Semantic meanings of particles table. Particles in Russian - what is it? What are the particles in Russian? Particles in Russian. Spelling "ni" is merged with words

A particle is a service part of speech, which, without having its own completely independent lexical meaning, gives different shades to words and sentences or serves to create word forms.

Particles do not change, do not have an independent lexical meaning and are not members of sentences, but may be part of the members of a sentence.
The main area of use of particles is oral speech, fiction and journalism with elements colloquial speech. The use of particles in speech gives the statements greater expressiveness, emotionality. Excessive use of particles leads to clogging of speech and loss of semantic accuracy.

The main role of particles (general grammatical meaning) - to introduce additional shades into the meanings of other words, groups of words or sentences. Particles clarify, highlight, strengthen those words that are necessary for a more accurate expression of the content: « Already the sky breathed in autumn, Already the sun shone less.» ( Pushkin A.S.) Already is a particle with an amplifying value.

Particles arose later than other parts of speech. By origin, particles are associated with different parts of speech: with adverbs ( just, just, just, just, just and etc.); with verbs ( let, let, come on, give, it would, after all, you see and etc.); with unions (and, yes, and and etc.); with pronouns ( everything, it, what for, then, this, yourself etc.), with interjections ( out, well and etc.). Some particles are not related to other parts of speech in origin: here, is it and etc.

There are few particles in Russian. In terms of frequency of use, they are in the first hundred most used words (as well as , conjunctions and some pronouns). This hundred of the most frequent words includes 11 particles ( not, well, here, only, yet, already, well, not, even, whether, after all ).

Comparison with other parts of speech

In their structure and functions, the particles are close to adverbs, conjunctions and interjections.

Particles differ from significant parts of speech in that they do not have lexical meanings, therefore, the particles are not members of the sentence, but can be part of the members of the sentence. Particles differ from prepositions and conjunctions in that they do not express grammatical relationships between words and sentences, i.e. the particle never binds anything.

At parsing the particle is singled out together with the word to which it refers or not singled out at all.

In the science of the Russian language, there is no consensus on the classification of particles. Different authors have different classifications.

Discharges of particles.

According to the meaning and role in the sentence, the particles are divided into categories.

shaping,
negative,
semantic (modal).

Shaping particles

- particles that are involved in the formation of certain forms of various parts of speech (verbs, adjectives, adverbs, state names, pronouns).

Particles that serve to form the mood forms of the verb:
- imperative mood - yes, let (let), come on (let's) :long live, let him go, let's (let's) go;
- subjunctive (conditional) mood - would(b): said would, helped would , put on b ; what would did not happen.
  Particle would(b) can stand before the verb to which it refers, after the verb, can be separated from the verb in other words: I b went to work. I wanted would live in Moscow. I made more would better. I would did even better.
Particles would, let, let, yes, let's (let's) are part of the verb form and are part of the same member of the sentence as the verb, are underlined with it. The formative particle is a component of the verb form and is written out with the verb when morphological analysis verbs as parts of speech.
Particles that form forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives, adverbs, state names - more, less : more important, less important; more interesting, less boring.
Meaning comparative degree can be amplified by particles yet and all : yet scarier all more interesting.

When forming forms, particles approach morphemes: more important (the degree of comparison is formed with the help of a suffix) - more important (the degree of comparison is formed with the help of a particle).

Postfixes are not particles -sya (s), -something, -either, -something and no, neither as part of negative and indefinite pronouns and adverbs, participles and adjectives, regardless of continuous or separate spelling. Particle should be distinguished -then and -then : which -then, where -then ( ) - I -then I know everything. (particle)

Comment.

In the complex of Babaitseva in the Russian language, some other authors (Glazunov, Svetlysheva) proposed a different approach, where something, something, something - referred to derivational particles and form pronouns and adverbs : who - someone, someone, someone, anyone; some - some, some etc. Negative particles are also classified as word-forming particles. not and neither : who - no one, no one; when never, never etc. In this case, the particles are converted into .
With a particle not Words with the opposite meaning are formed: friend - foe, happiness - misfortune.
Some words without not no longer exist: bad weather, slob, ignorant, impossible and etc.
These questions should be clarified with your teacher.

negative particles

No, neitherare the most frequent particles. Besides: no, not at all, not at all.

Particle NOT plays the main role in the expression of negation, attaches the following meanings:

negative value for the whole sentence: Do not be this.
negative value to a separate member of the sentence: Before us was not a small, but a large clearing.
positive value, assertion (via double negation with not): could not help but help, i.e. should have helped; could not say.

Most often a negative particle not is included in the predicate: At night did not have rain. ( did not have- predicate) I don't know. (don't know- saying)

Particle NI gives:

negative meaning in a sentence without a subject: Neither from place!
strengthening of negation in sentences with the word not (no), which expresses the main negation: Around No neither souls. Not it is seen neither zgi. In the sky No neither cloud. Sometimes neither used without not : In the sky neither cloud.
strengthening and generalization of any statement made in the main clause (for this, the particle is used in the subordinate clause neither ): What neither (= everything) would do, everything worked out for him. Where neither (= everywhere) look, there are fields and fields everywhere.
When repeating a particle neither becomes important coordinating (connecting) union : Neither sun, neither air won't help me. ( neither - union)
Negative particles include the words no. It is used in the negative answer to the expressed or unspoken question: Want? Not . To reinforce the negation word No repeated or used before a negative predicate: No, I don't want to.
Particle No corresponds in its role in the sentence to the affirmative particle Yes : Will you go? Yes .
not at all, not at all, not at all .

It is necessary to distinguish nor (not) prefix, particle and union. The prefix is written together ( someone, no one, no one). Particle and union are written separately: no not a soul (particle, reinforces negation); Neither (union) rain, neither The (union) snow couldn't stop him.

Sense Particles

Semantic (modal) particles are particles that introduce various semantic shades into the sentence (clarify, emphasize, reinforce), express the feelings and attitude of the speaker.

Groups of particles by value:

Contribute semantic shades:
- interrogative —whether (l), is it, really :
  Really This is true? Truth whether this is? Is don't you agree with me?
  Is and really often act as synonyms: Is it (is it) did not you recognize me? But, they can also have different meanings.
  In offers with unless doubt is expressed, the speaker seems to argue with the interlocutor, he is sure of the inadmissibility of the fact: Is can you lie?
  In offers with really there is doubt and surprise: Really did he deceive us?
- index — here (and here), out (and out), here and, there and .
  Highlight the subject to which you need to pay attention: Here my village.
- clarifying — exactly, just, almost, almost, exactly, exactly, exactly : Exactly she told me about it. Just he knew about it.
  Particles exactly , just serve to highlight the most important information.
- express selection, limitation(restrictive-excretory) - only, only, exclusively, almost, exclusively : I am not sick, only) tired a little.
particles that express the feeling and attitude of the speaker:
- exclamatory particles - what the how , Well: What a soul! That's lovely! oh well!
  These particles express admiration, surprise, indignation.
  Particle how has a homonym how - pronoun how and union how .
  Particle how usually used in exclamatory sentences: How delightful evenings in Russia!
  Pronoun-adverb how used in interrogative sentences and is a member of the sentence : How do you feel? How - circumstance.
  Union how - in complex sentences: I will tell you, how to live on.
- express doubt —hardly, hardly Barely whether it will do. Hardly he will agree.
- amplifying particles - even, even, not, well, really, after all, after all, only, only and etc.
  Particles highlight words in a sentence: Masha is familiar only famous monuments. ( Only - amplifying particle, in the sentence is part of the definition only known).
  Some particles of this discharge can perform the role of unions : The moon got brighter, the stars same just turned blue. Particle same highlights the word stars and connects the first and second sentences.
- express relaxation of requirements — —ka.
  In combination with imperative verbs, this particle softens the meaning of the verb: Do It! - Do It -ka .

