The subject of morphology. Stages of development of morphology as a science. The concept of a grammatical word, grammatical meaning, morphological paradigm, word form. (WE ACTIVELY PRAY TO THE GODS THAT THIS IS TO ARINA AND NOT TO US)

Morphology translated from Greek literally means "the doctrine of form". This is the section of grammar that studies grammatical properties of a word. Since morphology is inextricably linked with grammatical meanings and categories, it is part of grammar. The term "inflection" is often used as a synonym for the term "morphology".

The well-known linguist V.V. Vinogradov called morphology the grammatical doctrine of the word.

A word as a grammatical unit is a set of word forms with a single lexical and categorical grammatical meaning. In the text, it appears in a specific word form. Yes, the word book has 12 word forms: 6 case forms of the singular and 6 case forms plural. In the examples I was given an interesting book and I was given interesting books the selected word forms differ in particular grammatical meanings - unit values. and many others. numbers, while the word book preserves both the lexical and categorical grammatical meaning of the subject. lexeme is a representative of a group of specific word forms that have an identical lexical meaning. The whole set of word forms included in this lexeme is called paradigm.

When producing a text, constructing an utterance, it is very important to choose the form of the word that is most optimal for expressing a certain meaning. To do this, you need to know the rules of inflection of different parts of speech, the features of the functioning of grammatical forms, to have an idea about the semantic potential of grammatical categories of different parts of speech.

That's why subject of morphology is the doctrine of parts of speech(grammatical classes of words),their morphological categories(gender, number, case, species, mood, tense, person, pledge),vocabulary system.

Morphology tasks.

Determine the principles of combining word forms into a lexeme.

Determine which part of the meaning of word forms is grammatical.

establish the list and nature of grammatical categories,

correlate them with the characteristics of the objective reality reflected in the language,

· establish a set of formal tools involved in the creation of grammatical categories. (SRYa under the editorship of Beloshapkova, 1981)

Aspects of studying morphology:

Proper grammatical or system-structural approach (in different academic grammars) -> Full description grammatical structure of the language.

· Contrastive - the study of grammar in comparison with other languages.

· Normative approach - creation of various dictionaries, norms, changes in grammar. Sociolinguistic research. Gram options in various fields life.

· Grammar of Russian as a foreign language. It is important to know the accuracy, be able to explain, write for different purposes (to teach to speak or write essays).

· Functional aspect. Describes how the language actually functions. Work on this aspect has been going on for a very long time. Founder of Bondarko.

Basic concepts of morphology:

grammatical (morphological) form,

the grammatical meaning

The morphological paradigm

parts of speech.

Grammar is a generalized linguistic meaning inherent in a large number of words and necessarily expressed formally: either by separate elements, or with the help of other words in a sentence.

Grammatical features of the word form DOMIKOM

1. From the question, we can determine that this word form names an object in general.

2. From the question, we can determine that this word form names something inanimate

3. Interpretation can be given through a picture, that is, this is an object of a certain type.

4. The modifying suffix indicates that this word form means something small.

5. The word form informs that only one subject is meant.

6. Allows phrases like a white house, admiring the house, standing in front of the house and does not allow good house, very house (belongs to the class of words with syntactic functions of a noun)

7. Allows the phrase house that I built, and does not allow the house that I built

(syntactic inanimate)

8. Allows a phrase white house, and does not allow white house or house on the mountain

(syntactic masculine)

9. Allows a phrase yellow house, and does not allow yellow house

(syntactic singular)

10. Allows a phrase admiring the house, walk in front of the house, happy with the house, and does not allow I'm standing in the house, lost his house

(subordinate instrumental)

11. Allows a phrase

a wonderful house, but does not allow a wonderful house

(subordinating creative)

Grammatical meanings are additional in relation to lexical ones, but due to enviable regularity they can be comprehended separately.

A specific word in a specific grammatical form is called word form

The totality of all possible word forms of one particular word is GRAMMAR WORDBrother, brother, brother, brother, brother, oh brother; brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, brothers, oh brothers.

Each grammatical form is included in a certain group of the same type of means, where it is opposed to other forms. (unit and plural, for example)

Grammatical form- the unity of grammatical meaning and means of expression.

grammatical meaning- generalized (not individual, unlike lexical), regular, obligatory for each word form, formally expressed and being one of the components of the grammatical category opposed to each other. In the word forms of the changed parts of speech, both the general grammatical meaning and particular morphological meanings are expressed. For unchangeable parts of speech, only a common grammatical (categorical) meaning is characteristic. For example, adverbs denote a sign of action ( dressed warmly), sign of sign ( hospitable in Moscow). They do not have a morphological paradigm.

Morphological paradigm the totality of all forms of the modified word is called. The general paradigm of words of one part of speech is made up of particular paradigms. For example, the noun paradigm includes the number and case paradigms.

The concept of a grammatical category. Types of grammatical categories.

Grammatical forms according to their grammatical content are combined into grammatical categories.

Grammatical (morphological) category- a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous content. It is this definition of the grammatical category that is accepted in modern grammar. It indicates the main features of the grammatical category. This is a closed system.

Need to distinguish inflectional and non-inflective (classifying) categories.

Inflectional:

non-inflective:

This is necessary in order to be able to correctly form forms. So, for example, the form I will defend formed from the verb perfect look protect, the form I protect - from the verb imperfect formprotect.

Grammar category- a system of rows of grammatical forms opposed to each other with homogeneous grammatical meanings. GK is characterized by the number of opposed rows. subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories are the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech).

For the Russian language, a language with a developed system of inflection, it is fundamental to distinguish between inflectional and classifying grammatical categories.

