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Glossary of basic biological terms and concepts

BUT

ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT - a set of inorganic conditions (factors) for the habitat of organisms. These include the composition of atmospheric air, the composition of sea and fresh water, soil, air and soil temperature, lighting and other factors.

AGROBIOCENOSIS - a set of organisms living on lands occupied by crops and planting crops. In agriculture, the vegetation cover is created by man and usually consists of one or two cultivated plants and accompanying weeds.

AGROECOLOGY is a branch of ecology that studies the patterns of organization of artificial plant communities, their structure and functioning.

NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA - bacteria capable of assimilating atmospheric nitrogen with the formation of nitrogen compounds available for use by other organisms. Among A.b. there are both freely living in the soil, and coexisting with mutual benefit with the roots of higher plants.

ANTIBIOTICS are specific chemical substances formed by microorganisms and capable of exerting a selective effect on other microorganisms and malignant tumor cells even in small quantities. AT broad sense A. also includes antimicrobial substances in the tissues of higher plants (phytoncides). The first A. was obtained in 1929 by Fleming (although penicillium was used by Russian doctors much earlier). The term "A." proposed in 1942 by Z. Waksman.

ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS - factors of human influence on the environment. Human influence on plants can be both positive (plant cultivation, pest control, protection of rare species and biocenoses) and negative. The negative impact of a person can be direct - deforestation, collecting flowering plants, trampling vegetation in parks and forests, indirect - through environmental pollution, the destruction of pollinating insects, etc.

B

BACTERIA is the kingdom of living organisms. They differ from organisms of other kingdoms in the structure of the cell. Single-celled or grouped microorganisms. Motionless or mobile - with flagella.

BACTERICIDITY - the ability of plant juices, animal blood serum and some chemicals to kill bacteria.

BIO-INDICATORS - organisms whose developmental characteristics or number serve as indicators of natural processes or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Many organisms can exist only within certain, often narrow limits of changes in environmental factors (the chemical composition of soil, water, atmosphere, climatic and weather conditions, the presence of other organisms). For example, lichens and some coniferous trees serve B. to keep the air clean. Aquatic plants, their species composition and abundance are B. the degree of water pollution.

BIOMASS - the total mass of individuals of a species, group of species or community of organisms. It is usually expressed in units of mass (grams, kilograms) per unit area or volume of habitat (hectare, cubic meter). About 90% of biospheres of the entire biosphere are terrestrial plants. The rest is aquatic vegetation.

BIOSPHERE - the area of ​​distribution of life on Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which are determined by the joint activity of living organisms.

BIOCENOSIS - a set of plants and animals in the food chain that has developed in the process of evolutionary development, affecting each other in the course of the struggle for existence and natural selection(plants, animals and microorganisms inhabiting the lake, river valley, pine forest).

AT

VIEW - the basic unit in the taxonomy of living organisms. A set of individuals that have a number of common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding with the formation of fertile offspring, inhabiting a certain territory.

germination - the ability of seeds to produce normal seedlings within a specified period under certain conditions. Express germination as a percentage.

HIGHER PLANTS - complex multicellular organisms with well-defined vegetative organs, adapted, as a rule, to life in a terrestrial environment.

G

GAMETE - sex cell. Provides transmission of hereditary information from parents to descendants.

Gametophyte - sexual generation in the life cycle of plants that develop with alternation of generations. Formed from spores, produces gametes. In higher plants, only in mosses, hyphae is represented by a leafy plant. In others, it is poorly developed and short-lived. In club mosses, horsetails, and ferns, G. is a growth that produces both male and female gametes. In angiosperms, the female G. is the embryo sac, and the male is pollen. They grow along the banks of rivers, in swamps and wet fields (reed, cattail).

GENERATIVE ORGANS - organs that perform the function of sexual reproduction. In flowering plants - flowers and fruits, more precisely - a speck of dust and an embryo sac.

HYBRIDIZATION - combining the hereditary material of different cells into one. AT agriculture- Crossbreeding of different varieties of plants. See also Selection.

Hygrophytes - plants of wet habitats. They grow in swamps, in water, in tropical rainforests. They have a poorly developed root system. Wood and mechanical fabrics are poorly developed. They can absorb moisture from the entire surface of the body.

HYDROPHYTES - aquatic plants attached to the ground and immersed in water only at the bottom. Unlike hygrophytes, they have well-developed conductive and mechanical tissues, a root system. But there are many intercellular spaces and air cavities.

GLYCOGEN - carbohydrate, polysaccharide. Its branched molecules are built from glucose residues. Energy reserve of many living organisms. When it is broken down, glucose (sugar) is formed and energy is released. Found in the liver and muscles of vertebrates, in fungi (yeast), in algae, in the grain of some varieties of corn.

GLUCOSE - grape sugar, one of the most common simple sugars. In green plants, it is formed from carbon dioxide and water as a result of photosynthesis. Participates in many metabolic reactions.

Gymnosperms are the most ancient of seed plants. Most are evergreen trees and shrubs. Representatives of gymnosperms are coniferous plants (spruce, pine, cedar, fir, larch).

MUSHROOMS - the kingdom of living organisms. Combine signs of both plants and animals, and also have special signs. There are both unicellular and multicellular fungi. The body (mycelium) consists of a system of branching filaments.

HUMUS (HUMUS) - a complex of specific dark-colored organic substances of the soil. It is obtained as a result of the transformation of organic residues. To a large extent determines the fertility of the soil.

D

Dioecious plants - plant species in which male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers are on different individuals (willow, poplar, sea buckthorn, actinidia).

DIFFERENTIATION - the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues.

WOOD is the water-conducting tissue of plants. The main conducting element is the vessels: dead lignified sex cells. It also includes fibers that perform a supporting function. It is characterized by annual increments: there are early (spring) and late (summer) wood.

BREATHING is one of the main vital functions, a set of processes that ensure the supply of oxygen to the body, its use in chemical reactions, as well as the removal of carbon dioxide and some other metabolic products from the body.

AND

ANIMALS - the kingdom of living organisms. Unlike most plants, animals feed on ready-made organic substances and have a limited body growth in time. Their cells do not have a cellulose membrane. In the process of evolution, animals developed organ systems: digestive, respiratory, circulatory, etc.

PLANT LIFE FORM - the general appearance of a plant. There are trees, shrubs, shrubs, herbs.

VENATION OF LEAVES - a system of conducting bundles in leaf blades, along which substances are transported. There are parallel, arcuate, palmate, pinnate Zh.l.

W

RESERVES - small areas of a temporarily protected area with limited economic activity and visiting people. Individual species of plants or animals are preserved in sanctuaries.

RESERVES - large areas where the entire natural complex is preserved in a natural state. Any human activity is prohibited here.

GEM - an organism in the early period of development.

ZYGOTE - a cell formed as a result of the fusion of two gametes.

ZONAL VEGETATION - natural vegetation that characterizes natural belts and zones (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert, etc.).

And

IMMUNITY - immunity, resistance, the body's ability to protect its integrity. A particular manifestation of I. is immunity to infectious diseases.

INDICATORS - See indicator plants and Bioindicators.

INDICATOR PLANTS - plants or plant communities that are closely associated with certain environmental conditions and allow them to be qualitatively and quantitatively assessed by the presence of these plants or communities. I.r. are used in assessing the mechanical composition, the degree of acidity and salinity of soils, in the search for fresh water in deserts and some minerals. For example, the content of lead in the soil is indicated by the species of fescue and bent grass; zinc - types of violet and yarutka; copper and cobalt - resins, many cereals and mosses.

EVAPORATION - the transition of water into a gaseous state. The main organ that evaporates water from a plant through stomata is the leaf. Together with root pressure, it provides a constant flow of water through the roots, stems and leaves. Evaporation prevents the plant from overheating.

To

Calcephiles - plants that live in alkaline soils rich in calcium. Alkaline soils can be identified by vegetation: forest anemone, six-petal meadowsweet, larch.

CALCEPHOBS - plants that avoid limestone soils. These plants are able to bind heavy metals, whose excess in acidic soils does not harm them. For example, peat mosses.

CAMBIA - a single-row layer of cells of the educational tissue, forming wood cells inward from itself, and bast cells outward.

Carotenes are orange-yellow pigments. synthesized by plants. K. is rich in green leaves (especially spinach), carrot roots, rose hips, currants, and tomatoes. K. - accompanying pigments of photosynthesis. The oxidized derivatives of K. are xanthophylls.