Examples:

And day and night the cat is a scientist all walks around the chain. (A. Pushkin) - amplifying value
Well what the neck, what theeyes! (I. Krylov) - exclamation value
Yeshello sun,Yesthe darkness will hide (A. Pushkin) Let the brown one burst stronger. (M. Gorky) - forms the form of the imperative mood of the verb
Same word, but not the samewouldsaid. forms the subjunctive mood of the verb.
What we've been talking about before only thought, now realized. Just thought -only not an adverb, not a union, since it does not connect anything, but enhances the meaning of the verb (they thought, but did not). Therefore, it is a particle.

Particle- this is a service part of speech, which serves to express shades of the meanings of words, phrases, sentences and to form word forms. Particles do not change, are not members of the sentence. (In school grammar, however, it is customary to emphasize the negative particle not along with the word to which it refers; especially for verbs). Depending on the transmitted additional values, there are: semantic particles (here he, approximately two), modal particles(Yes, we have met, well, go) and shaping particles which convey different grammatical meanings: Let goes. Yes hello meeting participants!

Basic semantic particles

Name	Particles	Meaning	Examples
pointing	out, here it is and etc.	point to objects	1. *Here* bream, offal, here* sterlet slice(I. Krylov). 2. The medical profession this is feat, it requires selflessness, purity of soul and purity of thoughts*(A. Chekhov).
Clarifying	exactly, almost, exactly, exactly and etc.	specify a word or expression	Mother nearly* didn't pay attention to me*(I. Turgenev).
excretory-restrictive	only, just, just, only and etc.	give a word or group of words a restrictive connotation	Who am I? What am I? Only* a dreamer who has lost the blue of his eyes in the darkness...*(S. Yesenin)
amplifying	even, after all, the same, and, neither and etc.	underline certain words	*Even* the clerk made some disapproving sound(L. Tolstoy).
Interrogative	is it, is it, is it, is it and etc.	express the question in interrogative sentences	Is can i doubt it?(L. Tolstoy)
Negative	not, not at all, not at all, not at all, far from and etc.	express denial. Particle No used when answering a question in the negative and separated by a comma	Independence, a sense of freedom and personal initiative in science not* less needed than, for example, in art or trade(V. Chekhov). « So are you coming to us?" - " Not I won't come"*(L. Tolstoy).
Affirmative	yes, exactly, yes and etc.	express a statement	"Is already married?" - " Yes,* the third year went from Filippovka"*(L. Tolstoy). Separated by a comma.
Comparative	as, as if, as if, as if, exactly and etc.	express comparison. Used with a predicate	1. Dubrovsky as if* woke up from sleep(A. Pushkin). 2. Ripe rye how golden sea.*
exclamatory	what the, how, oh and etc.	express emotions	1. Dove, how* good! Well what the neck, what the eyes!(I. Krylov). 2. To you, Kazbek, about guardian of the east, I, a wanderer, brought my bow*(M. Lermontov).

Shaping particles

Grammatical form	Particles	Examples
Imperative verb	let, let, yes, come on	*Let* the crowd will trample on my crown: the singer's crown, the crown of thorns!(M. Lermontov)
Conditional verb	would, b	I b forever forgotten taverns and poems wouldI gave up writing… (S. Yesenin)
Obsolete past tense of the verb	It was	We have begun It was* talk about the new district leader, when suddenly Olga's voice was heard at the door: "Tea is ready"*(I. Turgenev).

modal particles

Values	Particles	Examples
Will (same meaning for shape particles)	Give- (ka), well, well, well, come on, let it, let it, come on	*Not,* I don't love you so passionately(P.)
Attitude to action: question, affirmation, negation, comparison	Yes, no, whether, as it were	You know whether* you Ukrainian night? (* G.) do it how* you know*.
exclamatory-expressive	What the, -s	Well what the* neck, what the eyes! (Cr.)*

To formative particles include particles that serve to form the forms of the conditional and imperative mood of the verb. These include the following: would(conditional mood indicator), let, let, yes, come on (those)(indicators of the imperative mood). Unlike semantic particles, formative particles are components of the verb form and are part of the same member of the sentence as the verb, they are underlined along with it even in a non-contact arrangement, for example: I would not late if would it didn't rain .

semantic particles express the semantic shades, feelings and attitudes of the speaker.

In some studies, other groups of particles are distinguished, since not all particles can be included in these groups (for example, supposedly, supposedly).

Particle neither acts as a negative in the constructions of an impersonal sentence with an omitted predicate ( In the room neither sound) and as an intensifier in the presence of an already expressed negation ( In the room not heard neither sound). When repeating a particle neither acts as a recurring coordinating union (Can't hear in the room neither rustles, neither other sounds).

Postfixes are not particles - Xia (-camping), -then, either, something and prefixes not and neither as part of negative and indefinite pronouns and adverbs, as well as participles and adjectives, regardless of continuous or separate spelling.

semantic particle - then must be distinguished from the word-forming postfix - then acting as a means of forming indefinite pronouns and adverbs. Compare: which- then, where- then (postfix) - I- then know where to go(particle).

Particle- this is an invariable service part of speech that will give, clarify or specify various semantic (gradual, evaluative, optative, etc.), modal, emotional and expressive meanings of words, parts of a sentence or sentences and participate in the formation of individual morphological categories, and also expresses attitude speaking to reality or reported. For example: I sameI will give my life for you; The enemy is near notsuffer etc. Wed: [Chatsky] Why so secret? - [Molchalin] In my summers not must dare / Have one's own judgment. – [ Chatsky] Have mercy, we are with you not guys / why same other people's opinions only holy? (A. Griboyedov); Only the Black Sea is noisy ... (A. Pushkin); Here the master will come - the master will judge us (N. Nekrasov); Here is the mill! She is already fell apart (A. Pushkin); Here youth! .. read! ., and then grab! (A. Griboedov), etc.

By structure particles can be primitive(not, is it, just) and derivatives (just everything was etc.). In its turn, derivatives particles are divided according to the nature of the relationship with those parts of speech from which they originated:

– adverbial (simply, directly, exactly);
– pronominal (all);
– verbal (was, used to be, give);
- excretory particles associated with unions(What thethe charm of these tales; I, but,I won't follow you)
- particles similar in meaning to prepositions (like).

In terms of performance functions particles are:

a) shaping(let, come on, let, let, would (Let it burst out stronger storm! (M. Gorky)) and derivational(derivational. then, or etc. (someone, anyone etc.));
b) semantic, emotional and expressive and modal.

To semantic include the following particles:

- index (here, there, this);
- definitive and clarifying (exactly, exactly, exactly, almost);
- excretory-restrictive (. only);
- amplifying ( same, directly, after all, simply);

To emotionally expressive(they are pronounced with force, pressure) particles are what for, something, where is it, what is there, well, well, well and etc.

To modal, expressing the subjective attitude the speaker to the reported, the particles are added:

- affirmative (Yes of course);
– negative (neither, no, no, not at all, how);
- interrogative (and, is it really);
- comparative (exactly, as if, as if);
- pointing to someone else's speech (de, they say – I say I don't know etc.).

In texts works of art particles express

various semantic shades words, phrases and sentences:

Wed: I same told you! Spoke same I to you! Or me whether you not talked about it? Is I to you not talked about it? Knew whether you about it? etc. - What the aces in Moscow live and die! (A. Griboyedov). I whether to you not own, i whether to you not close, / I am the memory of the village or not cherish? (S. Yesenin).