Members of inflectional categories can be represented by a series of forms of one word (case, tense).

3. Parts of speech: grounds for their distinction. L.V. Shcherba and V.V. Vinogradov on the system of parts of speech. Parts of speech in scientific and school grammar. (CE SEMINAR)
4. Characteristics of a noun as a part of speech. The grammatical category of animateness/inanimateness.

The noun is a kind of core of the parts of speech of the Russian language. The core nature of this group of words is provided by unique semantic features: any reality can be a denotation of a noun. For example:

Material objects: house, pen.

・Signs: blue.

Qualities: kindness.

· Action: the washing up.

· Traffic: walking.

· State: sadness.

Attitude: conformity.

· Quantity: a hundred.

· Abstractions: impressionism.

A noun is a part of speech that expresses the meaning of a grammatical object (objectivity), performs syntactic function subject and object and has independent morphological categories of gender, number and case. Fully named features are manifested in specific nouns.

Noun- this is a significant part of speech, denoting an object and expressing this meaning in inflectional grammatical categories of number and case and non-inflectional categories of gender and animation-inanimateness. The noun always answers the question who? what? You need to ask a question to the initial form of the word.

Initial the form of the noun is the form of the nominative case, singular. numbers, and for nouns that do not have the form of units. hours - form them. case pl. numbers (sleigh, day, jeans).

A noun in a sentence can be subject and object, as well as inconsistent definition: performance of figure skaters, Pushkin's fairy tales.

An important point is the ability of a noun to be determined by an adjective and a participle: a cold winter, a past holiday.

Division of nouns into animate and inanimate mainly depends on what object this noun denotes - living beings or objects of inanimate nature, but it is impossible to completely identify the concept of animation-inanimateness with the concept of living-inanimate. So, from a grammatical point of view birch, aspen, elm- nouns are inanimate, but from a scientific point of view, these are living organisms. In grammar, the names of dead people - dead man, deceased- are considered animate, and only a noun dead body- inanimate. Thus, the meaning of animate-inanimate is category is purely grammatical.

Animation:

Animated nouns usually refer to living beings (persons and animals). They have their own specifics of declension and represent a special category in relation to the gender category, since the gender of animate nouns can be associated with the gender of the creatures called:
Brother - sister, bull - cow.

In animate nouns, the accusative plural form (and in the masculine and the singular) coincides with the form genitive.
I see who? (vin.pad.) - students, student, horses.
No one? (rod.pad.) - students, student, horses. Who am I waiting for? Apprentice.

Animated nouns include not only the names of people and animals, but also the names of such objects that for some reason seem to be alive. For example: dressing up dolls, flying a kite.

Inanimate:

Inanimate nouns have the accusative plural form (and in the masculine singular) the same as the nominative form.
See what? (win.fall.) - airplanes, airplane. Waiting for what? Bus.
What's this? (im. pad.) - airplanes, airplane.

Inanimate nouns, used in a figurative sense, get the meaning of a person and become animated: the tournament brought together all the table tennis stars.

Nouns in combination with compound numbers ending in two, three, four are used as inanimate ones: invite twenty-two specialists (colloquial).

Conclusion: in order to correctly determine the animate / inanimate noun, the word must be considered in the context of the sentence.

Animate and inanimate nouns
animated	Inanimate
names of living things	names of inanimate objects
	plant names
names of gods	names of the planets by the names of the gods
names of mythical creatures
names of figures in games
names of toys, mechanisms, images of a person
dead man, deceased	dead body
names of microorganisms
image, character

5. Lexico-grammatical categories of nouns. The grammatical category of the number of nouns.

Nouns are combined into lexico-grammatical categories according to their meaning and manifestation of grammatical categories (number and case).

Allocate such lexical and grammatical categories nouns, both proper and common, animate and inanimate, concrete and abstract, real, collective.

Lexico-grammatical categories- semantic subtypes of nouns, which, due to the peculiarities of the meaning, interact differently with its morphological categories.

Gender specific for animate/inanimate substantives and immutable nouns.

Animation and inanimateness are also associated with the category of case.

Morphological category of the number of nouns is a system of unit forms. and many others. number of nouns, expressing the opposition of a single object to a dismembered set of objects. This is an inflectional category covering all inflected nouns.

The inflectional nature of categories is clearly observed when considering specific nouns as a nuclear group. Abstract, real and collective nouns express the meaning of quantity formally and in fact are devoid of semantic opposition in terms of the category of number.

Pay attention: lexically non-identical forms of number: choice, elections. Wed:

· snow / snow

· sky / heaven

· pain / pains

Lexico-grammatical groups of words that have only a single number.

1. Collective (crows, nobility, poor, professors, proletariat)

2. Material (milk, copper, horsehair wig)

3. Vegetables, cereals, years, etc. (raspberries, gooseberries, oats, hay?)

4. “Especially brightly negative, devoid of a direct relationship to the number, the account, the function of the singular appears in words with abstract meanings of property-quality, action-state, emotion, feeling, mood, physical phenomenon or phenomena of nature, ideological direction, flow in general for designations abstract concepts"(militarization, whiteness, boredom, secrecy).