GLUTEN - proteins contained in wheat grain and, accordingly, in flour. They remain in the form of an elastic clot after the removal of starch from wheat dough. Baking qualities of wheat flour largely depend on the properties of K..

A CELL is the basic unit of all living organisms, an elementary living system. It can exist as a separate organism (bacteria, some algae and fungi, protozoa plants and animals) or as part of the tissues of multicellular organisms.

CONE OF GROWTH - the apical zone of the shoot or root, formed by the cells of the educational tissue. Provides shoot and root growth in length. Ph.D. the shoot is protected by rudimentary leaves, and the tip of the root growth is protected by a root cap.

CONCENTRATION - the amount of a substance in a unit of volume or mass.

ROOT SYSTEM - the totality of the roots of one plant. The degree of development of K.s. depends on the environment. A person can influence the development of K.s. plants (hilling, picking, tillage). There are rod and fibrous K.s.

rhizome - a perennial underground shoot that allows the plant to survive unfavourable conditions.

STARCH (STARCH) CROPS - cultivated plants that are cultivated to produce starch (potatoes, corn). Starch accumulates in tubers or fruits.

STARCH GRAINS - inclusions in plastids of plant cells. Growth K.z. occurs by imposing new layers of starch on the old ones, so the grains have a layered structure.

SILICA - silicon dioxide (quartz, quartz sand).

CROWN - elevated (above the stem) branched part of the tree.

Xanthophylls - natural pigments from the group of carotenes, their oxygen-containing derivatives. Contained in leaves, flowers, fruits and buds of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms. Participate in photosynthesis as additional pigments. In combination with other pigments, they create leaf color in autumn.

Xerophytes - plants of dry habitats, capable of withstanding overheating and dehydration due to a number of adaptive features.

CUTICLE - a layer of fatty substance that covers leaves, stems or fruits with a film. Low permeability to water, pathogens.

TILLERING - branching, in which lateral shoots appear from buds located near the surface of the earth and underground.

L

LITMUS is a coloring matter obtained from some lichens. Water infusion L. - purple, turning blue from the action of alkalis and reddening from the action of acids. As an indicator in chemistry, “litmus paper” is used - filter paper dyed with a solution of L. With the help of L., the acidity of the water infusion of the soil can be determined.

LANDSCAPE - 1) type of terrain, 2) geographical landscape - the territory within which the relief, climate, vegetation cover and animal world form typical outlines that give the whole territory unity and distinguish it from neighboring territories.

LEUKOPLASTS - colorless plastids of a plant cell. They may have different shapes. One of the main functions is the synthesis and supply of nutrients: starch, oils. They can turn into chloroplasts.

LEAF MOSAIC - an arrangement of leaves that provides illumination for each shoot leaf. Perhaps due to the ability of the leaf petiole to grow for a long time and turn the leaf blade towards the light.

LEAF POSITION - the arrangement of leaves on a stem. There are alternate, opposite and whorled L.

LUB is a plant tissue that provides transport of photosynthesis products from leaves to places of consumption and storage. The main conducting element is living sieve tubes. L.'s fibers carry out mechanical function. Reserve nutrients are also deposited in the main cells of L..

M

OIL CROPS - cultural plants that are cultivated to produce fatty oils (sunflower, soybeans, mustard, castor beans, oil flax, sesame, etc.). Most M.K. accumulate oil in seeds and fruits.

INTERNODE - The section of a stem between two adjacent nodes. In rosette plants (dandelion, daisy), short shoots of trees (apple tree, birch), and some inflorescences (umbel, basket) M. are very short or absent.

INTERCELLULAR - spaces between cells. May be filled with air or water (more rarely).

INTERCELLULAR SUBSTANCE - a substance that connects cells to each other. The connection can be dense (in the integumentary tissue) or loose (in the storage tissue).

MESOPHITES - plants that live in conditions with sufficient, but not excessive soil moisture. Most of the plants in central Russia are found in the tropics and subtropics.

MYCOLOGY is a branch of biology that studies fungi.

MICROBIOLOGY - a branch of biology that studies microorganisms. The main object of M. is bacteria. However, the term "bacteriology" is used mainly in medicine. Yeast (the kingdom of fungi) also serves as a traditional object of M..

PERMANENT PLANTS - trees, shrubs, shrubs and herbaceous plants that live more than two years. They can bloom and bear fruit.

MOLECULE - the smallest particle of a substance that has basic chemical properties of this substance. Consists of the same or different atoms.

PLANT MORPHOLOGY - the science that studies the structure of a plant and its forms.

UROUS ROOT SYSTEM - is formed with weak growth or death of the main root and intensive development of adventitious roots (buttercup, plantain, wheat).

MOSS (MOSSIVE) - department of higher plants. Most often these are terrestrial perennials. The body consists of a stem and leaves.

MULCHING - covering the surface of the soil with different materials in order to control weeds, preserve soil moisture and structure. For M., organic materials are used: peat chips, small manure, straw, as well as paper, cardboard, etc. M. helps to increase the yield of crops.

H

ABOVE-GROUND SEED GERMINATION - a method of seed germination, in which the cotyledons are brought to the surface (radish, buckwheat, beans, linden).

NATIONAL PARKS - large areas, usually located in picturesque places, where natural complexes of special value have been preserved. Unlike nature reserves, most of the N. p. open to the public.

LOWER PLANTS - a sub-kingdom of plants. Body N.R. (thallus or thallus) is not divided into root, stem and leaf. Such organisms have a special structure of cells, metabolism. K N.r. include only algae (see thallus). Previously, bacteria, lichens, algae, and fungi were included; all organisms except higher plants and animals.

NUCLEIC ACIDS - complex organic compounds, whose biological role is to store and transmit hereditary information.

Biological terms of cytology

homeostasis(homo - the same, stasis - state) - maintaining the constancy of the internal environment of a living system. One of the properties of all living things.

Phagocytosis(phago - to devour, cytos - cell) - large solid particles. Many protozoa feed on phagocytosis. With the help of phagocytosis, immune cells destroy foreign microorganisms.

pinocytosis(pinot - drink, cytos - cell) - liquids (together with dissolved substances).

prokaryotes, or pre-nuclear (pro - to, karyo - core) - the most primitive structure. Prokaryotic cells do not have formalized, no, genetic information is represented by one circular (sometimes linear) chromosome. Prokaryotes lack membrane organelles, with the exception of photosynthetic organelles in cyanobacteria. Prokaryotic organisms include Bacteria and Archaea.

eukaryotes, or nuclear (eu - good, karyo - nucleus) - and multicellular organisms with a well-formed nucleus. They have a more complex organization compared to prokaryotes.

Karyoplasm(karyo - nucleus, plasma - content) - liquid content of the cell.

Cytoplasm(cytos - cell, plasma - content) - internal environment cells. Consists of hyaloplasm (liquid part) and organoids.

Organoid, or organelle(organ - tool, oid - similar) - a permanent structural formation of a cell that performs certain functions.

In prophase 1 of meiosis, each of the already twisted two-chromatid chromosomes closely approaches its homologous one. This is called conjugation (well, to be confused with the conjugation of ciliates).

A pair of closely spaced homologous chromosomes is called bivalent.

The chromatid then crosses over with the homologous (non-sister) chromatid on the adjacent chromosome (with which the bivalent is formed).

The place where chromatids cross is called chiasmata. Chiasmus was discovered in 1909 by the Belgian scientist Frans Alfons Janssens.

And then a piece of chromatid breaks off at the site of the chiasm and jumps to another (homologous, i.e., non-sister) chromatid.

Gene recombination has taken place. Result: part of the genes migrated from one homologous chromosome to another.

Before crossing over, one homologous chromosome had genes from the mother's organism, and the second from the father's. And then both homologous chromosomes have the genes of both the maternal and paternal organisms.

The meaning of crossing over is as follows: as a result of this process, new combinations of genes are formed, therefore, there is more hereditary variability, therefore, there is a greater likelihood of new traits that may be useful.

Mitosis- indirect division of a eukaryotic cell.

The main type of cell division in eukaryotes. During mitosis, a uniform, uniform distribution of genetic information occurs.

Mitosis occurs in 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase). Two identical cells are formed.

The term was coined by Walter Fleming.