In Russian, two particles are distinguished expressing the meaning denial, not and neither. In connection with the particle not particle neither receives amplifying meaning: Neitherdrops notafraid; Neithertrait notI know. The scope of the particle not in Russian is very wide, especially since it "merged two homonyms that previously differed phonetically (not and n)". The complexity of the grammatical nature of the particle not expressed in fluctuations in its use. She has prefix agglutination. (indecent, independent etc.) and the negative particle function.

Particle neither expresses negation or in the structure itself non-distributed proposal (not a soul; not a sound; not moving) or when spreading a negative sentence, combining the meaning denial with meaning amplification (We didn't hear anysound) or with the value of the allied transfers (For you no letter, no parcel,neither telegrams). In a particle neither there is an element of the meaning of the completeness of the absence or the categorical nature of the negation. Particle neither reinforces negation and participates in the formation of "hidden" meanings in the structure of counter opposition. Qualitative enhancement of the feature particle neither expresses itself. Wed:

Not bad, not good, not average.

All of them in their places

Where neither the first nor the last...

They all rested there.

(A. Akhmatova)

// There are no bad ones, no good ones, no average ones, no first ones, nolatest... // = "none"- the most low degree sign.

Terminology issues

In modern Russian studies, there is an opinion that particles are not a special part of speech, but a special function the words. As an argument, the linguistic fact is given that the modified word can also be a particle.

Particles team up with pretexts and unions syntactic nature of the meaning: they do not express concepts they are assigned those semantic increments that the statement receives when a particle is introduced into it. For example, in sentences I drink in the morning only coffee with milk and I drink in the morning coffee with milk it is reported that coffee with milk is the only drink which the (I) drink in the morning. Since the above sentences differ in composition only by the word only, we can say that the indicated restrictive-selective meaning is introduced by the particle, is its meaning. If in a proposal Rain is coming introduce a particle even if, the content of its syntactic modality will change: instead of the denoted real fact the sentence will call desirable(optimal) fact. As a result even if turns out to be a particle with a desirability value.

Particles are part of one or another member of the sentence, if these particles are shape-building. Would say you tell me about it(the form subjunctive inclinations); Yes, shine your name(the form imperative inclinations). Some modal particles are also part of the members of the sentence, for example, the particle not: He told me did not believe.

Different parts of speech can pass into the category of particles. For example: In the audience only girls or In the room stood one table(one/one = "just; nothing/nobody else"); On the street one prank,grows here one nettle - the formation of particles from the names of numerals. Another example - Think: giveI'll say maybe I'll believe – shows education verbal particles. Or compare: Everythingthe space was occupied by roses, He did alldepending on him – cases of using pronouns, according to: And he everything is silent and silent -everything is amplifying particle.

Particles are widely used in sentences, communicative goal which is expression of the degree of the attribute value. For example, low the degree of the attribute is conveyed by the amplifying particle simply in the meaning of "perfectly": Our business is very badus just nothing to live(A. Ostrovsky) // just nothing to live = we have absolutely nothing to live on.

Restrictive particle only appears in the statement in the first and second meanings of the particle only:

1) "not more than so much, nothing else but "- It's only worth (= "only; total" five rubles // It's only worth it(just only)five rubles, that's just(= "only") Start // it just the beginningand to be continued;
2) "only, exclusively" Only(= "only") in the villageresting // I rest only in the village, nowhere else, Only(= "only") youpity me // Only you feel sorry for me, no one else. Wed: union only carries the meaning "as soon as": Just enteredshe meets him // How just enteredshe is facing him.

High the degree of manifestation of the feature is expressed by the amplifying particle only(or combined "not + verb") in preposition in relation to the pronoun and adverb in negative sentences, used to reinforce the idea of a large number, volume, girth, etc. For example: Who hasn't beenin Gorky's house, who did not writeto him, what kind of things were not interested inhe!(P. Pavlenko) // Who just doesn't... + verb = "very many (almost all)"; what only (affairs) not + verb= "very many (almost all)".

With a numeral, with a word Total or without it, particle only used in the sense of "no more than, just": He raged only three hoursbut laid down two hundred and forty spawners and an uncountable offspring(I. Ilf, E. Petrov). With a word more or without particle only indicates the limitation of the action, the phenomenon of the initial, preliminary, etc. moment in the meaning of "still, yet": This is just(= "still") Start , expresses the meaning gains - Everyone has been at work for a long time, and he only(= "still") dressing up, only(= "yet") seven weekshow he received the regiment(L. Tolstoy). Wed: union only combined with words as, only, barely or without them attaches a temporary or conditional subordinate clause in the meaning "at that moment, as, now, as": Just sayI will come // As soon as you say, I will come. Like an adversarial union only used in the sense of "however, but, on condition": I agree to go just not nowI agree to go however, not now.

Particle even used to emphasize and strengthen the word to which it refers: Evenhe will come; Here Pasha Emilievich, who possessed a supernatural instinct, realized whatnow hiswill be beaten, maybe even kicking(I. Ilf, E. Petrov).

In modern Russian, the lexeme simply functions as particle, adverb, predicate (short form adjective simple), union and state category word.

As particles lexeme simply functions in the preposition position in the following combinations:

– simple + adjective(simplyclumsy) ,
– simply + noun (It was just a boyfrom the next street, It's just a mockery preposition in relation to the predicate expressed by the noun);
– simply + verb (He just doesn't lookon me, me just wanthome – in an impersonal sentence);
– simple + state category word (Just can'tbelieve, here just deep).

In modern Russian adverb is one of the most productive and semantically complete grammatical categories. On its periphery, transitional types of words are observed, close to particles, conjunctions and prepositions. As an adverb, a lexeme simply occurs mainly in the position of postposition in relation to the predicate expressed by conjugated and non-conjugated forms of the verb: He said simply; Write simplyand clear.

lexeme simply belong to the class predicatives (short adjectives) based on the expression quality state and syntactic role predicate. The solution to the problem is quite simply ,Everything was simply ,war / / simply - short form of adjective simple in the function of a part of a compound nominal predicate: Solution (was) simply,The state of affairs was extreme simply ,All simplyand clear.

As union lexeme simply speaks for communication homogeneous members sentences and in compound sentences: He didn't hit simplylowered his fist on the table; ... my haste was not due to the fact that I was happy to be released from classes, simplyI tried to do as quickly as possible what the teacher told me(F. Iskander).

The element is expressive enough simply in the variant of gradational union not only but. Such expressiveness is created as a result of the adjective inherited from the name simple, adverbs simply and particles simply values. The only feature of sememes is the seme "not complex" (archiseme "measure, degree"). In all sentences as part of the gradation union, the element simply conveys the meanings: 1) "not containing many parts"; 2) "easier - more difficult"; "without intention - with a purpose"; "ordinary - extraordinary, standing out from others." The first meaning is present in composing sentences with gradational unions.

Element simply as part of a gradational union marks an equal component denoting a simple action, and with its lexical meaning indicates that the value of the first peer component is simple compared to the value of the second peer component : He not easynoticed errors but alsotried to fix them. The first equal component is notice – contains the sememe "see, discover", the second component - try to fix – Sememe "try to eliminate shortcomings in something." The second component causes in the minds of the speaker and listener what is named by the first: one action, indicated by the predicate notice is a precondition for the other try to fix. Such a ratio of two equal components of the syntactic construction creates material grade, because one of the peer components actually includes another peer component in its content. Element simply as part of the union emphasizes the importance material gradation.