5. Proper names.

6. The use of singular forms is observed when one object refers to several persons or objects and is inherent in each of them separately (they walked with their noses closed) (People walked with a handkerchief tied around their noses and mouths. Tolstoy)

Lexico-semantic groups of nouns pluraliatantum

1. Paired items;

2. Composite items (wood firewood, sledge, sled);

3. Mass, substance, material in its totality (yeast, firewood, grub);

4. Sets of monetary amounts (extortions, taxes, finances);

5. Waste or residues from any process: bran, sawdust, leftovers;

6. Places and localities (compacts, in the heads, settlements, as well as proper names of Bronnitsy);

7. Time interval (day, twilight, holidays);

8. A complex action, a state consisting of many acts (childbirth, chores, beatings, tricks);

9. Games (hide and seek, blunders, catch-ups);

10. Ceremonies and holidays (christenings, name days, bridesmaids);

11. Single words denoting a state (to live in the dark, to be strong, in trouble);

12. Single words denoting emotions (envy is taken, for joy).

All nouns are singular. h. have the category of gender, i.e. belong to one of 3 genders: masculine, feminine and neuter.

Nouns ending in -а, -я in the form im. p. units numbers are usually feminine (road, land, country, grandmother). The exception is words like uncle, slob, time.

If the initial form has the ending -o, -e, then the noun belongs to the middle gender (sea, good). Exception: domishko, domishche (nouns with words of subjective evaluation, formed from nouns of m. kind).

A small group of words belongs to the so-called common gender. These include nouns that do not have the singular form. numbers (pluraliatantum sled, gate, ink) are not distributed by genus.

generic couple

generic couple- this is a paired opposition of nouns m. and f. genders that have the same lexical meaning, but differ in the meaning of the biological sex.

Pairs are distinguished:

1. suppletive tribal couples (man - woman, grandmother - grandfather, sheep - ram);

2. derivational(student - student, goose - goose, lion - lioness);

3. inflectional- having a common basis and differing in endings (spouse - wife, godfather - godfather, Alexander - Alexander).

If the words included in the generic pair are the names of animals, then the type of animals can be indicated both by the word m. of the genus (hares, lions, donkeys), and by the word f. genus (cats, sheep, goats).

Common nouns

In addition to the 3 main genders (masculine, feminine, neuter), nouns are also distinguished generic, by meaning they correspond to both male and female persons, in the context they realize the meaning of only one kind (our / our Sasha, terrible / terrible bore, Belykh knew / knew). AT colloquial speech you can hear: the deputy received visitors; master of sports set a new record; The turner did a good job.

In stylized speech, for the speech characterization of characters, when referring to a woman by profession, it is recommended to use neutral forms: comrade conductor, comrade cashier.

Descriptive expressions are used to indicate male correspondence to the words ballerina, typist ballet dancer, typewriter. A pair emerged in professional use nurse - nurse.

generic options

Many nouns are used in SRY both in the form of m and in the form of f. kind.

-​ aviary - aviary (more common form 1);

- giraffe - giraffe (more common form 1);

- clip - clip (literary is 1 form);

- reprise - reprise (more commonly used form 2).

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY, a system of opposing rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing attribute is decisive (see Linguistic category), for example, the generalized meaning of time, person, voice, etc., which unites the system of values ​​of individual tenses, persons, voices, etc. into the corresponding forms. A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of its meaning and the expression of this meaning in the system of grammatical forms.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological grammatical categories, there are, for example, grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, in Russian the grammatical category of gender is represented by a system of three rows of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine and neuter, and the grammatical category of number is represented by a system of two rows of forms - singular and plural . In languages ​​with developed inflection, grammatical inflectional categories are distinguished, that is, those whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, in Russian - tense, mood, person of the verb, number, case, gender, degrees comparisons of adjectives) and non-inflective (classifying, classifying), that is, those whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, in Russian - gender and animateness-inanimateness of nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, in Russian - aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable, that is, indicating, first of all, the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, in Russian - gender, case), and non-syntactically identifiable, that is, expressing, first of all, various semantic abstractions, abstract from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, in Russian - type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.

The languages ​​of the world are different:

1) by the number and composition of grammatical categories; compare, for example, the category of the verb form, which is specific to some languages ​​- Slavic, etc.; the category of the so-called grammatical class - a person or a thing - in a number of Caucasian languages; the category of certainty-uncertainty, inherent mainly in languages ​​with an article; the category of politeness, or respectability, characteristic of a number of Asian languages ​​(in particular, Japanese and Korean) and associated with the grammatical expression of the speaker's attitude towards the interlocutor and the persons in question;

2) by the number of opposed members within the same category; compare the traditionally distinguished 6 cases in Russian and up to 40 in some Dagestan;

3) according to what parts of speech contain this or that category (for example, in the Nenets language nouns have the categories of person and tense). These characteristics may change during historical development one language; compare three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.

Lit .: Shcherba L. V. On the parts of speech in the Russian language // Shcherba L. V. Selected works in the Russian language. M., 1957; Gukhman M. M. Grammatical category and structure of paradigms // Studies in general theory grammar. M., 1968; Katsnelson SD Typology of language and speech thinking. L., 1972; Lomtev T.P. Proposition and its grammatical categories. M., 1972; Typology of grammatical categories. Meshchaninov readings. M., 1973; Bondarko A. V. Theory of morphological categories. L., 1976; Panfilov V. 3. Philosophical problems of linguistics. M., 1977; Lyons J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. M., 1978; Kholodovich A. A. Problems of grammatical theory. L., 1979; Russian grammar. M., 1980. T. 1. S. 453-459; Typology of grammatical categories. L., 1991; Melchuk I. A. Course of general morphology. M., 1998. T. 2. Part 2; Gak V. G. Theoretical grammar French. M., 2004.

