapter and suffix –ion- - - enenie, the words interjection(lat. inter +jectio), adverb(lat. ad+ verbium), spelling(gr. ōrthos +graphō) etc.

Semantic tracing paper words are called in which the meaning is borrowed. For example, Russian touch meant “to touch something” (to touch with a hand, finger, etc.), the French verb has the same meaning toucher, but the latter, moreover, means "to arouse sympathy." Under the influence French a new secondary meaning has also developed in the Russian verb (cf.: he was touched by these words). Semantic tracing paper is possible only when the direct meanings of the word coincide. Semantic tracing papers are the following meanings of words: nail(fr. word clou) in the meaning of "the main lure of a theatrical performance, program" in combination the highlight of the program, the highlight of the exhibition, the highlight of the season; refined, refined(fr. raffine); word usage duck in the meaning of "false rumor" became possible due to the influence of the French canard, which has like direct meaning (« duck”), and figuratively.

In the original vocabulary of the Russian language in different historical periods of its development, many words from related Slavic languages.

Words borrowed from different time from Slavic languages ​​are called Slavisms.

One of the earliest who played a significant role in the subsequent formation and development of the Russian literary language were borrowings from the Old Slavonic language, i.e. Old Slavonicisms.

Old Slavonic is one of the Slavic languages, which, starting from the 11th century. was used as a literary written language for the translation of Greek liturgical books and the introduction of the Christian religion in Slavic countries (for example, in Moravia, Bulgaria, Serbia, in Ancient Russia). The ancient Bulgarian enlighteners Constantine (Cyril) and Methodius introduced into the composition of the Old Slavonic language elements from other living Slavic languages ​​​​of that time known to them, as well as from non-Slavic languages, for example, from Greek, which reflected the highly developed tradition of Byzantine culture of previous eras.

Modern researchers note that it was a “sacred” language, i.e. normalized, functionally different from the popular spoken language. Like any literary language, it was to a certain extent artificial and in the Middle Ages was a kind of “Slavic Latin” , opposed to Latin itself - Latin, which was worshiped in many European countries, including in some Slavic (for example, Moravia).

The Old Church Slavonic language, which was used from the very beginning as the language of the church, is also called Church Slavonic (or Old Church Bulgarian). In some countries, it took on local features of different Slavic languages ​​and was used in this form outside of liturgical texts, in works of ancient Slavic literature, including Old Russian.

In Russia, the Old Church Slavonic language became especially widespread at the end of the 10th century, after the adoption of Christianity. The boundaries of the use of this language (or rather its Church Slavonic version) gradually expanded. He was influenced by the original Russian language. In the monuments of Old Russian writing (especially in the chronicles), cases of mixing of Old Slavonic and Russian languages ​​are not uncommon. This testified to the fact that Old Slavonicisms were not alien borrowings, and many of them were firmly established in the Russian language as related.

For example, church terms came from the Old Slavonic language to Russian: priest, cross, rod, sacrifice and etc.; many words denoting abstract concepts: power, grace, consent, universe, impotence, wandering, disaster, virtue and etc.

Old Slavonicisms borrowed by the Russian language are not all the same: some of them are Old Slavonic variants of words that still existed in the common Slavic language (smooth, enemy and etc.); others are proper Old Church Slavonic (lanites, mouth, percy, lamb etc.), and the original Russian words, synonymous with them, are different in their phonetic structure (cheeks, lips, breasts, lamb). Finally, the so-called semantic Old Slavonicisms stand out, i.e. words according to the time of their appearance are common Slavic, however, they received a special meaning precisely in the Old Slavonic language and with this meaning became part of the Russian vocabulary (sin, lord etc.).

A significant number of words of Old Slavonic origin have phonetic (sound) and morphological (word-forming) features.

To phonetic features relate:

1. Dissonant combinations -la-, -le-, -pa-, -re in the roots of words that correspond to full-vowel combinations in Russian words of the same root - olo-, -barely-, -oro-, -ere-: own, helmet, abuse, woody(Russian parish, stun, defense, wooden).

Note. If the words containing -la-, -le-, -ra-, -re- no single root matches with -olo-, -barely-, -oro-, -ere-, then such words are not Old Slavonicisms. belong to native Russian brother, truth, glory, trace etc. Borrowed from Western European languages breaststroke, coach, flute and etc.