Amitosis- direct, "wrong" cell division. Amitosis was first described by Robert Remak. Chromosomes do not coil, DNA replication does not occur, spindle fibers do not form, and the nuclear membrane does not disintegrate. There is a constriction of the nucleus, with the formation of two defective nuclei, with, as a rule, unevenly distributed hereditary information. Sometimes even a cell does not divide, but simply forms a binuclear one. After amitosis, the cell loses its ability to undergo mitosis. The term was coined by Walter Fleming.

• ectoderm (outer layer),
• endoderm (inner layer) and
• mesoderm (middle layer).

amoeba vulgaris –

the simplest type of Sarcomastigophora (Sarkozhgutikontsy), class Roots, order Amoeba.

The body does not have a permanent shape. They move with the help of pseudopods - pseudopodia.

They feed on phagocytosis.

Infusoria shoe- heterotrophic protozoan.

type of infusoria. The organelles of movement are cilia. Food enters the cell through a special organoid - the cellular mouth opening.

There are two nuclei in a cell: a large one (macronucleus) and a small one (micronucleus).

Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Abbreviation- Loss by a species in the course of evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogenesis of signs or phases of development that the ancestors had.

Abiogenesis- The emergence of the living from the inanimate in the process of evolution.

Aboriginal- A native inhabitant of a locality, living in it from time immemorial.

Avitaminosis- A disease caused by a long-term lack of vital vitamins in the diet.

Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.

Autoduplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.

Autolysis- Self-dissolution, disintegration of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in these same tissues.

Automixis- The fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widely distributed among protozoa, fungi, diatoms.

Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.

Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or the energy released during chemical reactions.

Agglutination- 1) Bonding and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, erythrocytes and other cells. 2) Protein coagulation in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.

Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which the coagulation of proteins occurs, the adhesion of microbes, blood cells.

Agony- The final moment of life, preceding clinical death.

Agranulocyte- A leukocyte that does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates, these are lymphocytes and monocytes.

Agrocenosis- A biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms created for the production of agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.

Adaptation- A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, which ensures success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the effects of abiotic environmental factors.

Adynamia- Muscle weakness, impotence.

Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.

Acclimatization- A set of measures to introduce a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.

Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - the adaptation of muscle and nervous tissue to the action of a stimulus slowly increasing in strength.

Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms of chemicals found in the environment in lower concentrations.

Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and bones of the face due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.

Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.

allele - Various forms of the same gene, located in the same loci of homologous chromosomes.

allogenesis

Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation normal for this type of organisms.

Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.

Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without the opposite negative impact from the side of the suppressed.

Amitosis- Direct cell division.

Anabiosis- A temporary state of the body in which the vital processes are so slow that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.

Anabolism- Plastic exchange.

Analyzing cross- Crossing the test organism with another, which is a recessive homozygous for this trait, which allows you to establish the genotype of the test.

Similar bodies- Organs that perform the same functions, but have a different structure and origin, the result convergence.

Anatomy- Group scientific branches, investigating the shape and structure of individual organs, their systems and the whole organism as a whole.

Anaerobe An organism that can live in an oxygen-free environment.

Angiology- A branch of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of red blood cells, the content of hemoglobin in them or the total mass of blood.

Aneuploidy- Non-multiple change in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes, in which one or more chromosomes from the usual set are either absent or represented by additional copies.

Antheridium- The male reproductive organ.

Antigen- A complex organic substance that, when it enters the body of animals and humans, can cause an immune response - the formation antibodies.

Anticodon- A section of the tRNA molecule, consisting of 3 nucleotides, specifically binding to the codon of the mRNA.

Antibody- Immunoglobulin of blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by cells of lymphoid tissue under the influence of various antigens.

Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.

Anthropology- An intersectoral discipline that studies the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.

Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female germ cell or from cells of a germ or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.

Arachnology- Branch of zoology that studies arachnids.

area- The area of ​​distribution of the species.

Arogenesis

Aromorphosis- Evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; complication of the organization, raising to more high level, morphophysiological progress.

Arrenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by the queen bee.

Archegonium- Female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, club mosses, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an egg.

Assimilation- One of the sides of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which energy is accumulated.

astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Astrobiology- A branch of science dedicated to discovering and studying signs of life in the universe, in space and on planets.

Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, suffocation, oxygen starvation. Occurs with a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.

Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of this species of features that existed in distant ancestors, but then lost in the process of evolution.

Atony- Lifetime reduction in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Accompanied by a violation or even termination of their functions.

outbreeding- Crossing individuals of the same species that are not directly related leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.

Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes.

Acidosis- Accumulation in the blood and other tissues of the body of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids.

Aerobe An organism that can only live in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.

Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in humid air by periodically spraying the roots with nutrient solutions. Used in greenhouses, conservatories, spaceships and etc.

Aerotaxis- The movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to a source of oxygen or, conversely, from it.

Aerotropism- Growth of stems or roots of plants in the direction from which oxygen-enriched air enters, for example, the growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.

Bacteriology- Branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.

Bacteriocarrier

bacteriophage- A bacterial virus capable of infecting a bacterial cell, multiplying in it and causing its dissolution.

bacteriocide- An antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of other types of bacteria.

Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that perceive changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.

Bacillus Any bacterium shaped like a rod.

Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during the division of the cell nucleus.

Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.

biogeography- A branch of science that studies general geographic patterns organic world Lands: distribution of vegetation cover and animal population of various parts of the globe, their combinations, floristic and faunal subdivisions of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their constituent species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms.

Biogeochemistry- Scientific discipline that investigates the role of living organisms in the destruction rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration chemical elements in the biosphere.

Biogeocenosis- An evolutionarily formed, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system in which living organisms and their abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by a relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use of the energy flow coming from the Sun.

Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study wildlife.

Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data using mathematical statistics methods.

Biomechanics- A section of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.

Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics that studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the identified patterns in solving engineering problems and building technical systems similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.

Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclic fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the opportunity to adapt to environmental changes.

Biosphere- The shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms.

Biotechnology- A section of hunting science that explores ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting grounds.

Biotechnology- A scientific discipline and field of practice that borders between biology and technology, studying the ways and methods of changing the natural environment around a person in accordance with his needs.

Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies the physical and physico-chemical processes in living organisms, as well as the physical structure of biological systems at all levels of their organization - from the molecular and subcellular to the cell, organ and organism as a whole.

Biochemistry- A scientific discipline that explores chemical composition Living creatures, chemical reactions in them and the regular order of these reactions, which ensures the metabolism.

Biocenosis- An interconnected set of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals that inhabit a more or less homogeneous area of ​​land or water.

Bifurcation- Dividing something into two branches.

Blastula- Single-layer embryo.

Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines that explore the plant kingdom.

Bryology- The scientific branch investigating mosses.

Vaccine- A preparation of living or dead microorganisms used for immunization of humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.

Virology- The scientific discipline that studies viruses.

Virus carrying- Stay and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or parasitic diseases in the human body and animals in the absence of signs of the disease.

Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of germ cells - gametes.

gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage of the plant life cycle from spore to zygote.

Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes, resulting from reduction division.

gastrula- The phase of the embryonic development of multicellular animals, a two-layer embryo.

gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.

heliobiology- A branch of biophysics that studies the influence of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.

hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms that have a heterogametic male sex (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of the genes responsible for any trait.

Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.

Hemophilia- A hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, due to a lack of blood clotting factors.

Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrates, which provides oxygen transport in their body, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.

Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrates, it is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink hue.

Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of managing these processes.

Genome- The set of genes contained in the haploid (single) set of chromosomes.

Genotype- The totality of all genes received from parents.

gene pool- The totality of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.

Geobotany- A scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and the impact on it, features of the finocenotic environment.

Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.

Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs, caused by the unilateral action of the force of gravity.

Geophilia- The ability of the shoots or roots of some perennials to retract or grow into the soil to overwinter.

Hermaphroditism- The presence of male and female reproductive systems in one animal.

herpetology- A branch of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.

heterozygote- An individual that gives different types gametes.

heterosis- "hybrid strength", acceleration of growth, increase in size, increase in viability and fertility of first generation hybrids in comparison with parental forms of plants or animals.

heteroploidy- Repeated change in the number of chromosomes.

Gibberellin- A substance that stimulates plant growth.

Hybrid- An organism resulting from crossbreeding.

Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.

Hygiene- A science that studies the impact on human health of living and working conditions and develops measures to prevent diseases.

hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in conditions of high humidity.

Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants adapted to living in conditions of excessive moisture.