includes gender, number, case, which are organically related to the categorical meaning of this part of speech and serve as a grammatical means of expressing objectivity. Entering one system, they are in certain relations (equality, greater or lesser dependence due to joint use, etc.) and interact in the process of functioning. This is favored by the unified system of grammatical forms of the noun for all categories. In the same word form of a noun, different grammatical meanings are usually combined. Singular forms can combine all three grammatical meanings of a noun. So, the shape of the fish expresses the meanings female, them. case and singular numbers, and the shape of the fish - feminine values, wines. case and singular numbers. Plural forms are capable of expressing only the meanings of case and number, they do not have the meaning of gender. For example, the word form fish expresses the meanings of tv. case and many others. numbers, and fish - the meaning of the genus. case and many others. numbers. As you can see, gender and number are related in their manifestation and show a certain dependence. The meanings of number and case can be realized independently of each other. Compare: fish and fish, fish and fish, etc.
The central place in the grammatical system of the noun belongs to the category of gender. It is the main means of expressing objectivity. The category of gender determines the most important structural and semantic features of combinations of a noun with adjectives and verbs that agree with it. It is organically connected with the declension system of all nouns in the singular (except for the names of males in -a and neuter words in the form of oblique cases). So, inflection -y is always an indicator male in the genitive case of the singular (sugar, kvass, compote, etc.).
Gender - belonging to the whole lexeme, not a separate word form. In all possible singular forms, a noun belongs to the same gender. The noun hand in all its forms is feminine, body is neuter, nose is masculine. By gender, nouns are classified (but do not change).
By cases, nouns change In each specific case of use, the choice of one or another case form is completely
due to the dominant word of the combination, for example: chop wood, chop with an ax, chop into small pieces; to make toys out of clay, etc. The use of case forms is syntactically conditioned.
In this sense, case is a syntactic category.
Number, like gender, belongs to non-syntactic categories. The use of singular or plural forms in a phrase does not depend on the dominant word. Wed: wash the spoon and wash the spoons. Both combinations are grammatically correct. The choice of the form of the number depends on how many objects are covered by the action.

CATEGORIES GRAMMATICAL, specially organized and expressed sets of linguistic meanings (“grammes”) that have a privileged status in the language system; each language has its own grammatical categories, but many meanings essential for human experience turn out to be very a large number languages ​​(such, for example, are the values ​​of the number of objects, the duration of the action, the time of the action relative to the moment of speech, the subject and object of the action, desirability, etc.).

To be considered a grammatical category, a set of meanings must have at least two properties, namely categorical and obligation. The first property (also known as mutual exclusivity, paradigmaticity, homogeneity, functionality, etc.) makes it possible to single out from the entire set of linguistic meanings those that are combined into categories; the second singles out among the linguistic categories those that are grammatical for a given language. A category can only be a set of values ​​whose elements are mutually exclusive, i.e. cannot simultaneously characterize the same object (this property can be formulated in another way: each object at a certain moment can be assigned only one value from this set). Thus, the property of categorization or mutual exclusivity in the normal case is possessed by the values ​​of physical age (a person cannot be both an old man and a child), gender, size, and many others. On the other hand, values ​​such as color are not categories: the same object may well be colored in different colors at the same time.

Not all language categories, however, can be considered grammatical. For this, it is necessary that the category satisfies the second property, i.e. the property of obligation (in modern linguistics, this statement has received wide recognition, mainly after the works of R. Jacobson, but similar ideas have been expressed before). A category is obligatory (for some class of words) if any word from this class expresses any meaning of this category. So, in Russian, for example, the category of tense of the verb is obligatory: any personal form of the verb in the text expresses one of the meanings of this category (either the past, or the present, or the future tense), and there is no such personal form of the verb that could be would say that she "no time", ie. not characterized by time in grammatical terms.

The existence of mandatory categories in the language means that the speaker, intending to use a word in speech, is forced to express one of the meanings of a certain category with this word (i.e., to characterize given word for this category). So, choosing a personal form of a verb, a Russian speaker is obliged to characterize it by type, tense, mood, voice, person / number (or, in the past tense, gender) of the subject, since all these are grammatical categories of the Russian verb. The speaker is obliged to indicate the appropriate meanings of grammatical categories, even if this is not included in his own communicative plan - for example, he might not have specifically meant to designate the time of action. Of course, the speaker can still avoid indicating the time - but then he will no longer have to use a verb, but, for example, a noun, which in Russian does not have an obligatory category of time. Wed couple kind You came ~ your arrival, where the grammatical tense is expressed only in the first case; If desired, this can be done in the second case (cf. your past/future arrival etc.), but it is essential that if the speaker wants to evade the expression of time with a noun, he can freely do this without violating the grammatical requirements of the language, while in the case of the verb form this is impossible.

The grammatical categories of each language can be likened to a kind of questionnaire for describing objects and situations in a given language: the speaker cannot successfully complete this description without answering (whether he wants to or not) the questions of such a "grammatical questionnaire". According to the apt remark of R. Jacobson, "the main difference between languages ​​is not what can or cannot be expressed, but what should or should not be communicated by the speakers." From this follows the importance of the role played by grammar in the creation of the so-called "naive picture of the world", i.e. that way of reflecting reality, which is the specificity of each language (and the culture behind it), since it is in the system of grammatical categories that the collective experience of native speakers of a given language is primarily reflected.

AT different languages the number of grammatical categories is different; there are languages ​​with a very developed "grammatical questionnaire", in other languages ​​the set of grammatical categories is very limited (languages ​​that are completely devoid of grammatical meanings are still not attested, although their existence, generally speaking, does not contradict linguistic theory).