Particle even in terms of implementation gradual semantics and grading sentence-statement is a productive amplifying agent and is freely used in combination with all the syntactic elements of the sentence as predicative so non-predicative plan. Particle even freely combined with the words of all significant parts of speech in all their forms.

amplifying Components and, but, well either alone or in combination with other gradators (cf. and even, but even, well, even; and simple, but simple, well, simple; and more, by (a) more, well (a) more etc.), highlighting the word with which they are used, often require the statement of this word at the beginning of the syntagma: And the poor man can be happy!(A. Chekhov).

Particle more in different contexts expresses a number of meanings, for example, in the text of I. Ilf and E. Petrov: The janitor stood at the workshop three more minutesfilled with the most venomous feelings... additional value; Viktor Mikhailovich for a long timeswaggered; Never beforeVarfolomey Korobeinikov was not so vilely deceived- in combination with the pronoun particle more used to emphasize something. When used after pronouns and adverbs more acts as a particle to enhance expressiveness: Which one elsegift to him! In colloquial speech what else is used in the meaning of "amazing, wonderful, exceptional", and the combination nothing yet - in the sense of "satisfactory to some extent": it nothing yet!He's been doing this for years and never got caught where more with previous union and yes stands in the meaning of "besides, in addition, in addition, in addition." Particle more expresses the presence of sufficient time, sufficient conditions for some action:

In the center such subtropics long gone, but on the periphery, in the field - still found; Madame Kuznetsova for a long time she would tell about flour, about the high cost, and about how she found Klavdia Ivanovna lying by the tiled stove...

Combination and also... used in the meaning of reproach, irony, condemnation ( And also a doctor!); to strengthen the expression of a greater degree:

And Ostap Bender told Ippolit Matveyevich a story, the amazing beginning of which excited all secular Petersburg, and an even more amazing end was lost and passed completely unnoticed by anyone in recent years.

Wed: Didn't I know that this would be the case?? O, how else did you know! knew very well(N. Sergeev-Tsensky); What elseMishka? NoneBears don't know(M. Gorky) - amplifying particle more used in the adverb how(or pronoun what) to emphasize a sign, a fact - I knew very well; Didn't know any Mishka. Like a bounding particle more used to clarify, emphasize any sign, fact: Here, see where still at the bottomrows of mowed hay lie, here is the bridge(L. Tolstoy).

The functioning of the particle in the text

Particle more very productive and is used in constructions with the following values:

1) recall, reference to the known: But Lizaveta, the merchant, you don’t know ? She went down here. More made your shirt(F. Dostoevsky);
2) concerns: ... He will come, yes, perhaps more rude(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin);
3) inconsistencies (more often with complicated elements a, i): I am a peasant, but I will not do this. And alsonobleman! (N. Gogol); Ek far enough! Alsoclever man...(N. Gogol);
4) condemnation, discontent, doubts: Here is the beast, still talking! (V. Garshin); Yes, where did you get? Sister is healthy. - Hurry up some more!(A. Ostrovsky);
5) assumptions;
6) Accent: More, as if on purpose, with the newest pieces of paper(N. Gogol);
7) amplification (with pronominal words how, what)". And how else draws beautifully...; What elsedexterous...

Particle all can bring into the sentence a variety of meanings and shades. This is an adverbial particle used in constructions with the meaning long-term, permanent and dominant feature : Do you know why he is like that? allsad, allsilent, you know? (I. Turgenev). lexeme all in this sentence it is a particle, it introduces a semantic honey agaric of a long and permanent feature, emphasizes that someone for a long time unhappy, sad, silent etc. The proposal is two-part; particle all is part of the nominal predicate (not so funny) and into the composition verbal predicate (everything is silent) located immediately before the significant word (happy- adjective, is silent- verb). The particle introduces into the sentence, in addition to semantic, a stylistic shade of colloquialism. Similarly: The father will even be glad; he keeps pushing me to serve, and I keep trying ill health(F. Dostoevsky).

A touch of colloquialism gives the statement a complicated anyway. Wed: He lies day and day in a hole, he doesn’t sleep at night, he doesn’t eat a piece, and still thinks: "It seems that I'm alive? .."(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin) - particle all introduces into the sentence the meaning of the constancy of the action and the predominance of the mental process of the face, and the morph - then, adjoining the particle, highlights, emphasizes, accentuates the semantic ring of the verb-predicate thinks.

Complex particle so in modern Russian it functions in verb sentences with the following meanings:

1) intensively and full emerging predicative sign (Rain so it pours; Sun so it burns);
2) sign like completion or identifying prior state (I'm leaving, – so I don't know truth; Bed so it was unfinished);
3) confident and defiant (So scared of you!).

A. A. Shakhmatov saw in combination so"an adverb meaning relationship, i.e. one or another degree of manifestation of a feature" and, accordingly, "a complementary circumstance". According to him, building " so + verb in the form present, past,(less often) future time" in modern Russian colloquial speech are extremely common. For example: Boards below it so they bend, so they crack(I. Turgenev) - present tense verb; So it blew misfortune from his figure(L. Tolstoy) - past tense; Me so it shook laughing(A. Chekhov) - past tense.

Particle So may be complicated by the element here, and then the syntactic construction conveys the meaning of direct and unimpeded detection of the predicative feature:

All the lower back hurts, and the leg, which is higher than the bone, so it breaks(N. Gogol); So all and hide in the shop when you see him (N. Gogol); “How I love your Pokrovskoye,” he said, interrupting the conversation. - So would all life and sat here on the terrace (L. Tolstoy).

Combination so is also used in η constructions with the value completion or identifying a previous condition. A predictive sign expressed by a combination so and, characterized as the result or natural completion of another sign that prepared it, independent and dissimilar to the final one ( cried all night sofell asleep), close and similar to it ( been sick for a long time so he died), or the same sign emanating from the past, which lasted for some time and naturally ended by itself ( never arrivedvisit). Meaning of syntactic parts with so revealed as a result of comparison, cf. so she fell asleep, so she died, and did not come etc.: ... he realized that he was gone, that there was no return, that the end had come, completely the end, but doubt it is not allowed, it will remain sodoubt(L. Tolstoy).

The meaning of "very, to a large extent" is conveyed amplifying particle where in colloquial speech: Whereyou cold and dry!(A. Pushkin). In combination with an adjective (or an adverb in a comparative degree) a particle where means "significantly, incomparably, much" (MAC) and is characteristic of colloquial speech: Much prettier, Much cheaperWork in progress much friendlier;...our oil pipeline - much more deservingan object for literature than all the charms primevaltaiga(V. Azhaev).

with a particle where formed infinitive sentences with the meaning of confident denial of the possibility of performing an action - the dative subject is usually used as part of the sentence (as a rule, the particle begins the sentence): Whereme, catechumen, to go to big bars ...(M. Saltykov-Shchedrin). Usually this particle is complicated by amplifying elements already, there, here, same:

Well, where are should she marry, should she marry? Here I marry, so I marry (Gogol); Oh, no, sir... don't take me to the hospital, don't touch me. I'll just take more flour there. Where can I be treated!.. (I. Turgenev).

Particle sentences where, conveying the meaning of negating the possibility of performing one or another action, can only consist of a particle and the following dative subject: Where to him! Where are you going! Where are you here!

Particle same way has the meaning of mocking disapproval, irony, assertion of the inconsistency of the sign with the internal capabilities, qualities of its carrier. The particle can be used both at the beginning and at the end of a syntactic construction - a one-part, nominal or verbal sentence: Every creature same wayclimbs to love! (I. Goncharov); Same way,from funny...(A. Griboyedov).