Hygrophobes- Terrestrial animals avoiding excessive moisture in specific habitats.

Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.

Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil on aqueous solutions minerals.

hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of humidity.

Hypertension- A disease caused by high blood pressure.

Hypodynamia- Lack of physical activity.

hypoxia- Reduced oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, some diseases and poisonings.

Hypotension- A disease caused by low blood pressure.

Histology- Section of morphology that studies the tissues of multicellular organisms.

glycolysis- Oxygen-free process of splitting carbohydrates.

Hollandic trait- A trait found only in males (XY).

Homozygote- An individual that produces one variety of gametes.

Homeyotherm- An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).

Homologous Organs- Organs that are similar in structure, origin, but perform different functions, the result divergences.

Hormone- A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and has a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.

Granulocyte- A leukocyte containing grains (granules) in the cytoplasm protects the body from bacteria.

color blindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish between certain colors, usually red and green.

Degeneration

deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is a loss of a section of the chromosome in its middle part; a gene mutation that results in the loss of a portion of a DNA molecule.

Demecology- A branch of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.

Dendrology- Branch of botany that studies trees and shrubs.

Depression- Decrease in the number of individuals of a population, species or group of species caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic causes associated with human activities; depressed, painful state of the individual; general decline in viability.

Defiance- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the end sections of chromosomes (lack).

Divergence- Divergence of signs.

Dihybrid cross- Crossing individuals for two pairs of traits.

Dissimilation

dominant trait- Predominant sign.

Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplant.

Gene drift- Change in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random causes; genetic-automatic process in a population.

Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.

duplication- A chromosomal mutation in which a part of a chromosome is repeated.

Eugenics- The doctrine of hereditary human health and ways to preserve and improve it. The basic principles of the doctrine were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed to study the factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, giftedness). But some ideas of eugenics have been perverted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. AT modern science problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.

Reserve- A section of the territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.

Reserve- A specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve it in its untouched form natural complexes, the protection of living species and the monitoring of natural processes.

Zygote- A fertilized egg.

Zoogeography- A scientific branch that studies the patterns of the geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.

Zoology- A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.

Idioadaptation- The path of evolution without increasing the overall level of organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.

Insulation- A process that prevents interbreeding between individuals of different species and leads to divergence of traits within the same species.

Immunity- Immunity, body resistance to infectious agents and foreign substances. There are natural (innate) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.

Imprinting- Strong and fast fixation in the animal's memory of signs of an object.

Inbreeding- Inbreeding.

Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is a turn of its section by 180 °.

Insertion- A gene mutation, as a result of which a segment of the DNA molecule is inserted into the structure of the gene.

Interferon- A protective protein produced by mammalian and avian cells in response to virus infection.

Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.

Ichthyology- The branch of zoology that studies fish.

Carcinogen- A substance or physical agent capable of causing or contributing to the development of malignant neoplasms.

Karyotype- A diploid set of chromosomes in the somatic (non-sex) cells of an organism, a set of their characteristics typical for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.

Carotenoids- Pigments of red, yellow and orange color found in plant and some animal tissues.

Catabolism- Energy metabolism, breakdown of substances, ATP synthesis.

Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler environment and leading to a simplification of the structure and lifestyle, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of active life organs.

lodging- Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms of different species, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an “apartment”) without harming the other.

Kyphosis- Curvature of the spine, convexly turned back.

Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.

Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives one-sided benefits from the other, without harming the owner.

complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.

Convergence- Convergence of signs.

Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship, determined by the desire to achieve a goal better and sooner than other members of the community.

consumer- Organism-consumer of ready-made organic substances.

Conjugation- Rapprochement of chromosomes during meiosis; the sexual process, which consists in the partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.

Copulation- The process of fusion of germ cells (gametes) into a zygote; connection of individuals of the opposite sex during sexual intercourse.

crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.

Crossing over- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.

xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.

xerophilus- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficiency.

xerophyte- A plant of arid habitats, common in the steppes, semi-deserts, deserts.

Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, the instability of the organism to environmental conditions.

Latent- Hidden, invisible.

Leucoplasts- Colorless plastids.

Lysis- Destruction of cells by their complete or partial dissolution both under normal conditions and when pathogens penetrate.

Lichenology- A branch of botany that studies lichens.

Locus The region of the chromosome in which the gene is located.

Lordosis- Curvature of the spine, convex forward.

macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations occurring at the supraspecific level and causing the formation of ever larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).

Mediator- A substance whose molecules are able to react with specific receptors of the cell membrane and change its permeability for certain ions, causing the occurrence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.

mesoderm- Middle germ layer.

Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.

Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.

Mycology- A branch of science researching mushrooms.

Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.

Microbiology- A biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their systematics, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.

microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.

Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species by poisonous and well-protected animals from attack by predators.

Modeling- A method of research and demonstration of various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.

Modification- A non-hereditary change in the characteristics of an organism that occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.

Monitoring- Tracking of any objects or phenomena, including those of a biological nature; multipurpose Information system, whose main tasks are to observe, assess and predict the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact in order to warn about emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc.

Monogamy- Monogamy, the mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.

monohybrid cross- Crossing individuals for one pair of traits.

monospermia- Penetration into the egg of only one sperm (sperm).

Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in the same linkage group, characterized by the frequency of crossing over in%.

morula- Early stage of development of the embryo, which is a cluster a large number blastomere cells without a separate cavity; in most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.

Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections, investigating the form and structure of animals and plants.

Mutagenesis- The process of mutation.

Mutation- Spasmodic change in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.

Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.

Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar features and properties in a number of generations.

Freeloading- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without harming it.

Neirula- The stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the neural tube plate (from the ectoderm) and axial organs are laid.

Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.

Noosphere- Part of the biosphere, in which human activity is manifested, both positive and negative, the sphere of "mind".

Nucleoprotein- Complex of proteins with nucleic acids.

Obligate- Required.

Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms in the process of life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and reproduce themselves in the environment, as well as adapt to it.

Ovulation- The release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.

Ontogenesis- Individual development of the organism.

Fertilization- Fusion of sex cells.

Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.

Ornithology- The branch of zoology that studies birds.

Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, the conditions of their life and burial.

natural monument- A separate rare or noteworthy object of animate or inanimate nature, deserving of protection in terms of scientific, cultural, educational and historical-memorial significance.

Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms in the course of evolution of similar structural features based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.

Parthenogenesis- The development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.

Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth formed by the soil cover.

pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.

Pleiotropy- Dependence of several traits on one gene.

Poikilotherm- An organism that is not able to maintain the internal temperature of the body, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.

Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of a male during the breeding season with many females.

Polymerism- Dependence of the development of the same trait or property of an organism on several independent genes.

polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.

Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and exterior.

Protistology- A section of biology that studies protozoa.

Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermins and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.

Radiobiology- A section of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and ways to protect them from radiation.

Regeneration- Recovery by the body of lost or damaged organs and tissues, as well as the restoration of the whole organism from its parts.

decomposer- An organism that converts organic substances into inorganic in the course of its life.

Rheotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of fluid or the location of the body parallel to it.

Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants, when they grow in a stream of water, to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.

Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, the process of reverse transcription occurs. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized based on viral RNA, which is then integrated into the host's DNA.

Reflex- The response of the body to external irritation through the nervous system.

Receptor- A sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.

Recipient- An organism that receives a blood transfusion or an organ transplant.

Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and features that the evolutionary ancestors of the species had in a developed form, but lost their meaning in the process phylogenesis.

Selection- Breeding of new and improvement of existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms through artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cell engineering.

Symbiosis- The type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.

Synapse- The place where nerve cells meet each other.

synecology- A branch of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationship with the environment.

Systematics- A section of biology dedicated to the description, designation and classification into groups of all existing and extinct organisms, the establishment of family ties between certain types and species groups.

Scoliosis- Bends of the spine to the right or left.

Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural features.

spermatogenesis- The formation of male sex cells.

Splicing- i-RNA editing process, in which some marked sections of i-RNA are cut out, and the rest are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleolus during transcription.

Succulent- A plant with succulent fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.

Succession- Consistent change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in the species composition and structure of the community.

Serum- The liquid part of the blood without formed elements and fibrin, formed in the process of their separation during blood coagulation outside the body.

Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.

Teratogen- Biological effects, chemicals and physical factors that cause deformities in organisms during ontogenesis.

thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.

Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.

Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.

Textile- A set of cells and intercellular substance that performs a certain role in the body.