2. Initial la-, ra- before consonants (which in Russian words correspond lo-, ro-): rook, slave, equal, different(Russian boat, smooth, Ukrainian grain grower, retail).

Note. If there is no such match, then the word with the initial la-, ra- not Old Slavism (as varnish, lama, refined sugar, rasp etc.).

3. Sound SCH at the root, which alternated with t, gt or kt common Slavic word (such sch in primordially Russian words there corresponded the sound h): power, day and nightly, general, society, nechera, absorb(Russian be able, night, common, common, Kiev-Pechersk laurel, swallow).

Note. Not of Old Slavic origin boardwalk, square, grove, drag etc., in which sch alternates with sk or with cm (grove).

4. Combination railway at the root of the word, which in single-root (originally Russian) words corresponds to g: leader, hope, plant, need, clothing, give birth, alien(Russian leader, reliable, plant, necessary, clothes, give birth, alien).

5. Initial e - (in native Russian o-): single, unit, lake(Russian one, lonely, lake); initial Yu - (in Russian y-): young, south, holy fool,(Russian dull, supper, freak); initial a - (in Russian ja-, graphically -i-): lamb, az(Russian lamb, ide, from which modern I) etc.

6. Sound e under stress before hard consonants in place of Russian yo: sky, finger(in Russian palate, thimble)

To morphological signs include:

1. Attachments pre-, pre-, through- containing non-vowel combinations: barrier, betray, limit, transgress(law); foresee, foresee, foresee; extraordinary, excessive; prefixes air-/vos-, bottom-/low-, out-/is- (this prefix corresponds in meaning to the East Slavic prefix you-): elevate, repay, soar, forbid, east, delight; to overthrow, to bring down, to fall down, to send down; choose, publish, pour out, drink, exodus.

2. Noun suffixes -zn, -stvi(e), -ne(e), -ti(e): illness, fear, life, execution; disaster, action, consequence; command, giving, repentance, creation; inspiration, living etc. In Russian, Old Church Slavonic suffixes -ne(e), -ti(e) correspond -n (e), t (e): sleeping, living, ironing, wooing.

3. Participle forms with suffixes -asch-/-box-, -usch-/-yushch-:burning, lying, standing, flowing, floating(in Russian participles, the indicated suffixes corresponded to -ach-/-yach-, -uch-/-uch-, cf. modern adjectives hot, recumbent, standing, fluid).

4. The first parts of compound words good-, god-, good-, worthy-, vanity-: beneficence, well-being, favor, bless; theologian, theologian; virtue, well-wisher; superstition, gossip etc.

Old Slavonicisms gave the Russian language many names abstract concepts(meaning also those words of Old Slavonic origin that developed abstract meanings already on Russian soil): burden, power, attraction, attention, delight, truth, outcome, quality, touch, victory, claim, debauchery, temptation, conscience, fatherland, mercy, dream and etc.

Borrowing this or that word, the Russian language rarely leaves it in the form in which it existed in the source language. This is due to the difference in sound structure, grammar, semantics between languages. For this reason, when borrowing, words change their appearance, adapt to the laws of the Russian language, and begin to live according to its norms. The adaptation of words (mastering) begins, first of all, with a change in its graphic appearance. Graphic development - ϶ᴛᴏ the transfer of a foreign word in writing by means of the Russian alphabet͵ since most Western European languages ​​are based on the Latin alphabet, and the Russian language is on the Cyrillic alphabet. For example, English. meeting - Russian rally; German. Grossmeister is a grandmaster.
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Some words and expressions retain their former appearance: tet-a-tet, veni, vidi, vici.

Phonetic development is a change in the sound composition of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions. Phonetic development is manifested regularly, naturally, because. the articulation base of the languages ​​is different. Vowels, alien to the Russian language, can be transmitted in different ways. For example, English. trust - rus. trust, German. Hulsa - Russian. sleeve. Diphthongs are not characteristic of the Russian language, in connection with this they are also converted: lat. auqūstus - Russian. August, lat. auditorium – Russian the audience. Adapting to the phonetic conditions of the Russian language, foreign words undergo reduction, stunning at the end and in the middle of the word. When mastered, the stress may also change: lat. kathedra - Russian department, english standard - Russian standard, lat. auditor - auditor.