Widespread sentences that use complicated amplification particle well -Well; well... same; well, and; well, yes and ... well; well; well and :

Well, ball! Well, Famusov! (A. Griboyedov); Well you have a build, brother (A. Rybakov); Well was and the pig is a real lion! (K. Paustovsky); Well, really house! I got to the spot! (A. Ostrovsky); Well, really and glad same I saw you! (I. Turgenev); Well stupid same this girl... kind, but... stupid - unbearably! (M. Gorky).

The meaning of the graded assessment, conveyed by these linguistic units, is supported by the lexical meaning of the words that make up the sentence. A negative or positive assessment is revealed directly from the sentence itself, the modal meaning of which can be defined as an accentuated assessment in combination with surprise caused by a certain quality or nature of a feature, process, object or phenomenon.

Function amplification transmits a particle already in constructions where the predicative unit includes a word with a qualitatively characterizing meaning - a verb or a name denoting a feature that manifests itself to a greater or lesser extent, an adverb of measure and degree or a pronominal such, as:

And here we are fighting, so we are fighting with money... How necessary, how necessary!(A. Ostrovsky); I don't understand how you can deal with such a fool. So stupid here already true varmint! (L. Tolstoy); And the dowry: a stone house in the Moscow part, about two eltazh, so profitable that true pleasure (N. Gogol).

Complicated particle - too; already and ... same; really ... then; and already; really- often used in one-component nominal sentences, less often - in verbal or two-part. Such uses are characteristic primarily of colloquial and artistic speech:

Already and bear same was (I. Gorbunov); Already and horse! Kabardian lov-brand (L. Tolstoy); Don't blink your eyes when it's all over. And I'm a grandmother, a midwife! (K. Fedin); Already not angry whether he? (A. Ostrovsky); What does it mean? Already not suitors whether? (N. Gogol).

Accent particle Yes quite productive in terms of use, including in sentences with gradual semantics. A characteristic feature of the particle is the fact that Yes in sentences with meaning accentuated opposition is located between the opposing components, which can be any members of the sentence, but with the obligatory condition that the predicate, the main member of the sentence, or the entire predicative basis enter into this group. Wed: you yesdon't you understand? – With him - Yesnot agree? (I. Turgenev); yes youwork, go, you can't! – Minesweeper, Yescan not!(Yu. Nagibin) - the discrepancy between the predicative feature and its carrier (object) is emphasized.

From the point of view of pronunciation, such constructions are distinguished by a longer pause between the compared words. The pause is intensified and emphasized also in the case when the particle is followed by so that dividing the structure of the sentence into two parts: With his ability Yesnot to study! // With his ability yes tonot to study; At the forester yes tothere was no money! (A. Chekhov).

Among the sentences of accentuated opposition, the meanings concessionary restriction(N. Yu. Shvedova) and "affective expression"(A. A. Shakhmatov).

In offers concessionary restriction(with an unknown subject, object or circumstance) must include adverbs or pronouns something, somebody, somewhere, somewhere, for some reason:

And always anything yes stuck to his uniform ... (N. Gogol); to someone yes to be killed or wounded - that's right (L. Tolstoy); Mechanics and me something yes standing (A. Krylov).

Such sentences convey the meaning of such an accented sign, which is always combined with the meaning of confidence in its presence: "at least something (someone, something, etc.), but be sure ..." - stick; will be killed or wounded; has a price etc.

Offers affective expression are replicas of a dialogue in which a message is accentuated (not always an answer) with an emotional connotation of meaning - irritation, bewilderment, confidence, evaluation, etc. In such utterances, the particle always starts a replica, and the accentuation of the sentence is enhanced due to the complication of the construction by the particle same, following the logically selected word.

Wed in the works of L. Tolstoy:

“Natasha, lie down in the middle,” said Sonya.
“No, I’m here,” Natasha said. . - Go to bed, she added with annoyance.
(War and peace)

Vasily Lenidich I told you - those shoes. I can't wear these! Gregory. Yes and those they are standing there.

Vasily Leonidich. Yes, where is it?

Gregory. Yes there same.

Vasily Leonidich. You're lying!

Gregory. Yes here you will see.

(Fruits of enlightenment)

It is obvious that the presence of particles in a sentence-statement implies both the selection of one of the words and a wide plan of messages, and an attempt to remove particles narrows, impoverishes and even distorts the content of the statement. The role of the particle is not only and not even so much in allocation, how many in instructions on the broader meanings. values. These shades are usually worn measuring character.

Wed: Starodumova E. A. Russian particles (written monologue speech): monograph. Vladivostok, 1996; Shibanova A. E. Semantic-functional characteristic of a particle even// Russian language at school. 1974. No. 1. S. 33-35; Nagorny I. A. Expression of predicativity in sentences with modal-persuasive particles: author's abstract, thesis .... Dr. philol. Sciences. M., 1999.
Shakhmatov Λ. BUT. The syntax of the Russian language. (1941). S. 404.
See additional: Kolesnikova S. M. Particle "here" in the Russian sentence: grammatical transformation, desemantization and gradual function // Russian language at school. 2013. No. 6. P. 92–97.

PARTICLES

Composite particles are divided into two groups.

1) Non-separable particles: a then (- Not afraid? - BUT then afraid!; Let me in spend the night? - BUT then not let me in); without Togo (Human he and without Togo silent, a here and at all closed. Polev.; Once wait, without Togo already late); was about b(simple) ( Was about b to me not stay, a leave home!); in row whether; Total-just (time Total-just hour); all same; look and(colloquial) ( waited-waited, look and asleep); long away not (long away not sure in success; long away not gorgeous); divi would(simple) ( divi would a business knew, a then after all ignoramus!); before what (Good before what forest! Before what you tired!); good would; if would (If a would not war!); more would (You not touch. - More would you touched!; choir about w catch! - More would not good!); and there is(simple) (- Not acknowledged, it is seen? - Not acknowledged and there is. Bazhov; - Look, guys, Pika! - Pika and there is. Fad.); and So (Not get angry, I and So repent; Why to him money, at him a lot of and So); and then (On the rink and then not let; Saw for a long time, and then briefly; talk With him. - And then I'll talk); how there is(simple) ( Everything how there is you right said. Bazhov; - Frozen? - How there is frozen); how same ; how once (Came how once in time; I'm afraid I services: how once under a responsibility you will get. Turg .); how So (- Farewell. - How So Farewell?); how-then; where how (Where how fun!); OK would; on the what (On the what cunning, a and then wrong); no way No ; hardly whether ; by no means not (by no means not gorgeous); simply-simply (He simply-simply laughs above us); So-still (So-still and not appeared?); So already (- tobacco at me the whole. - So already and the whole?); then whether not (That whether not life!); then-then (That-then glad!; That-then I look he calmed down); there same (There same from funny: Said what-then I: he began laugh. Mushroom.; boy, a there same argues); already and (themselves made. - Already and themselves?; it disease. - Already and disease!); grab and (Bye were going, grab and rain went); thu about would (Thu about would he guessed call!); what and (- Let's go to? - What same, let's go to; I I agree, what and); what whether (call, what whether?; Help what whether!; What whether you deaf?); phraseological particles: not otherwise (how ) (Not otherwise how thunderstorm to evening will meet), not then what (to ), No (Togo ) to (What fur coat rotted! Not to think: where-then barin's fur coat? necr .); then whether a business (stupid ordered Ivan Ilyich; then whether a business we With you. L. Tolst.); Togo (and) look (Togo and look will die; will be forgotten Togo look), Togo and wait(simple) ( Stove Togo and wait fall down. Bazhov.); Togo and look (what ) (After all already too much a lot of lynx; Togo and look, what will break neck! Gogol ); exactly-in-exactly ; what neither (on the ) there is(simple) ( it his what neither on the there is darling song).