Along with the two main properties mentioned above, grammatical categories, as a rule, are also characterized by a number of additional properties. The scope of applicability of a grammatical category (i.e., the set of those words for which the category is obligatory) must be large enough and have natural boundaries (as a rule, these are large semantic-grammatical classes of words like nouns or verbs or their subclasses like transitive verbs, animate nouns, etc.). On the other hand, the number of meanings of a grammatical category (grammes) is usually small, and they are expressed using a small number of regular indicators. These three additional properties make it possible, in particular, to distinguish between grammatical and so-called lexical obligation (the latter is always tied to a small group of words, and the corresponding meanings do not have regular indicators). So, in Russian, the choice of the meaning "child of the same parents" is necessarily accompanied by an indication of the sex of the child (respectively, brother or sister), however, we cannot talk about the grammatical category “gender of a relative” for the reasons listed above: the obligatory indication of gender in Russian is characteristic of only a small group of nouns (terms of kinship), and at the same time, there are no special indicators of male or female sex as part of these I have no words. Lexical obligation is a very common phenomenon, but it characterizes separate groups of the vocabulary of a given language and is not systemic.

The meaning of grammes of grammatical categories is a very complex object; entities called grammatical meanings (for example, "plural", "dative", "past tense", etc.), as a rule, are much more complicated lexical meanings. One should not identify the name of a gramme with its meaning (as often - voluntarily or involuntarily - do the authors of grammatical descriptions): behind the name of the "plural" type, in fact, there is a certain set of contextual meanings expressed by a set of formal indicators, while any indicator can have any of given values, and any value can be attributed to any of these indicators. Thus, in Russian, the number is expressed differently depending on the type of declension of the noun and other factors (cf. fingers,at home,apples,studio etc.), and plural forms - regardless of what indicator is present in them - can express not only a simple set of objects, but also a class of objects as a whole ( ostriches are dying out), various varieties or varieties of objects ( precious metals,cheeses), a large number of ( sands), uncertainty ( isn't it free places ? » "at least one place"), etc. This situation is typical for most grammars, which, therefore, in the general case, are only a kind of labels denoting a rather complex correspondence between formal and meaningful elements of the language.

The contextual meanings of grammes may include an appeal both to the properties of the surrounding world and to syntactic properties other words. Values ​​of the first type are called semantic (or semantically filled, nominative, etc.); meanings of the second type are called syntactic (or relational), which reflects their main property - to serve as an expression of syntactic relationships between words in the text, and not a direct description of reality (compare, for example, gender grammes in Russian nouns of the type sofa and couch, reflecting only the difference in their matching models: a big sofa and large ottoman). Syntactic meanings, to one degree or another, are present in almost every grammatical category (for example, in the Russian language, the appearance of the singular in constructions with numerals of the type three at home , twenty one house or in distributive constructions like advisers put on nose glasses). There are also grammatical categories in which syntactic meanings predominate or even are the only ones. Such categories are called syntactic; the most important of these are the gender and case of nouns, and in some cases also the voice and mood of verbs. Languages ​​that do not have syntactic grammatical categories are called insulating(these are primarily Austroasiatic, Thai and Sino-Tibetan languages South-East Asia, Mande and Kwa languages West Africa and etc.).

Most often, grammes are expressed using morphological means - affixes (among which prefixes, suffixes, infixes, circumfixes and transfixes are distinguished), as well as alternations and reduplications. The morphological expression of grammes is characteristic of agglutinative and fusional languages ​​(non-affixal morphological technique also plays an important role in the latter). The most striking examples of fusion languages ​​are Sanskrit, Ancient Greek, Lithuanian, and many Indian languages. North America and etc.; languages ​​that are equally agglutinative and fusional (such, for example, are many Uralic, Mongolian, Semitic languages, Bantu languages, etc.) are widespread. At the same time, there is also a non-morphological way of expressing grammatical meanings, in which these latter are conveyed by independent word forms (“functional words”) or syntactic constructions. Languages ​​with a predominance of non-morphological techniques for expressing grammatical meanings are called analytic (such, in particular, are the Polynesian languages).

If a grammatical category is arranged in such a way that all its grammes are able to alternately join the stem of the same word, then such a category is called inflectional, and combinations of its grammes with the stem of a word are called grammatical forms of this word. The totality of all grammatical forms of one word forms its paradigm, and the word, understood as the totality of all its forms, is called a lexeme. Typical examples of inflectional categories are the case of a noun, the tense and mood of a verb, etc.: thus, in the normal case, the stem of each noun is combined with indicators of all cases of a given language, the stem of each verb is combined with indicators of all moods, etc. (non-systemic violations of this principle lead to the emergence of so-called defective paradigms, cf. the absence of the genitive plural form in the word cod or forms of the 1st person singular. numbers on the verb win In russian language).

Not all grammatical categories, however, form paradigms of grammatical forms: it is also possible that only one grammeme can be expressed in the stem of a word. Such grammatical categories do not oppose different forms of the same word, but different words(i.e. different lexemes) and are called word-classifiers. A typical example of a word-classifying category is the gender of nouns: for example, in Russian, each noun belongs to one of three genders, but Russian nouns do not have the ability to form “generic paradigms” (i.e., freely change the meaning of gender). On the contrary, in Russian adjectives, the category of gender, as it is easy to see, is inflectional (cf. paradigms like white ~ white ~ white etc.).

The main syntactic grammatical categories are gender and case (for the name) and voice (for the verb): the gender is associated with the morphological expression of agreement, and the case is associated with the morphological expression of control. In addition, both case and voice provide a distinction between semantic and syntactic arguments of the verb, i.e. such syntactic entities as subject and objects, and such semantic entities as agent, patient, instrument, place, reason, and many others. etc. Syntactic (consensual) categories also include the person/number and gender of the verb.