Tolerance- The ability of organisms to endure deviations of environmental factors from optimal ones.

Transcription- Biosynthesis of i-RNA on the DNA matrix, is carried out in the cell nucleus.

Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is an exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or a transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.

Broadcast- Synthesis of the polypeptide chain of the protein is carried out in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.

transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.

tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of some stimulus.

Turgor- The elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elastic walls.

Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (human), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.

Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I. I. Mechnikov.

Phenology- The totality of knowledge about seasonal natural phenomena, the timing of their onset and the reasons that determine these timings.

Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external features and properties of an individual.

Enzyme- A biological catalyst, by chemical nature - a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.

Physiology- A biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.

Phylogenesis - Historical development kind.

photoperiodism- The reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.

Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.

Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of light.

Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by certain microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic due to energy chemical bonds.

Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.

Predation- Feeding animals that were alive up to the moment of their transformation into a food object (with their capture and killing).

chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein filaments formed when chromosomes are duplicated during cell division.

Chromatin- Nucleoprotein, which forms the basis of the chromosome.

Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.

Centromere The part of a chromosome that holds two of its strands (chromatids) together.

Cyst- The form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense shell, which allows these organisms to survive adverse environmental conditions.

Cytology- The science of the cell.

schizogony- Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; characteristic of spores.

Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms isolated from a specific source and possessing specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.

Exocytosis- The release of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of bubbles surrounded by the membrane.

Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationship of organisms and their communities with environment.

ectoderm- Outer germ layer.

Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of an organism.

Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of bubbles surrounded by the membrane.

Endoderm- Inner germ layer.

Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.

Biology Glossary

Abiogenesis is the development of living things from inanimate matter in the process of evolution (a hypothetical model of the origin of life).

Acarology is the science that studies ticks.

An allele is one of the specific states of a gene (dominant allele, recessive allele).

Albinism is the absence of pigmentation of the skin and its derivatives, caused by a violation of the formation of melanin pigment. The causes of albinism are different.

The aminoacial center is the active site in the ribosome where the contact between the codon and anticodon occurs.

Amitosis - direct cell division, in which there is no uniform distribution of hereditary material between daughter cells.

Amniotes are vertebrates in which a provisional organ, the amnion (water shell), is formed in embryogenesis. The development of amniotes occurs on land - in an egg, or in utero (reptiles, birds, mammals, humans).

Amniocentesis - obtaining amniotic fluid with the cells of a developing fetus in it. It is used for prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases and sex determination.

Anabolia (Supplement) - the appearance of new characters in the late stages of embryonic development, leading to an increase in the duration of ontogenesis.

Analogous organs - organs of animals of different taxonomic groups, similar in structure and functions performed by them, but developing from different embryonic rudiments.

Anamnia is the stage of mitosis (meiosis) in which the chromatids separate to the poles of the cell. In anaphase I of meiosis, not chromatids diverge, but gel chromosomes consisting of two chromatids, as a result of which a haploid set of chromosomes appears in each daughter cell.

Anomalies of development - a violation of the structure and function of organs in the process of individual development.

Antigens are substances of a protein nature that, when they enter the body, cause an immunological reaction with the formation of antibodies.

An anticodon is a triplet of nucleotides in a tRNA molecule that contacts an mRNA codon in the aminoacial center of the ribosome.

Antimutagens are substances of various nature that reduce the frequency of mutations (vitamins, enzymes, etc.).

Antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins produced in the body in response to the penetration of antigens.

Anthropogenesis is the evolutionary path of the origin and development of man.

Anthropogenetics is a science that studies the issues of heredity and variability in humans.

Aneuploidy - changes in the number of chromosomes in the karyotype (heteroploidy).

Arachnology is the science that studies arachnids.

Aromorphosis - evolutionary morphofunctional transformations of general biological significance that increase the level of organization of animals.

Archallaxis - changes that occur at different stages of embryonic development and guide phylogeny along a new path.

Archanthropes - group ancient people, combined into one species - homo erectus (straightened man). This species includes Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man and other closely related forms.

Atavism is the complete development of a rudimentary organ, which is not characteristic of this species.

Autophagy is the process of digestion by a cell of its irreversibly altered organelles and cytoplasmic regions with the help of hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes.

Twins:

Monozygotic - twins that develop from one egg fertilized by one sperm (polyembryony);

Dizygotic (polyzygotic) - twins that develop from two or more eggs fertilized by different sperm (poliovulation).

Hereditary - diseases caused by a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material. There are gene and chromosomal diseases;

Molecular - diseases caused by gene mutations. This may change the structure. structural proteins and protein enzymes;

Chromosomal - diseases caused by a violation of the structure or number of chromosomes (autosomes or sex chromosomes) due to chromosomal or genomic mutations;

Wilson-Konovalov (hepatocerebral degeneration) is a molecular disease associated with impaired copper metabolism, which leads to damage to the liver and brain. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;

Galactosemia is a molecular disease associated with impaired carbohydrate metabolism. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;

Sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease based on a gene mutation that leads to a change in the amino acid composition of the hemoglobin B-chain. Inherited by the type of incomplete dominance;

Phenylketonuria is a molecular disease caused by a violation of the metabolism of amino acids and phenylalanine. It is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.

Basal body (kinetosome) - Structure at the base of the flagellum, or cilia, formed by microtubules.

Biogenesis - The origin and development of organisms from living matter.

Developmental biology is a science that arose at the intersection of embryology and molecular biology and studies the structural, functional and genetic foundations of individual development, the mechanisms of regulation of the vital activity of organisms.

Blastoderm - a collection of cells (blastomeres) that form the wall of the blastula.

Brachydactyly - short fingers. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.

Genetic vectors are DNA-containing structures (viruses, plasmids) used in genetic engineering to attach genes and introduce them into a cell.

Viruses are non-cellular life forms; capable of living cells and reproducing in them. They have their own genetic apparatus, represented by DNA or RNA.

Vital staining (lifetime) is a method of staining other structures with dyes that do not have a toxic effect on them.

Inclusions are non-permanent components of the cell cytoplasm, represented by secretory granules, reserve nutrients, end products of metabolism.

Degeneracy of the genetic code (redundancy) - the presence in the genetic code of several codons corresponding to one amino acid.

Gametogenesis - the process of formation of mature germ cells (gametes): female gametes - ovogenesis, male gametes - spermatogenesis.

Gametes are sex cells with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Haploid cells - cells containing a single set of chromosomes (n)

Gastrocoel is a cavity in a two- or three-layer embryo.

Gastrulation is the period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a two- or three-layer embryo is carried out.

Biohelminths - helminths, in the life cycle of which there is a change of owners or the development of all stages occurs within one organism without access to the external environment;

Geohelminths - helminths, the larval stages of which develop in the external environment (ascaris, crooked head);

Contact-transmitted - helminths, the invasive stage of which can enter the host's body upon contact with the patient (pygmy tapeworm, pinworm).

A hemizygous organism is an organism that has a single allele of the analyzed gene due to the absence of a homologous chromosome (44+XY).

Hemophilia is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifested with a violation of blood clotting.

Gene - Structural unit of genetic information:

Allelic genes are genes that are localized in the same loci of homologous chromosomes and determine different manifestations of the same trait.

Non-allelic genes - localized in different loci of homologous chromosomes or in non-homologous chromosomes; determine the development of different signs;

Regulatory - controlling the work of structural genes, their function is manifested in interaction with enzyme proteins;

Structural - containing information about the polypeptide structure of the chain;

Mobile - able to move around the cell genome and take root in new chromosomes; they can change the activity of other genes;

Mosaic - eukaryotic genes, consisting of informative (exons) and non-informative (introns) sections;

Modulators - genes that enhance or weaken the action of the main genes;

Mandatory (housekeeping genes) - genes encoding proteins synthesized in all cells (histones, etc.);

Specialized ("luxury genes") - encoding proteins synthesized in individual specialized cells (globins);

Hollandic - localized in regions of the Y chromosome that are not homologous to the X chromosome; determine the development of traits inherited only through the male line;

Pseudogenes - having similar nucleotide sequences with functioning genes, but due to the accumulation of mutations in them, they are functionally inactive (they are part of the alpha and beta globin genes).

Genetics is the science of heredity and variation in organisms. The term was introduced into science in 1906. English geneticist W. Batson.