2) Dissected particles: here would (Here would rain!; Here rain would!); here and (Here you and friend!; Here to you and result!; You to him believed? Here and believe after this people!); here So (Here So orders!; Here this is So orders!; Here at us garden So garden!; Here comforted So comforted!); barely not (barely not late; barely head not smashed); barely whether not (Barely whether he not first in life lied); how not (How not understand!; How to me road not know!); how would not (How would rain not went); only would (Only rain would not It was!); few not(simple) ( AT bell became call, few not broke off. Avail.; From fear even few on the earth not fell. Lesk.); let would (Let yourself sang would!); quicker would (Quicker would Spring!; Spring would quicker!); So and (So and blows peace; So he me and not found out); only would (Only not be late would!) only and (Only and conversation, what about trip; Only about trip and conversation); though would (Though not grumbled would!); a little (It was ) not (a little leg not broke); a little whether not (a little whether he now not big chief became). Always dismember particles not whether (Not relax whether us?), not same (Not spend the night same here!). Phraseologized particles : No-No and (Yes and) (Not-No Yes and will come visit; Not-No grandfather and will remember); what per (What this is per news?; What at you per character!); what from (Togo , what ) (What to me from his promises!; What now from Togo, what he returned?).

Note. It is necessary to distinguish from composite particles various, easily arising and easily decaying complexes grouped around a simple particle, which are characteristic primarily for modal particles; for example: already - already and, well already, So already, already and... same; how - Yes how, well how, how same, Yes how same, well how same; like - like would, like how, like and, like how would; see § on this.

DISCHARGES PARTICLES ON FUNCTIONS

Particle neither expresses negation or in the very structure of a non-extended sentence ( Neither souls; Neither sound; Neither slightest hope; Neither step back!; Neither With places!), or when spreading a negative sentence, combining the meaning of negation with the meaning. amplification ( We not heard neither sound) or with the value union enumeration ( For you No neither letters, neither parcels, neither telegrams). In a particle neither there is an element of the meaning of the completeness of the absence or the categorical nature of the negation.

About negative particles and their use, see the chapter "Negation in the structure simple sentence and when distributing it" in the section "Syntax. Simple sentence".

Particles such as used to, happens, vish, say, look, look, go and a number of others, with their intonational isolation, they approach with introductory words(See section "Syntax. Simple sentence").

The language has certain rules and tendencies for the use of certain particles with words of certain lexico-semantic groups; many particles have positional restrictions. These phenomena are described in the chapter "Means of formation and expression of subjective-modal meanings" in the section "Syntax. Simple sentence".

§ . By composition, interjections are divided into primitive and non-primitive.

Primitives include interjections, in modern language having no connection with any of the significant parts of speech, such as a, yeah, ah, ay, Oh, ba, brr, scat, gay, her-her, and, them, on the, but, well, about, wow, oh, oh, Whoa, bye, Ugh, at, Alas, hulu-lu, uv, wow, fi, frr, ugh, Ha, hee, ho, poof, uh, hey, eh, uhm.

Note. Such interjections in most cases originate from emotional cries, exclamations, as well as exclamations and sounds that accompany the body's reflexes to external stimuli.

Onomatopoeia are also primitive, such as yeah, khe-khe, Ha-Ha-Ha, hee-hee-hee, ho-ho-ho, ya-ya; woof-woof, yoke-th, carr-carr, where-max-max, meow, mu-at, frrk (snort); bryak, boo, crumbs, ding-ding, ek, cap, tra-that-that, fuck-max-max, slap, click.

An important feature of primitive interjections is the presence among them of a certain number of words containing rare or even unusual sounds and sound combinations for the Russian language: such, for example, brr, hmm, ding-ding, Whoa, Ugh, ya-ya.

non-primitives interjections are a group of words, to varying degrees correlative with words or forms of one or another significant part of speech. Among the non-primitive interjections associated with nouns, words refer priests, God, lord, God, devil, Mother, creator, save(outdated), creator, crap. A significant number of non-primitive interjections are associated with the verb: drop it, will be, vish(from see), hello(those), sorry(those), ish(from see), or(from Pali), go-weaving(simple) think, think and think only, please, have mercy, tell, tovs(from get ready), us(from bite), enough. Single interjections associated with pronouns, adverbs, particles or unions: won(simple) then-then, eva(simple) eq, eka; out, Down with, full, away, ts, tsh, tss, w-w(last four of quiet); already(simple) but. Inseparable or weakly articulated combinations of a primitive interjection with a particle or pronoun also adjoin here: Yes already, on the you (here), well already, well Yes, oh-whether, as well as connections well and well and her-same-her.

A prominent place among non-primitive interjections occupy stable phrases and phraseological units: priests-Sveta, God my, God righteous, God right, God God my, God sorry (sorry God), God God forbid (God forbid God), God save, God bless, God have mercy, glory god, trait With two, crap take it, crap take, what per crap, go and you, tell on the mercy, I you, here you on the, here you once, here So So, here then-then and it (then-then and it-then), here this is Yes, how would not So, so that you.

In a special group among non-primitive interjections verbal interjections are highlighted(interjective verbs, verb-interjective forms) like twirl, look, max-max, morgue, dive (dive With takeoff run in the river), jump, lope, knock, sense, poke, hap, grab, whip, shvark, sniffing, rub (Suddenly what-then: trrrres! Czech) and similar, formally and functionally coinciding with primitive onomatopoeia of the type boom, grogh, knock, clap, click, somersault. All of them indicate frequent, abrupt or rapid movements and can serve as a model for occasional neoplasms.

Non-primitive are all vocative (calling) interjections, formed from the everyday names of the corresponding domestic animals: kitty-kitty, ut-ut, Tel-Tel, chick-chick.

Unlike primitive interjections, non-primitive interjections are a growing group of words. The main sources of replenishment here are evaluative-characterizing nouns of the type grief, trouble, death, fear, horror, lid, tobacco, pipe, skiff, pipes, abyss, diabolism(here - stable combinations like here So thing, here So cranberry, here So room), as well as verb forms with meanings. incentives: wait a minute, wait, let's, wali.

The class of interjections also includes a series loanwords: let's go, Hello, amba, apport, arrier, atu, that's it, bis, Bravo, down, isi, guard, kush, march, merci, pass, pil, stop, tubo, Hurrah, coven, shersh.

§ . By its semantic functions interjections fall into three groups; these are interjections serving the spheres of 1) emotions and emotional assessments, 2) expression of will and 3) etiquette (greetings, wishes, thanks, apologies). The division of interjections according to semantic functions does not coincide with their division according to the methods of formation.

Interjection serving the sphere of emotions, are divided into interjections, the semantic functions of which are 1) specialized (unambiguous) and 2) non-specialized (ambiguous, diffuse).

Interjections with specialized semantic functions include: ah-ah-ah, ba, God save, God With you, Bravo, brrr, won(simple) here those cross, here those Christ, here you n a, here you once, here So So, hmm, Lord With you, Yes well, devil, her, her-god, her-same-her, her right(outdated), more what, and-and-and (and-and full), how would not So, how same, n a- go, n a you (here), well Yes (well Yes, how same), well and well, well already, but, oh-whether, oh, go and you, think, have mercy, tell (tell on the mercy), glory god, then-then (here then-then, then-then and it-then), bye, Ugh, Alas, f-fe, fi, frr, ugh, Ha, X-heh, hee, ho, already(simple) God forbid God, Hurrah, crap, crap-those what, what per crap, trait With two, so that you, now(in pronunciation - right now), eva, eq, eka, eh, ehma. Most of these interjections express negative emotions: contempt, disdain, ridicule, disgust, annoyance, reproach, censure, threat, protest, condemnation, irritation, fear, grief, confusion, discontent, distrust, challenge, disapproving or extreme surprise, confusion, regret , oath assurance, indignation, grief, longing, sadness, pain. Words expressing positive emotions are rare among interjections with semantically unambiguous functions: Bravo(admiration, admiration) glory god(relief), Hurrah(jubilation). The sphere of negative emotions has an incomparably greater number of specialized means of expression than the sphere of positive emotions.