Most of the grammatical categories found in the languages ​​of the world belong to semantic categories. The specific semantic categories of nouns are number and determination (or, in the "European" version, certainty/indefiniteness). The categories of number, determination and case closely interact and are often expressed by a single grammatical indicator (inflection); inflectional case-number paradigms are also characteristic of the Russian language. The category of number is usually represented by two grammes (singular and plural), but in a number of languages ​​there is also a dual number, originally associated, apparently, with the designation of paired objects (such as lips, eyes, shores etc.); the dual number was in ancient Greek, Sanskrit, Old Russian, classical Arabic; it is also attested in modern languages: Slovene, Koryak, Selkup, Khanty, etc. Even more rare is a special grammatical expression for a set of three objects (ternary number) or a small number of objects (paunal number): such grammes are found, for example, in the languages ​​of New Guinea.

The system of semantic grammatical categories of the verb is very diverse and varies greatly in different languages. With some degree of conventionality, verbal categories can be divided into three large semantic zones: aspectual, temporal, and modal. Aspect (or species) meanings include all those that describe the features of the deployment of the situation in time (duration, limitation, repetition) or highlight certain temporal phases of the situation (for example, the initial stage or result); in this sense, the well-known characterization of the aspect as the "internal tense" of the verb is correct. On the contrary, the grammatical category, traditionally called “time” in linguistics, only indicates the relative chronology of a given situation, i.e. whether it takes place before, at the same time, or after some other situation (“starting point”). The starting point can be arbitrary (and in this case we have the category of relative time, or taxis), but it can also be fixed; a fixed reference point coinciding with the moment of pronouncing the statement (“moment of speech”) gives the category of absolute time with three main grammemes: past, present and future tense. An additional indication of the degree of remoteness of the situation from the moment of speech (indication of "temporal distance") can increase the number of grammes of the category of time; developed systems for designating time distances are especially characteristic of the Bantu languages ​​(Tropical Africa). Aspect and time are often expressed together in verb word forms (hence the traditional grammatical nomenclature, in which any aspect-tense verb form could be called “time”). The most typical combinations are the continuous aspect and the past tense (commonly called "imperfect"), as well as the limited aspect and past tense (commonly known as "aorist").

The verb system can be characterized a large number aspectual grammars: thus, to the basic opposition of the long (durative, imperfective) and limited (perfective, dotted) aspect, at least the habitual (and/or multiple) aspect and the resultative aspect (cf. . window open , Russian dial. he drunk ). A difference analogous to the habitual aspect can be expressed lexically in Russian, cf. boy goes to school and boy walks to school. A special kind of resultative aspect is the perfect, which is very widespread in the languages ​​of the world (for example, the perfect is found in English, Spanish, Greek, Finnish, Bulgarian, Persian and many other languages). On the contrary, “poor” aspectual systems (such as Eastern or Western Slavic) are characterized by the opposition of only two aspectual grammars (called perfect vs. imperfective aspect, perfective vs. imperfective, complete vs. incompletive, etc.), but each of of these grammes has a very wide range of contextual meanings. Thus, in Russian, an imperfective grammeme can express duration, repetition, habituality, and even the perfect (cf. Maksim was reading « War and peace»); the choice of this or that interpretation depends on the context, the lexical semantics of the verb and other factors. In languages ​​with "rich" aspectual systems (such as Turkic, Polynesian or Bantu), all these meanings may differ morphologically.

The most complex and branched structure has a zone of verbal modality (giving the grammatical category of mood). Modal meanings include, firstly, those that indicate the degree of reality of the situation (surreal situations do not take place in reality, but are possible, probable, desired, conditioned, etc.), and secondly, those that express assessment by the speaker of the described situation (for example, the degree of reliability of the situation, the degree of desirability of the situation for the speaker, etc.). It is easy to see that evaluative and surreal meanings are often closely related to each other: for example, desirable situations always have a positive assessment of the speaker, surreal situations often have a lower degree of certainty, and so on. It is no coincidence, therefore, that the use, for example, of the conditional mood to express doubt or incomplete certainty, is characteristic of many languages ​​of the world.

A special place among mood grammars is occupied by the imperative, which combines the expression of the speaker's desire with the expression of motivation directed at the addressee. The imperative is one of the most common grammars in natural languages ​​(perhaps this meaning is universal). Mood grammes also have a large proportion of syntactic uses (for example, in many languages ​​the predicate subordinate clause must take the form of some of the unreal inclinations; the same applies to the expression of questions or negatives).

Adjacent to the mood is the grammatical category of evidentiality, which expresses the source of information about the situation being described. In many languages ​​of the world, such an indication is mandatory: this means that the speaker must report whether he observed this event with his own eyes, heard about it from someone, judges it on the basis of indirect signs or logical reasoning, etc.; the most complex evidential systems are characteristic of the Tibetan languages ​​and a number of American Indian languages, somewhat simpler evidential systems are found in the languages ​​of the Balkan area (Bulgarian, Albanian, Turkish), as well as in many languages ​​of the Caucasus, Siberia and the Far East.

Lecture 9

Claim for the recovery of a tax sanction.

After the decision to hold liable for the commission of a tax offense an individual who is not individual entrepreneur or in other cases when an out-of-court procedure for collecting tax sanctions is not allowed, the relevant tax authority files a claim with the court to recover from this person a tax sanction established by the legislation on taxes and fees.

Before applying to the court, the tax authority is obliged to offer the person held liable for committing a tax offense to voluntarily pay the appropriate amount of the tax sanction. If a person held liable for committing a tax offense refused to voluntarily pay the amount of the tax sanction or missed the payment deadline specified in the demand, the tax authority applies to the court with a statement of claim to recover from this person the tax sanction established by the tax code, for committing this tax offence.

A statement of claim for the recovery of a tax sanction from an organization or an individual entrepreneur is submitted to an arbitration court, and from an individual who is not an individual entrepreneur, to a court of general jurisdiction.