A genetic map is a conditional image of chromosomes in the form of lines with the names of genes printed on them and observing the distances between genes, expressed as a percentage of crossing over - morganids (1 morganid \u003d 1% crossing over).

Genetic analysis is a set of methods aimed at studying the heredity and variability of organisms. It includes the hybridological method, the method of accounting for mutations, cytogenetic, population-statistical, etc.

Genetic load - the accumulation in the gene pool of a population of recessive alleles, leading in a homozygous state to a decrease in the viability of individuals and the population as a whole.

The genetic code is a system of "recording" genetic information in the form of a sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.

Genetic engineering is a purposeful change in the hereditary program of a cell using the methods of molecular genetics.

Genocopies - the similarity of phenotypes that have a different genetic nature (mental retardation in some molecular diseases).

Genome - the number of genes of a haploid cell, characteristic of a given type of organism.

Genotype - a system of interacting alleles of genes characteristic of a given individual.

The gene pool is the totality of the genes of the individuals that make up the population.

Geriatrics is a branch of medicine dedicated to the development of treatments for the elderly.

Gerontology is a science that studies the processes of aging of organisms.

Geroprotectors are antimutagens that bind free radicals. Slow down the onset of old age and increase life expectancy.

Genetic heterogeneity of populations - the presence in individuals of a given population of several allelic variants (at least two) of one gene. Causes genetic polymorphism of populations.

A heterozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain different alleles of a given gene.

Heteroploidy - an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes in a diploid set (monosomy, trisomy).

Heterotopia is a change in the process of evolution of the place of laying in the embryogenesis of one or another organ.

Heterochromatin - sections of chromosomes that retain a spiralized state in interphase are not transcribed. Heterochrony - changes in the process of evolution of the laying time in the embryogenesis of one or another organ.

A hybrid is a heterozygous organism formed by crossing genetically different forms.

Hypertrichosis - local - a sign linked to the Y-chromosome; manifested in increased hair growth on the edge of the auricle; inherited in a recessive manner.

Embryonic histogenesis - the formation of tissues from the material of the germ layers by cell division, their growth and differentiation, migration, integration and intercellular interactions.

The hominid triad is a combination of three characteristics that are unique to humans:

Morphological: absolute upright posture, development of a relatively large brain, development of a hand adapted to subtle manipulations;

Psychosocial - abstract thinking, the second signal system (speech), conscious and purposeful labor activity.

Homozygous organism - an organism whose somatic cells contain the same alleles of a given gene.

Homoithermal animals - organisms that are able to maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animals, humans).

Homologous organs - organs that develop from the same embryonic rudiments; their structure may be different depending on the function performed.

Homologous chromosomes - a pair of chromosomes of the same size and structure, of which one is paternal, the other is maternal.

Gonotrophic cycle - biological phenomenon, observed in blood-sucking arthropods, in which the maturation and laying of eggs are closely associated with blood feeding.

Linkage group - a set of genes located on the same chromosome and inherited linkage. The number of linkage groups is equal to the haploid number of chromosomes. Clutch failure occurs during crossover.

Color blindness is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifested by a violation of color vision.

Deviation (deviation) is the appearance of new characters at the middle stages of embryonic development, which determines a new path of phylogenesis.

Degeneration - evolutionary changes characterized by a simplification of the structure of the body compared to ancestral forms.

A deletion is a chromosomal aberration in which a portion of a chromosome falls out.

Determination is the genetically determined ability of embryonic cells only to a certain direction of differentiation.

Diakinesis is the final stage of prophase I of meiosis, during which the process of segregation of homologous chromosomes after conjugation is completed.

Divergence is the formation in the process of evolution of several new groups from a common ancestor.

A diploid cell is a cell containing a double set of chromosomes (2n).

Diplotene - stage of prophase I of meiosis - the beginning of the divergence of homologous chromosomes after conjugation.

Sex differentiation is the process of development of sexual characteristics in ontogeny.

Dominant trait - a trait that manifests itself in the homo- and heterozygous state.

A donor is an organism from which tissue or organs are taken for transplantation.

The tree of life is a schematic representation of the paths of evolutionary development in the form of a tree with branches.

Gene drift (genetic-automatic processes) - changes in the genetic structure in small populations, expressed in a decrease in genetic polymorphism and an increase in the number of homozygotes.

Cleavage is the period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a multicellular embryo occurs through successive mitotic divisions of blastomeres without increasing their size.

Duplication is a chromosomal aberration in which a portion of a chromosome is duplicated.

Natural selection is the process by which, as a result of the struggle for existence, the fittest organisms survive.

Gill arches (arterial) - blood vessels passing through the gill septa and undergoing quantitative and qualitative changes in the evolution of the circulatory system of vertebrates.

The life cycle is the time of the existence of a cell from the moment of its formation to death or division into two daughter ones as a result of the transition from the G 0 state to the mitotic cycle.

Embryonic period - in relation to a person, the period of embryogenesis from the 1st to the 8th week of intrauterine development.

The embryonic organizer is a part of the zygote (gray sickle), which largely determines the course of embryogenesis. When the gray crescent is removed, development stops at the crushing stage.

Zygotene is the prophase I stage of meiosis, in which homologous chromosomes combine (conjugate) into pairs (bivalents).

Idiodaptation (allomorphosis) - morphofunctional changes in organisms that do not increase the level of organization, but make this species adapted to specific living conditions.

Variability - the property of organisms to change in the process of individual development of individual signs:

Modification - phenotypic changes due to the influence of environmental factors on the genotype;

Genotypic - variability associated with quantitative and qualitative changes in the hereditary material;

Combinative - a type of variability that depends on the recombination of genes and chromosomes in the genotype (meiosis and fertilization);

Mutational - a type of variability associated with a violation of the structure and function of the hereditary material (mutations).

Immunosuppression - suppression of protective immunological reactions of the body.

Immunosuppressants are substances that suppress the response of the immune system of the recipient's body to the transplant, helping to overcome tissue incompatibility and engraftment of the transplanted tissue.

Inversion is a chromosomal aberration in which intrachromosomal breaks occur and the excised area is flipped 180 0 .

Embryonic induction is the interaction between parts of the embryo, during which one part (inductor) determines the direction of development (differentiation) of the other part.

Initiation is a process that ensures the start of matrix synthesis reactions (translation initiation is the binding of the AUG codon to tRNA-methionine in the peptide center of the small subunit of the ribosome of the ribosome).

Inoculation - the introduction of the pathogen by the carrier into the wound with saliva in the bite.

Interphase is the part of the cell cycle during which the cell prepares for division.

An intron is an uninformative region of a mosaic gene in eukaryotes.

A karyotype is a diploid set of somatic cells characterized by the number of chromosomes, their structure and size. species-specific trait.

Housing is a form of symbiosis in which one organism uses the other as a home.

Keylons are substances of a protein nature that inhibit the mitotic activity of cells. Kinetoplast is a specialized part of the mitochondria that provides energy for the movement of the flagellum.

The kinetochore is a specialized region of the centromere, in the region of which the formation of short microtubules of the fission spindle and the formation of connections between chromosomes and centrioles occurs.

Classification of chromosomes:

Denever - chromosomes are combined into groups based on their size and shape. To identify chromosomes, a continuous staining method is used;

Parisian - based on the characteristics of the internal structure of chromosomes, which is detected using differential staining. The same arrangement of segments is present only in homologous chromosomes.

Gene clusters are groups of different genes with related functions (globin genes).

A clone of cells is a collection of cells formed from one parent cell by successive mitotic divisions.

Cloning of genes - obtaining a large number of homogeneous DNA fragments (genes).

Codominance is a type of interaction of allelic genes (in the presence of many alleles), when two dominant genes appear in the phenotype independently of each other (IV blood group).

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA molecule (mRNA) corresponding to an amino acid (sense codon). In addition to sense codons, there are termination and initiation codons.

Collinearity is the correspondence of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule (mRNA) to the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.

Colchicine is a substance that destroys spindle microtubules and stops mitosis at the metaphase stage.

Commensalism is a form of symbiosis that benefits only one organism.

Complementarity - strict correspondence of nitrogenous bases to each other (A-T; G-C)

The type of interaction of non-allelic genes, when the development of a trait is determined by two pairs of genes.

Counseling (medical-genetic) - counseling the applicant about the possible inheritance of a particular disease and how to prevent it using the method of genetic analysis.