Morphological development is the adaptation of a word to the grammatical system of the Russian language. Nouns during development are subject to the declension system, with the exception of indeclinable nouns. Foreign inflections, as a rule, are cut off or replaced by Russian ones, or become part of the base. For example, gradus is a degree, metallum is a metal. When borrowing, a change in gender is possible, since in other languages ​​the category of gender is not grammatically relevant, but is determined on a semantic basis: all inanimate nouns are assigned to the middle gender. In lat. language na-um belonged to the neuter gender, and in Russian - to the masculine: aquarium, forum, council. In Greek noun in –a were neuter, and in Russian they became feminine: theme. axiom problem. Greek the words scarlet, asphalt, analysis were feminine. There are also changes in the number: for example, a German. curl, valve, eng. coconut, cake, Greek silo were noun. pl. numbers. When mastering, there is a change in part-speech affiliation. So, for example, major (fr.), plenum (lat), piano (fr.), nocturne (fr.
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ʼʼnightʼʼ), candidate (lat. ʼʼdressed in whiteʼʼ) were adjectives, credo (lat. ʼʼI believeʼʼ) was a verb, quorum (lat.) was a pronoun. Due to the specifics of the Russian verb, as a rule, only the basis and the idea of ​​​​action are borrowed, and it is already formed according to the model of the Russian language: lieben - to love, gehen - to go.

Mastering is a long process, in connection with this, some words retain the features of the original language, while creating an accent. In the process of borrowing, changes also occur in the semantics of words. The meaning of words can narrow or expand. In most cases, the word is borrowed in some specific meaning, in connection with this, its semantics becomes narrower. For example, the French word la poudre had the meanings - ʼʼdust, powder, gunpowderʼʼ, and was borrowed in the meaning of ʼʼpowder for cosmetic purposesʼʼ, lat. globus (ʼʼballʼʼ) acquired the meaning ʼʼmodel the globeʼʼ. An example of the expansion of semantics can be the words: greenhouse (from fr.
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ʼʼgreenhouse for growing orangesʼʼ), ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ has a meaning in Russian ʼʼany greenhouseʼʼ, the word room had in Italian. language meaning ʼʼa room with a fireplaceʼʼ, in Russian. - any room in a residential building, holidays in lat. denoted the period from June 22 to August 23͵ when the Sun was in the constellation Dog, in Russian the word holidays means ʼʼa break in classesʼʼ. Semantics can also change to a greater extent: Gr. the diploma literally meant ʼʼa sheet folded in halfʼʼ, in Russian - ʼʼdocumentʼʼ, lat entrant - ʼʼthe one who is going to leaveʼʼ, in Russian - ʼʼthe one who entersʼʼ. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, when a foreign word enters the Russian language, it must obey its rules and laws.

6. Tracing - a special type of borrowing

Tracing is called an ʼʼecologically cleanʼʼ method of borrowing, since it allows, without destroying the integrity of the perception of the Russian lexical system, to expand its capabilities. Kalki (fr.
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calgue - ʼʼcopy, imitationʼʼ) - words formed on the model of a foreign word. Tracing papers are less studied for several reasons:

1) there are relatively fewer cripples than borrowings;

2) tracing papers are difficult to distinguish, since the criteria by which a particular word or combination should be recognized as the result of tracing are not clear.

There are several types of calques: derivational calques, semantic calques and semi-calques.

Derivational tracing paper is created by translating each morpheme of a foreign word: consonance - gr.
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simphonia; proto-language - German. Urspache; peninsula - Halbinsel, adverb - lat. Adverbum, television - television - half-calculus (one of the parts without translation).

Semantic tracing paper is a word with a new figurative meaning that arose under the influence of the semantics of a foreign word: shadow ʼʼillegal, not in powerʼʼ (English) - shadow business, shadow economy; format ʼʼcharacter, appearance, formʼʼ - English. The meeting was held in an updated format; high ʼʼbest, eliteʼʼ (English) - high fashion, high tech, to shock ʼʼto shock, to amazeʼʼ (English) - N. Mikhalkov's new film shocked the jury. Linguists note that the ratio of types of cripples in different periods language development is not the same. If in the XIX - XX centuries. derivational tracing papers prevailed: superman, prime cost (German), binder (German), employer, skyscraper (English); semantic calques are noted - the highlight of the program (under the influence of French), the platform ʼʼa set of principles of a political partyʼʼ - under the influence of German, then in the Russian language of our days semantic calques prevail, and their main source is English.

Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed object, phenomenon or concept), many foreign words were subjected to phonetic, morphological and semantic changes.