The statement of claim shall be accompanied by the decision of the tax authority and other materials of the case obtained in the course of the tax audit.

In necessary cases, simultaneously with filing a statement of claim, the tax authority may send a petition to the court to secure a claim in the manner prescribed by the civil procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 13 of the Code of Civil Procedure of the Russian Federation) and the arbitration procedural legislation of the Russian Federation (Chapter 8 of the APC).

1. The concept of a grammatical category. Principles of allocation of grammatical categories in language.

2. The main grammatical categories of the name.

3. The main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. Morphological and syntactic grammatical categories.

1. Grammar category - this is a system of opposed rows of grammatical forms with homogeneous meanings. In this system, the categorizing attribute is decisive, for example, the generalized value of time, person, pledge, etc., which unites the system of values ​​of individual tenses, persons, pledges, etc. and a system of corresponding forms.

A necessary feature of a grammatical category is the unity of meaning and its expression in the system of grammatical forms as bilateral linguistic units.

Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories, for example, the categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, and case are distinguished. The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, the category of gender is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. kind, but category. numbers - a system of two rows of forms - units. and many others. h.

In the structure of grammatical categories, the most significant is unification principle grammatical classes and units that make up this category. The basis for such a union is a generalized value (for example, the value of time), which combines - as a generic concept - the values ​​of the components of this category. The systemic nature of the language does not consist in a simple external organization of linguistic materials, but in the fact that all homogeneous elements of the structure of the language are interconnected and receive their significance only as opposed parts of the whole.

Semantic opposition is just such a relation, subordinated to the indicated principle. For grammar, this quality is especially important; thus, one can speak of the category of gender or case only if there are at least two opposed genders or cases in a given language; if there is no such opposition, and there is only one form (as for the gender in English or in the Turkic languages, or for the case in French), then this category does not exist in this language at all.

Grammatical meanings are revealed in oppositions (for example, the meaning of singularity, opposed to the meaning of plurality). Grammatical oppositions (oppositions) form systems called grammatical categories.

2. The Russian noun has inflectional categories of number and case and classifying categories of gender, animation/inanimateness and personality.

Grammar number category is inflectional in nouns and is built as a contrast between two series of forms - singular and plural. Inherent in the Old Russian language special forms the dual number has not been preserved in modern Russian, there are only residual phenomena (plural forms of the names of paired objects: shores, sides, ears, shoulders, knees; noun forms hour, row, step in combinations like two hours).

For the names of countable objects and phenomena, the singular form denotes singularity, the plural form denotes a quantity of more than one: table- pl. tables, day- pl. days, wood- pl. h. trees, thunderstorm- pl. thunderstorms. Nouns with abstract, collective, real meanings belong to the singularia tantum: thickness, pampering, beast, milk, or to pluralia tantum: chores, finances, perfumes, canned food.

In those cases where the formation of plural forms is possible for the words singularia tantum, such formation is necessarily accompanied by certain semantic complications: cf. "species plural" type wine- pl. guilt, the beauty– beauty, "emphatic plural" when denoting a large number of type water- pl. water, snow– snow, etc.

The number of nouns is also expressed syntactically - by the numerical form of the agreed or coordinated word or by the numeral: A new book - pl. h. new books, The student is reading/reading- pl. h. Students read/read. At indeclinable nouns and nouns pluralia tantum, denoting countable objects, the syntactic way of expressing a number is the only one: new coat, one coat- pl. h. new coats, three coats; one pair of scissors- pl. h. two scissors, one day- pl. h. four / several / many days.

case in Russian expresses the relation of nouns to other words in a phrase and sentence. The inflectional morphological category of the case is constructed as a contrast between the six main series of forms and five additional ones that differ in inflections, and the inflections of nouns simultaneously express the case meaning and the meaning of the number. For indeclinable nouns, case meanings are expressed only by the forms of agreed or coordinated words (in a sentence, they are a definition or a nominal predicate).

Six main cases:

nominative,

· parental,

· dative,

accusative,

creative,

prepositional.

In the system of six cases, the nominative case is opposed as a direct case to the other five - indirect cases. It is the original form of the paradigm, appearing in the most independent syntactic positions; indirect cases express, as a rule, the dependence of the noun on the word that controls it. Being controlled forms, indirect cases appear in combination with prepositions (prepositional-case forms) and without them (non-prepositional forms): see the house and head for home; to drive the car and sit in the car. Of the six cases, one (nominative) is always unprepositional; one is used only with prepositions, and therefore is called prepositional; the remaining four cases (middle in the paradigm) appear both with and without prepositions. For indirect cases, it is also essential what part of speech they syntactically obey; There is a difference between verbal and adjectival use of case forms.

Genus category for nouns it is classifying, or not inflectional (each noun belongs to a certain grammatical gender) and is built as a contrast of three genders - masculine, feminine and neuter. Masculine nouns are semantically defined as words capable of denoting a male being, feminine nouns as words capable of denoting a female being, and neuter nouns as words incapable of denoting gender. At the same time, animate masculine and feminine nouns (names of people and, in part, names of animals) have a direct connection with the designation of gender (cf. father and mother, teacher and teacher, a lion and lioness), while for inanimate nouns (partially also for animal names) it is indirect, manifesting itself as the possibility of stylistic rethinking in the image of a creature of the corresponding gender (cf. Rowan and oak in the folk song "Thin rowan", as well as Father Frost, Princess Frog etc.). The gender differences of nouns are expressed only in the singular, so the nouns pluralia tantum do not belong to any of the three genders. A special place is occupied by the so-called nouns of the general gender, capable of denoting a person both male and female and, accordingly, have grammatical features masculine and feminine ( orphan, touchy, crybaby).