Contamination is a method of infection using a carrier, in which the pathogen enters the body through microtraumas on the skin and mucous membranes or orally with contaminated products.

Conjugation - conjugation in bacteria - a process in which microorganisms exchange plasmids, in connection with which cells acquire new properties:

Conjugation in ciliates is a special type of sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid migratory nuclei;

Chromosome conjugation is the joining of homologous chromosomes into pairs (bivalents) in prophase I of meiosis.

Copulation is the process of fusion of germ cells (individuals) in protozoa.

Correlations - interdependent, coupled development of certain structures of the body:

Ontogenetic - the consistency of the development of individual organs and systems in individual development;

Phylogenetic (coordination) - stable interdependencies between organs or parts of the body, determined phylogenetically (combined development of teeth, length of intestines in carnivores and herbivores).

Crossing over is the exchange of sections of chromatids of homologous chromosomes, which occurs in the prophase I of meiosis and leads to the recombination of genetic material.

Cultivation of cells, tissues is a method that allows preserving the viability of structures when they are grown on artificial nutrient media outside the body to study the processes of proliferation, growth, and differentiation.

Leptotene is the initial stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which the chromosomes in the cell nucleus are visible in the form of thin threads.

Lethal equivalent - a coefficient that allows you to quantify the genetic load of the population. In humans, the equivalent is 3-8 recessive homozygous states, leading the body to death before the reproductive period.

Ligases are enzymes that connect (“cross-link”) individual fragments of nucleic acid molecules into a single whole (joining exons during splicing).

Macroevolution - evolutionary processes occurring in taxonomic units above the species level (order, class, type).

Marginotomy hypothesis - a hypothesis that explains the aging process by a decrease in the DNA molecule by 1% after each cell division (shorter DNA - shorter life).

Mesonerphosis (primary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney, in which the structural and functional elements are the Bowman-Shumlyansky capsules beginning to form, associated with capillary glomeruli. It is laid in the trunk department.

Meiosis is the division of oocytes (spermatocytes) during maturation (gametogenesis). The result of meiosis is the recombination of genes and the formation of haploid cells.

Metagenesis is the alternation in the life cycle of organisms of sexual and asexual reproduction.

Metanephros (secondary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney, the structural and functional element of which is the nephron, which consists of specialized departments. Laid in the phase department.

Metaphase - the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which the maximum spiralization of chromosomes located along the equator of the cell is achieved, and the mitotic apparatus is formed.

Genetic methods:

Twin - a method of studying twins by establishing intra-pair similarity (concordance) and differences (discordance) between them. Allows you to determine the relative role of heredity and the environment for the development of traits in a descendant;

Genealogical - a method of compiling pedigrees; allows you to establish the type of inheritance and predict the probability of inheritance of traits in descendants;

Hybridization of somatic cells is an experimental method that allows the fusion of somatic cells of various organisms in culture to obtain combined karyotypes;

Hybridological - a method that establishes the nature of the inheritance of traits using a system of crosses. It consists in obtaining hybrids, their analysis in a number of generations using quantitative data;

Modeling of hereditary diseases - the method is based on the law of homologous series of hereditary variability. Allows the use of experimental data obtained on animals for the study of human hereditary diseases;

Ontogenetic (biochemical) - the method is based on the use of biochemical methods to identify metabolic disorders caused by an abnormal gene in the individual development;

Population-statistical - the method is based on the study of the genetic composition of populations (Hardy-Weinberg law). Allows you to analyze the number of individual genes and the ratio of genotypes in the population;

Cytogenetic - a method of microscopic study of the hereditary structures of the cell. Used in karyotyping and determination of sex chromatin.

Microevolution - elementary evolutionary processes occurring at the population level.

Mitotic (cellular) cycle - the time of existence of the cell in the period of preparation for mitosis (G 1, S, G 2) and the mitosis itself. The period G 0 is not included in the duration of the mitotic cycle.

Mimicry is a biological phenomenon expressed in the imitative similarity of unprotected organisms to unrelated protected or inedible species.

Mitosis is a universal method of somatic cell division, in which there is a uniform distribution of genetic material between two daughter cells.

The mitotic apparatus is a division apparatus formed in metaphase and consisting of centrioles, microtubules and chromosomes.

mRNA modification is the final processing step that occurs after splicing. Modification of the 5'-end occurs by attaching a cap structure represented by methylguanine, and a polyadenine "tail" is attached to the 3'-end.

Sauropsid - a type of brain of vertebrates, in which the leading role belongs to the forebrain, where clusters of nerve cells in the form of islands first appear - the ancient cortex (reptiles, birds);

Ichthyopsid - type of vertebrate brain, in which the leading role belongs to the midbrain (cyclostomes, fish, amphibians);

Mammal - a type of vertebrate brain, in which the integrating function is performed by the cerebral cortex, which completely covers the forebrain - the new cortex (mammals, humans).

Genetic monitoring is an information system for registering the number of mutations in populations and comparing mutation rates over a number of generations.

A monomer is a structural element (block) of a polymer chain (in a protein it is an amino acid, in DNA it is a nucleotide).

autolysis, autolysis, self-digestion of tissues, cells or their parts under the action of enzymes in animals, plants and microorganisms.

autotrophic organisms, autotrophs, organisms that use carbon dioxide as the sole or main source of carbon to build their body and have both an enzyme system for carbon dioxide assimilation and the ability to synthesize all cell components. Autotrophic organisms include terrestrial green plants, algae, phototrophic bacteria capable of photosynthesis, and some bacteria that use oxidation inorganic substances- chemoautotrophs.

adenosine diphosphate, ADP, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose, and two phosphoric acid residues. Being a phosphoryl group acceptor in the processes of oxidative and photosynthetic phosphorylation, as well as phosphorylation at the substrate level and a biochemical precursor of ATP - a universal energy accumulator, adenosine diphosphate plays an important role in the energy of a living cell.

adenosine monophosphate, AMP, adenylic acid, a nucleotide consisting of adenine, ribose and one phosphoric acid residue. In the body, adenine monophosphate is found in the composition of RNA, coenzymes and in free form.

adenosine triphosphate, ATP, adenylpyrophosphoric acid, a nucleotide containing adenine, ribose, and three phosphoric acid residues; universal carrier and main battery chemical energy in living cells, released during the transfer of electrons in the respiratory chain after oxidative cleavage of organic substances.

Aleurone grains(from the Greek aleuron - flour), grains of storage protein in the cells of the storage tissues of seeds of legumes, buckwheat, cereals and other plants. They occur as amorphous or crystalline deposits (from 0.2 to 20 microns) of various shapes and structures. They are formed during seed maturation from drying vacuoles and are surrounded by an elementary tonoplast membrane. Large complex aleurone grains consist of a protein crystalloid and a non-protein part (phytin), some of them contain calcium oxalate crystals. During seed germination, aleurone grains swell and undergo enzymatic cleavage, the products of which are used by the growing parts of the embryo.

allele(from the Greek allelon - each other, mutually), allelomorph, one of the possible structural states of a gene. Any change in the structure of a gene as a result of mutations or due to intragenic recombinations in heterozygotes for two mutant alleles leads to the appearance of new alleles of this gene (the number of alleles of each gene is practically incalculable). The term "allele" was proposed by W. Johansen (1909). Different alleles of the same gene can lead to the same or different phenotypic effects, which was the basis for the concept of multiple allelism.

Amyloplasts(from the Greek amylon - starch and plastos - molded), plastids (from the group of leukoplasts) of a plant cell that synthesize and accumulate starch.

amino acids, organic (carboxylic) acids containing, as a rule, one or two amino groups (-NH 2). About twenty amino acids are usually involved in the construction of protein molecules. The specific sequence of alternation of amino acids in peptide chains, determined by the genetic code, determines the primary structure of the protein.

Amitosis, direct division of the interphase nucleus by constriction without the formation of chromosomes, outside the mitotic cycle. Amitosis can be accompanied by cell division, as well as limited to nuclear division without division of the cytoplasm, which leads to the formation of bi- and multinuclear cells. Amitosis occurs in various tissues, in specialized cells doomed to death.

Anabolism(from the Greek anabole - rise), assimilation, a set of chemical processes in a living organism aimed at the formation and renewal of the structural parts of cells and tissues. Opposite to catabolism (dissimilation), it consists in the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones with the accumulation of energy. The energy required for biosynthesis (mainly in the form of ATP) is supplied by catabolic reactions. biological oxidation. Very intense anabolism occurs during the growth period: in animals - in young age, in plants - during the growing season. The most important process of anabolism, which has planetary significance, is photosynthesis.