To interjections with semantically diffuse features relate: a, yeah, ah, Oh, so hot, priests, God my, here this is Yes, God, ish, them, Mother, well, about, wow, oh, With crazy get off, horror, crap take, crap take it. All of them convey a state of excitement, which predetermines the possibility of using them to express the most diverse, often directly excluding each other, feelings and sensations. Based on the content and general emotional coloring of speech and with the support of other means - both linguistic (intonation) and extralinguistic (gesture, facial expressions) - the same interjection can express approval and reproach, fear and joy, admiration and contempt, fear and determination. In narrowing and clarifying the semantic functions of such interjections, the role of intonation is extremely important, especially its aspects such as tone, rhythm, timbre, strength and duration of sound. Great opportunities for semantic differentiation also open up a change in the sound image of interjections through their doubling and tripling, repetition of final syllables ( wow-th, ege-ge, echo-heh), intonation variation of vowels ( and-and-them, uuu, oo) and other ways of expressive and emotional expression.

Note. There is an assumption that the emotional coloring of primitive interjections and the degree of their semantic diffuseness are to some extent predetermined by differences in the way vowels are formed and in the phonetic quality of the consonants combined with them. So, according to the observations of Acad. VV Vinogradova, interjections with high vowels |i|, |u| less overloaded with meanings than interjections with vowels |a| and |o|, while interjections ending in |j| have a narrower range of meanings than interjections ending in |x|.

Almost all interjections serving the sphere of emotions are brightly expressive. However, some interjections can be even more expressive. In some cases, an increase in expressiveness is achieved by means of word formation (by adding suffixes of subjective assessment: oh-oh-oshenki, ohohonyushki, ohhhhhhhhhhhhh, cm. § ); the method of complication of an interjection by a pronoun is often used you, with such use, almost completely losing its lexical meaning and intonationally merging with the interjection: Oh you, oh you, wow you, them you, ish you, eh you, Ugh you, ugh you, well you. A common means of enhancing expression is the joint use of several - more often two - interjections: Ugh crap, Oh God my, about-about priests.

Emotional interjections are close to onomatopoeia ( Ha-Ha-Ha, hee-hee-hee, ya-ya, meow, tyaf-tyaf; bryak, click, bam) and verb-interjective forms like jump, lope, dac-scratch.

§ . Interjection serving the sphere of will expressions, express commands and calls addressed to people or animals. A significant part of them are borrowings from other languages and belong to the professional speech of the military, hunters, sailors, builders, animal trainers: ugh, face, alley, anchor, apport, arrier, down, isi, kush, pil, tubo, shersh, lane, vira, half land. In addition to these narrowly specialized and little-used words, this semantic sphere includes interjections calling for help ( guard), prompting a response ( ay, Hello, hey), requiring silence, attention, consent ( tsh, shh, w-w, chsh, chu, chur), encouraging the implementation or termination of any action: let's go, atu, drop it, scat, have taken, go ahead, well same (Yes well same), shoo, march, on the, but, well, fall(outdated), whoa, hulu-lu, us, poof, coven.

By virtue of its natural proximity to the command. incl. interjections, functioning in the sphere of expressions of will, reveal a number of specific verbal features. Some of them are capable of accepting postfix - those (on the - here, well - well those, full - completeness, let's go - aidate, drop it - drop it, poof - tsytste, go ahead - go ahead, scat - splash) and to the connection with the particle - ka (on the - on the-ka - here-ka - on the-weaving, well - well-ka - chute-ka - well-weaving, let's go - aidate-ka). More more of such interjections shows the ability to syntactic links with certain (often pronominal) forms: chur me, atu his, well you, poof (scat) from here, march home, let's go on the river, on the Apple. Interjection ay, Hello, hey, on the, but (n-but-about), well, Whoa, hulu-lu can be used when referring to: ay, Zhenya, where you?

Note. Separate interjections related to the actual emotional sphere also have the property of syntactic compatibility with other words: Alas to me, so hot to me, already you, Ugh on the him, Ugh to me on the them; Ugh for us his ruin It was would! (Letters).

A special kind of interjections expressing will are words close to appeals that serve to call animals ( kitty-kitty, chick-chick), and interjections used when communicating with young children: bye-bye, yeah(and motivated by it fireworks, agushenki), buy-buy, bye-buy (lullabies-bye, bainki), here baby chur-chura.

§ . to interjections, serving the field of etiquette, include words such as hello(those), before goodbye, Thanks, thank you, thank you(those) (obsolete), sorry(obsolete, poet.), goodbye(those), sorry(those), sorry(those), please, Total good, Total(colloquial), my reverence, Hey(colloquial), great(simple) bye(colloquial). All of them contain a certain share of significance, bringing them closer to the words of other parts of speech. Many interjections of this group are able to develop secondary meanings and function as means of expressive and emotional expression of surprise or disagreement, rebuff, opposition.

§ . The participation of interjections in the syntactic organization of the text manifests itself in different ways. Interjections can function as an equivalent of a sentence (1), a modal component of a sentence (2), a member of a sentence (3). The syntactic activity of different groups of interjections is different; not all of these functions are equivalent: some of them correspond to the nature of the interjections themselves, others are secondary and only reflect the nature of the syntactic interaction of interjections with the words of other parts of speech.

1 TO performing the function of the sentence equivalent all interjections are capable. The interjection has the power of an utterance and in this case is characterized by an independent intonation: " E", - said we With Peter Ivanovich(Gogol); From surprise could pronounce only one sound: "O!" (Cupr.); " ehma!" - contemptuously exclaimed Lunev(Bitter.).

2) The function of the modal component of the sentence can be realized in two ways. In some cases, the interjection is used as introductory word: Patience starts few-little by little burst, but here - upa! - heard call(Czech.); slipped And bam! - stretched out(Block). In other cases, the modal function of the interjection is inseparable from the general meaning of the sentence, and the interjection from the sentence construction itself: Oh and the beauty!, Oh she is snake!; Eh you life-being!; Oh years-years!; Oh already these to me relatives!; Eh and song!; Oh how Nice!; Oh how it's a pity!; Oh how ashamed!; Ouch how pricked!; Vish how swears!; wow which splendor!: Eh which blizzard!; Well (and) freezing!; Well (and) weirdo!; Ek where threw!; Ek his poured! Only emotional interjections proper, mostly primitive ones, are capable of performing the latter function.

With the modal function of interjections, the function of intensification (strengthening) of a qualitative or quantitative feature, expressed by any significant part of speech, merges. When used in an accenting function, the interjection is placed directly before the word denoting the feature itself (1), or is placed in the syntactic position of the dependent sentence (2): 1) At! which sparkling, wonderful, unfamiliar earth distance! (Gogol); At! which image! Hair - stubble, eyes - how at ox(Gogol); Through courtesy sneaked wow which nimble agility female character! (Gogol); Runs.. at!.. running shooter, Lit under feet grass! (Sparks). 2) AT antiquity wedding was carried out not in comparison our. Aunt my grandfather, used to, will tell - lyuli only! (Gogol); Here and last year was such crop failure, what God save! (Gogol); So hurry, what on the-go! (I. Nikitin); BUT already what per guys, only well! (Letters); AT that time was chief provinces such the beast, what at!!! (S.-SH.).