The gender of nouns is expressed both morphologically - by the system of inflections of a noun in the singular, and syntactically - by the generic form of the agreed or coordinated word (adjective or other word inflected as an adjective, verb-predicate). Since the system of inflections of the singular does not unambiguously indicate a certain gender for all inflectional types of nouns (for example, nouns of the II declension can refer to both the feminine and the masculine gender: m.r. servant, female servant), the syntactic expression of the gender of nouns is consistently unambiguous. For the so-called indeclinable nouns, this way of expressing gender is the only one (cf. recent interview, m.r. long-tailed kangaroo etc.).

The ability to indicate gender is also possessed by the forms of agreed and coordinated words in combination with nouns of the general gender ( round(m.s.) orphan and round(female) orphan), as well as with masculine nouns - the names of persons by profession, position ( doctor, engineer, director), which can, when indicating the female gender of a person, be combined (only in the form of the nominative case) with the feminine forms of coordinated and (less often) agreed words: The doctor has come, we have a new doctor(colloquially).

3. The aspect of a verb is a category that expresses differences in the course of an action. This category distinguishes imperfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly) and perfective verbs (answer the question "What to do?": fly in).

The transitivity of the verb is characterized by compatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: read a book, watch a movie; the intransitiveness of the verb is characterized by incompatibility with the accusative case without a preposition: have measles.

A special group is made up of reflexive verbs, which are indicated by the suffix -sya: keep laughing.

Voice of the verb is a category that expresses the relationship between the subject and the object of the action. Active voice verbs - verbs in which the subject calls actor: dad eats an apple; passive voice verbs appear in a passive construction when the object becomes the object of action: the door opened with a key.

Indicative - expresses an action that existed, exists and will exist: go, look. In this mood, verbs have forms of tense (present, past and future), person (1, 2 and 3) and number.

The conditional or subjunctive mood expresses an action that does not really exist, it is only possible or desirable: would have honored. It is formed with the help of a verb in the past tense and a conditional particle by.

Imperative mood - expresses a request, order or prohibition, is not real. It is formed by adding the end of the present tense to the stem -and: bring, give; graduation -those: take, speak; adding particles let, let: let it go, let it go.

Time- a category that expresses the relationship of action to the moment of speech. There are three tenses: present, past and future. The tense of the verb is closely related to the category of aspect: NSV - sell - sold - will sell; SW - sold - selling.

In a sentence, the verb can be simple verbal predicate: Sasha got up early; compound verb predicate: She wanted to sleep; inconsistent definition: The thought of leaving did not please me..

In Russian, there are verbs that denote an action without a doer (person), so they are called impersonal. Sentences with such verbs are also called impersonal: Ringing in the ears. It's getting warmer outside. It's getting dark.

4. Grammatical categories are divided into morphological and syntactic. Among the morphological categories are, for example, the grammatical categories of aspect, voice, tense, mood, person, gender, number, case; the consistent expression of these categories characterizes entire grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). The number of opposed members within such categories can be different: for example, the grammatical category of gender is represented in Russian by a system of three series of forms expressing the grammatical meanings of masculine, feminine. and cf. gender, and the grammatical category of number - by a system of two rows of forms units. and many others. h. This characteristic is historically variable: compare, for example, three forms of number in Old Russian, including the dual, and two in modern Russian.

In Russian morphology, grammatical categories are distinguished: inflectional, whose members can be represented by forms of the same word within its paradigm (for example, tense, mood, verb person, number, case, adjective gender, degrees of comparison), and non-inflectional (classifying, classifying ), whose members cannot be represented by forms of the same word (for example, gender and animate/inanimate nouns). The belonging of some grammatical categories (for example, aspect and voice) to inflectional or non-inflectional type is the subject of discussion.

There are also grammatical categories that are syntactically identifiable (relational), i.e., indicating primarily the compatibility of forms in the composition of a phrase or sentence (for example, gender), and non-syntactically identifiable (referential, nominative), expressing primarily various semantic abstractions, abstracted from the properties, connections and relations of extralinguistic reality (for example, type, time); such grammatical categories as, for example, number or person, combine features of both these types.

Sometimes the term “grammatical category” is applied to broader or narrower groupings compared to the grammatical category in the indicated interpretation - for example, on the one hand, to parts of speech (“noun category”, “verb category”), and on the other hand, to individual members of categories (“masculine category”, “plural category”, etc.).

From the grammatical category in morphology, it is customary to distinguish lexico-grammatical categories of words - such subclasses within a certain part of speech that have a common semantic feature that affects the ability of words to express certain categorical morphological meanings. Such, for example, in the Russian language are collective, concrete, abstract, material nouns; adjectives qualitative and relative; personal and impersonal verbs; so-called ways of verbal action, etc.

The concept of a grammatical category has been developed mainly on the basis of morphological categories. The question of syntactic categories has been studied less; the boundaries of the application of the concept of grammatical category to syntax remain unclear. It is possible, for example, to highlight the grammatical category of the communicative orientation of the statement, which is built as a contrast between narrative, incentive and interrogative sentences; grammatical category of activity / passivity of the sentence structure; grammatical category of syntactic tense and syntactic mood that form the paradigm of the sentence, etc. The question of whether the so-called word-building categories belong to the grammatical category is also controversial: the latter are not characterized by opposition and homogeneity within the framework of generalized categorizing features.

SELF-CHECK QUESTIONS

1. What is meant by a grammatical category? What are the principles for highlighting grammatical categories in a language?

2. Name the main grammatical categories of the name.

3. Name the main grammatical categories of the verb.

4. What morphological and syntactic grammatical categories do you know?