For example, double vowels еi, аи in Russian are most often transmitted as av and ev: eucalyptus (gr. eukalyptos), car (German: Automobil), etc.

Morphological changes primarily include changes in endings, in some suffixes, as well as changes in grammatical gender. So, foreign-language endings, as a rule, are replaced by Russian ones: decoration (from French decoration), extravaganza (from French feerie). Foreign suffixes that are not common in Russian are replaced by more common ones (sometimes also foreign ones): harmonic (from Gr. hannonikos), generation (from Lat. generatio), march (from German marschieren), etc.

Sometimes the gender of borrowed nouns changes: tie (German das Halstuch - neuter), parliament (German das Parlament - neuter), skittles (German derKegel - masculine), bowling alley (German die Kegelbahn - feminine), font (German die Schrift - feminine).

Often in the Russian language, the original meaning of words is also subject to change: German. der Maler - the painter received a new meaning - "painter", i.e. worker painting buildings, interiors, etc.; fr. hasard (excitement) - the case received the meaning of "passion, passion, ardor"; French adventure (adventure, adventure, adventure), dating back to lat. adventura - an accident, used in the meaning of "doubtful event, business", etc.

However, not all borrowed words are reformulated. It is not uncommon for foreign words to penetrate in their original form, for example: genesis (Greek genesis - genus, origin), duel (French duel), dunes (German Düne), palm tree (Latin palma), etc.

In addition to the actual borrowings, the so-called tracing is possible (French caique - a word or expression modeled on the corresponding units of a foreign language).

Tracing papers are: a) derivational, created by copying a foreign language method. They arise through a literal translation into Russian of individual meaningful parts of a word (prefixes, roots, etc.). For example, calques from Latin and Greek are: interjection (lat. Inter + jectio), adverb (lat. ad + verbium), spelling (gr. Orthos + graph), etc .; b) semantic, in which the meaning is borrowed. For example, touch (fr. toucher) in the meaning of “cause sympathy”, a nail (fr. le clou) in combination with a program nail, etc.

Derivational calques are known from Greek, Latin, German, French words, semantic calques - from French words.

In addition to complete lexical (word-forming and semantic) cripples, the Russian language also has semi-calculations, i.e. words in which, along with borrowed parts, there are also native Russian ones. According to the word-formation composition, these words are a copy of foreign words. Semicalcs include, for example, the word humanity (Russian suffix -ost).

The functional and stylistic role of foreign borrowed words is very diverse. Firstly, all the words of this group performed from the very beginning the main nominative function, since they were borrowed together with a certain (most often new) concept. They replenished the terminological systems, were also used as exoticisms (gr. exōtikos - foreign) in the description of national features, to create local flavor. However, it is not uncommon to use them for certain stylistic purposes. The appropriateness of their inclusion in Russian texts of different styles should be carefully considered each time, since the abuse of foreign vocabulary leads to the fact that even texts designed for a wide range of readers or listeners may become partially incomprehensible and will not achieve their goal.

Borrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language

5. Mastering loanwords

Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed object, phenomenon or concept), many foreign words underwent changes in phonetic, morphological, semantic nature.

For example, double vowels еi, аи in Russian are most often transmitted as av and ev: eucalyptus (gr. eukalyptos), car (German: Automobil), etc.

Morphological changes primarily include changes in endings, in some suffixes, as well as changes in grammatical gender.

So, foreign-language endings, as a rule, are replaced by Russian ones: decoration (from French decoration), extravaganza (from French feerie). Foreign suffixes that are not common in Russian are replaced by more common ones (sometimes also foreign ones): harmonic (from Gr. hannonikos), generation (from Lat. generatio), march (from German marschieren), etc.

Sometimes the gender of borrowed nouns changes: tie (German das Halstuch - neuter), parliament (German das Parlament - neuter), skittle (German der Kegel - masculine), bowling alley (German die Kegelbahn - feminine) , font (German die Schrift - feminine).

Often in the Russian language the original meaning of words is also changed:

German der Maler - the painter received a new meaning - "painter", i.e. worker painting buildings, interiors, etc.;

Fr. hasard (excitement)? the case received the meaning "passion, passion, ardor";

Franz. adventure (adventure, adventure, adventure), dating back to lat. adventure? accident, used in the meaning of "doubtful event, business", etc.

However, not all borrowed words are reformulated. It is not uncommon for foreign words to penetrate in their original form, for example: genesis (Greek genesis - genus, origin), duel (French duel), dunes (German Düne), palm tree (Latin palma), etc.