3) Function of a sentence member in most cases is not own syntactic function interjections. The possibility of using an interjection in the position of one or another component of a sentence usually arises when the interjection replaces one or another word form: She is all oh Yes oh; Character at him oh-oh-oh; To the people - God God my!; Affairs - Alas and Oh!; Income - well!; Said would "oh", Yes not orders God(old post.); deceives century, a lives all eq(old post.).

The exception is onomatopoeia of the type bam, bam, jingle, click and verbal interjections like jump, lope, sense, grab, for which the function of the sentence member - the predicate - is the predominant syntactic function. In doing so, they usually receive contextually determined past values. temp. owls. form and are likened to verbs of a one-act mode of action of the type jump, clap, fuck, claw(cm. § ): Suddenly hear cry and horse top... We drove up to porch. I hurry up door clap And hid per stove(Pushk.); ( Captain Kopeikin) ran It was per her on the his piece of wood, trick-trick next(Gogol); incited kid - He nearly all the truth boo ! (Nekr.); Cat Vaska mood about lived And jump to spindle(Nekr.); door clap , gone(G. Uspensky); outweighed, you know whether, through railing, a railing - crunch ! crunched, you know whether... (Czech.); By tram crushed? - in a whisper asked Poplavsky. - Clean! - shouted Koroviev... I was witness. Believe - once - head away! Right leg crunch , in half! Left - crunch , in half! (Bulg.).

The use of the group of words in question in the context of the present or future tense, as well as their use in other meanings, is also possible, but is quite rare; for example: [puffer:] But firmly plucked up what-then new rules. Chin followed to him: he service suddenly left, AT village books became read. [Famusov:] Here youth!... - read!... a after grab! (Mushroom.); Sits on the river With fishing rod Yes myself myself then on nose, That on forehead - bam Yes bam ! (Nekr.); How jump up! Directly to master - Hvam pencil from hands(Nekr.); You know, who on the you jumps on, - Styopka Karnaushkin. He you will give, you - kick(A. Tolstoy); AT these lower reaches nights - delight. Light dawns. Foam on shoals shorkh-shorkh Black sea(Pastern.); All night he writes nonsense. Take a nap - and lope With sofa(Pastern.). In terms of motivation: How to be? get even we must... Strike!.. I allow. Not So whether, friend? Quicker - clap And again right, holy... (Nekr.).

Scientific interpretation of words like clap, grab is ambiguous. There is a tradition to consider them as special verb forms denoting "instantaneous", "ultra-instantaneous" or "sudden-instantaneous" action in the past. This point of view is based on the fact of the regular use of such words in the function of a predicate (see examples above), as well as on the assumption of their relationship with the ancient Russian forms of the aorist, i.e. with such forms that denoted integral - long or instant - actions , completely relegated to the past (A. A. Shakhmatov). Sometimes words like clap are characterized as truncated forms of the verb, homonymous with interjections, and the process of formation of such forms is depicted as a chain: clap! ® clap ® clap(S. O. Kartsevsky, A. A. Reformatsky).

According to another point of view (E. D. Polivanov), words like clap, grab- these are special "sound gestures" that do not have any specific verbal characteristics and indicators, but only replace or depict this or that action, perceived acoustically or visually. "Sound gestures" are not always correlated with verbs (see in the examples given: trick-trick, shorkh-shorkh); some of them can function not only as predicates, but also as circumstantial words. Previously, A. A. Potebnya, who characterized words like clap, grab as verb particles or predicates without tense, mood, number, and person forms. Noting the similarity of their meanings with one-act ("single") verbs, A. A. Potebnya emphasized that in the latter the action seems to be more conscious and therefore formalized. Without denying the verbal origin of such "particles" as sense, morgue, jump, lope, A. A. Potebnya nevertheless deduced them from the system of verb forms, indicating that in terms of use they are on a par with onomatopoeic interjections. Looking at words like clap, grab as predicative interjections and at the same time as "sound gestures" adhere to some modern researchers.

In some cases, we can talk about the functional interaction of inter-adjectives and conjunctions, especially adversatives: but, en, en No, en look: You can act, how you know, but - have in mind, what...; Here would lunch go and sleep collapse, en No! - remember, what you summer resident(Czech.); What doing philosophy Yes different once No time, So already I and not father? An here No same, father! father, crap them take it, father! (Gogol); Ai-ah! how hut got a cold! in a hurry bake flood, An look - neither log firewood(Nekr).

Note. AT literary language 19th century conjunctions were also regularly complicated by the interjection function in, dashing, Yes dashing out of common use: I would every week wrote review literary - Yes dashing patience No(Pushk.); wanted would to me call them on the housewarming, ask them feast mountain: in not visit same this! (Pushk.).

Particle- one of service units speech. It brings additional shades of meaning to the sentence.into words, phrases and sentencesand can also form word forms.The main role of particles (general grammatical meaning) is to add additional shades to the meanings of other words, groups of words or sentences. Particles clarify, highlight, strengthen those words that are necessary for a more accurate expression of the content: « Already the sky breathed in autumn, Already the sun shone less.» ( Pushkin A.S.) Already is a particle with an amplifying value.

There are few particles in Russian. In terms of frequency of use, they are in the first hundred most used words (as well as prepositions, conjunctions and some pronouns). This hundred of the most frequent words includes 11 particles ( not, well, here, only, yet, already, well, not, even, whether, after all ).

In their structure and functions, the particles are close to adverbs, conjunctions and interjections.

Particles differ from significant parts of speech in that they do not have lexical meanings, therefore particles are not members of a sentence, but can be part of members of a sentence. Particles differ from prepositions and conjunctions in that they do not express grammatical relationships between words and sentences, i.e. the particle never binds anything.

When parsing the particle is singled out together with the word to which it refers or not singled out at all.

In the science of the Russian language, there is no consensus on the classification of particles. Different authors have different classifications.

Particles are divided into 3 categories - semantic, negative and shaping.
Shape-forming particles are let's, yes, let's, would, b, it happened, let, let. Unlike semantic particles, formative particles are part of the verb form and the same member of the sentence as the verb: I would not know if he had not told.

Particle- one of the official parts of speech. It introduces additional shades of meaning into the sentence, and can also form word forms.

Shaping particles: let, let, yes, let's - form an imperative form together with the verb, for example: let them run, let's put up, let there be peace.

Particle would forms the conditional mood of the verb: I would like, I would say, I would go.

Particles that introduce different semantic shades are divided into

affirmative(yes, yes, exactly, well, yes)

negative(no, no)

interrogative(really, is it, is it, or what),

comparative(like, as if, as if, exactly, as if, like, as if),

amplifying(even, still, after all, already, everything, after all, simply, directly),

index(out, this, here)

clarifying(precisely, exactly, exactly, exactly),

excretory-restrictive(only, only, at least, only, exclusively)

exclamatory(what for, then, how, well, after all),

expressing doubt(hardly, hardly).

The meaning and negative particles are presented below in the form of a table.

Particles	Shades of meaning	Usage examples
not, not at all, not at all, not at all	negation	He far from as generous as it seems
really, is it, is it (l)	question	Really don't you notice it?
here, out, this	indication	Take here this book
exactly, just, exactly, exactly, exactly	clarification	He exactly the same like his grandfather
only, only, exclusively, almost, exclusively	restriction, selection	We only once seen him
what the, well, how	exclamatory	Well you have a big dog!
even, even, not, after all, after all, after all, well	gain	Even and don't think about it
hardly, hardly.	doubt	Hardly you can do it

Particles must be distinguished from interjections Oh, uh, ah, oh etc., used to express an intensifying connotation, which (unlike interjections) are not separated by commas (and are not accented).