In addition to the actual borrowings, the so-called tracing is possible (French caique - a word or expression modeled on the corresponding units of a foreign language).

Kalki are:

a) derivational, created by copying a foreign language method. They arise through a literal translation into Russian of individual meaningful parts of a word (prefixes, roots, etc.). For example, tracing papers from Latin and Greek are: interjection (lat. Inter + jectio), adverb (lat. ad + verbium), spelling (gr. Orthos + graph), etc .;

b) semantic, in which the meaning is borrowed. For example, touch (fr. toucher) in the meaning of “cause sympathy”, a nail (fr. le clou) in combination with a program nail, etc.

Derivational calques are known from Greek, Latin, German, French words, semantic calques - from French words. In addition to complete lexical (word-forming and semantic) cripples, the Russian language also has semi-calculations, i.e. words in which, along with borrowed parts, there are also native Russian ones. According to the word-formation composition, these words are a copy of foreign words. Semicalcs include, for example, the word humanity (Russian suffix -ost).

The functional and stylistic role of foreign borrowed words is very diverse. Firstly, all the words of this group performed from the very beginning the main nominative function, since they were borrowed together with a certain (most often new) concept. They replenished the terminological systems, were also used as exoticisms (gr. exftikos - foreign) in the description of national features, to create local flavor. However, it is not uncommon to use them for certain stylistic purposes. The appropriateness of their inclusion in Russian texts of different styles should be carefully considered each time, since the abuse of foreign vocabulary leads to the fact that even texts designed for a wide range of readers or listeners may become partially incomprehensible and will not achieve their goal.

English borrowings in modern Russian (on the example of the media)

The development of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras reflects the history of our people. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language...

Many new words come from other languages. They are called differently, most often - borrowings. The introduction of foreign words is determined by the contacts of peoples, which makes it necessary to name (nominate) new objects and concepts...

Entry of foreign words into Russian vocabulary

A pronounced tendency to borrow English-language terminology of the hospitality industry on the example of the developing hotel business in Russia

Foreign words differ in the degree of their mastery in the language. Borrowed words are those that differ in the following features: 1. Graphic mastery. 2. Phonetic mastery. 3. Grammar development. four...

Borrowings in Russian

There are various ways of penetration of borrowings. There are the following types: Borrowing orally through conversational communication. Words borrowed in this way are easier to assimilate and master ...

Borrowed vocabulary in the newspaper and problems of speech culture

Most borrowings are fully adapted, assimilated into speech: they change grammatically, correspond in pronunciation, etc...

Borrowed words in the vocabulary of the Russian language

The word "electorate" will enter the Russian language for a long time, as this is a very capacious concept, it corresponds to the situation in the country, because elections are an integral part of our life. There will be elections, there will be candidates, there will be an electorate. Of course I would like...

The development of foreign words is understood as the adaptation of foreign words to Russian graphic and language norms. In the Russian language, there are the following types of development: graphic, phonetic, morphological development ...

The use of foreign words in Russian

Orthoepy is a set of norms of the literary language associated with the sound design of significant units: morphemes, words, sentences. Among these norms, pronunciation norms differ ...

The study of the functions of borrowing socio-political vocabulary in the Russian language of recent times

borrowing vocabulary social political Foreign words, getting into our language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection ...

The distribution by gender of the bulk of nouns is made according to their morphological features, primarily according to the structure of the nominative case, namely: nouns with a stem on a hard consonant (with the exception of hissing ones) ...

Russian language stylistic borrowing A scientific approach to the stylistic assessment of the use of borrowed words in different texts requires taking into account all the features of the vocabulary of foreign sources: the degree of mastering it by the Russian language ...

New phenomena in the Russian language, 1990-2000

The unjustified introduction of borrowed words into the text causes great damage artistic speech. Speech becomes discolored if bookish, inexpressive words are preferred to diverse and vivid Russian synonyms. For example...

Norms of pronunciation of words of foreign origin

In Russian literary language, as in any literary language with a long history, there is a considerable number of words of foreign origin, often inaccurately called "foreign words" ...

Accuracy and clarity of speech

You can often hear that foreign words“clog” the Russian language and therefore they need to be “fighted”. Indeed, in colloquial speech we often use "fashionable" foreign words out of place. The language of advertising is flooded with Americanisms...