Anticodon, a section of a transfer RNA molecule, consisting of three nucleotides and recognizing the corresponding section of three nucleotides (codon) in the messenger RNA molecule, with which it complementarily interacts. The specific codon-anticodon interaction that occurs on ribosomes during translation ensures the correct arrangement of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain.

outbreeding(from English out - outside and breeding - breeding), crossing or a system of crossing unrelated forms of the same species. On the basis of outbreeding, heterotic forms are obtained by carrying out interline and interbreed (intervarietal) crosses. Outbreeding is the opposite of inbreeding.

autosomes, all chromosomes in the cells of dioecious animals, plants and fungi, with the exception of sex chromosomes.

acidophilia, the ability of cellular structures to stain with acidic dyes (eosomine, acid fuchsin, picric acid, etc.) due to the basic (alkaline) properties of staining structures.

aerobic organisms, aerobes (from the Greek aer - air and bios - life), organisms that can live and develop only in the presence of free oxygen in the environment, which they use as an oxidizing agent. Aerobic organisms include all plants, most protozoa and multicellular animals, almost all fungi, i.e. the vast majority of known species of living beings.

basal body, kinetosome (corpusculum basale), an intracellular eukaryotic structure that lies at the base of cilia and flagella and serves as a support for them. The ultrastructure of the basal bodies is similar to that of the centrioles.

Basophilia, the ability of cellular structures to stain with basic (alkaline) dyes (azure, pyronin, etc.), due to acid properties staining components of the cell, mainly RNA. An increase in the basophilia of a cell usually indicates an intense protein synthesis. Basophilia is characteristic of growing, regenerating, tumor tissues.

basophils, cells containing granular structures in protoplasm stained with basic dyes. The term "basophils" refers to one of the types of granular leukocytes (granulocytes) of the blood (normally, basophils in humans make up 0.5-1% of all leukocytes), as well as one of the types of cells of the anterior pituitary gland.

Backcross(from English back - back, back and cross - crossing), backcrossing, crossing a hybrid of the first generation with one of the parental forms or a form similar to it in genotype.

Squirrels, proteins, high molecular weight organic compounds built from amino acid residues. They play a primary role in life, performing numerous functions in their structure, development and metabolism. Molecular mass proteins from about 5000 to many millions. The infinite variety of protein molecules (as a rule, 20 a-L-amino acids are included in proteins) due to the different sequence of amino acid residues and the length of the polypeptide chain determines the differences in their spatial structure, chemical and physical properties. Depending on the shape of the protein molecule, fibrillar and globular proteins are distinguished, from the function they perform - structural, catalytic (enzymes), transport (hemoglobin, ceruloplasmin), regulatory (some hormones), protective (antibodies, toxins), etc .; from the composition - simple proteins (proteins, consist only of amino acids) and complex (proteins, which, along with amino acids, include carbohydrates - glycoproteins, lipids - lipoproteins, nucleic acids - nucleoproteins, metals - metalloproteins, etc.); depending on solubility in water, solutions of neutral salts, alkalis, acids and organic solvents - albumins, globulins, glutelins, histones, protamines, prolamins. The biological activity of proteins is due to their unusually flexible, plastic and at the same time strictly ordered structure, which makes it possible to solve the problems of recognition at the molecular level, as well as to exercise subtle regulatory influences. There are following levels structural organization proteins: primary structure (sequence of amino acid residues in the polypeptide chain); secondary (folding of the polypeptide chain into a-helical sections and structural formations); tertiary (three-dimensional spatial packing of the polypeptide chain) and quaternary (association of several separate polypeptide chains into a single structure). The primary structure of the protein is the most stable, the rest are easily destroyed by an increase in temperature, a sharp change in the pH of the medium, and other influences. Such a violation is called denaturation and, as a rule, is accompanied by a loss of biological properties. The primary structure of the protein determines the secondary and tertiary, i.e. self-assembly of a protein molecule. Proteins in the cells of organisms are constantly updated. The need for their constant renewal underlies the metabolism. The decisive role in protein biosynthesis belongs to nucleic acids. Proteins are the primary products of genes. The amino acid sequence in proteins reflects the nucleotide sequence in nucleic acids.

Bivalent(from the Latin bi-, in compound words - double, double and valent - strong), a pair of homologous chromosomes connected (conjugating) to each other in meiosis. It is formed at the zygotene stage and persists until the anaphase of the first division. In the bivalent, X-shaped figures are formed between the chromosomes - chiasmata, which hold the chromosomes in the complex. The number of bivalents is usually equal to the haploid number of chromosomes.

Bio…(from the Greek bios - life), part of compound words, corresponding in meaning to the words "life", "living organism" (biography, hydrobios) or the word "biological" (biocatalysis, biophysics).

biogenetic law, a generalization in the field of the relationship between ontogenesis and phylogenesis of organisms, established by F. Müller (1864) and formulated by E. Haeckel (1866): the ontogeny of any organism is a brief and concise repetition (recapitulation) of the phylogenesis of a given species.

Biogenic elements, chemical elements that are constantly included in the composition of organisms and necessary for them to live. In living cells, traces of almost all chemical elements present in the environment are usually found, but about 20 are necessary for life. The most important biogenic elements are oxygen (about 70% of the mass of organisms), carbon (18%), hydrogen (10%), nitrogen , potassium, calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, sulfur, chlorine, sodium. These so-called universal biogenic elements are present in the cells of all organisms. Some biogenic elements are important only for certain groups of living beings (for example, boron and other biogenic elements are necessary for plants, vanadium for ascidians, etc.).

biological membranes(Latin membrana - skin, shell, membrane), structures that limit cells (cellular or plasma membranes) and intracellular organelles (membranes of mitochondria, chloroplasts, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, etc.). They contain lipids, proteins, heterogeneous macromolecules (glycoproteins, glycolipids) and, depending on the function performed, numerous minor components (coenzymes, nucleic acids, amino acids, carotenoids, inorganic ions, etc.). The main functions of biological membranes are barrier, transport, regulatory and catalytic.

Fermentation, anaerobic enzymatic redox process of transformation of organic substances, through which organisms obtain the energy necessary for life. Compared to processes taking place in the presence of oxygen, fermentation is an evolutionarily earlier and energetically less favorable form of extracting energy from nutrients. Animals, plants and many microorganisms are capable of fermentation (some bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa grow only due to the energy obtained during fermentation).

Vacuoles(French vacuole from Latin vacuus - empty), cavities in the cytoplasm of animal and plant cells, bounded by a membrane and filled with liquid. In the cytoplasm of protozoa, there are digestive vacuoles containing enzymes and contractile vacuoles that perform the functions of osmoregulation and excretion. Multicellular animals are characterized by digestive and autophagic vacuoles, which are part of the group of secondary lysosomes and contain hydrolytic enzymes.

In plants, vacuoles are derivatives of the endoplasmic reticulum and are surrounded by a semi-permeable membrane - the tonoplast. The entire system of vacuoles of a plant cell is called a vacuum, which in a young cell is represented by a system of tubules and vesicles; as the cell grows and differentiates, they increase and merge into one large central vacuole, which occupies 70-95% of the volume of a mature cell. Vacuole cell sap is an aqueous liquid with a pH of 2-5, contains organic and organic substances dissolved in water. inorganic salts(phosphates, oxalates, etc.), sugars, amino acids, proteins, metabolic end or toxic products (tannins, glycosides, alkaloids), some pigments (eg anthocyanins). Functions of vacuoles: regulation of water-salt metabolism, maintenance of turgor pressure in the cell, accumulation of low-molecular water-soluble metabolites, reserve substances and elimination of toxic substances from metabolism.

Spindle of division, achromatin spindle, a system of microtubules in a dividing cell, which ensures the divergence of chromosomes in mitosis and meiosis. The spindle is formed in prometaphase and disintegrates in telophase.

Cell inclusions, components of the cytoplasm, which are deposits of substances temporarily removed from metabolism or its final products. The specificity of cell inclusions is associated with the specialization of the corresponding cells, tissues and organs. The most common trophic inclusions of cells are drops of fat, clumps of glycogen, yolk in eggs. In plant inclusion cells, the cells are mainly represented by starch and aleurone grains and lipid droplets. Cell inclusions also include secretory granules in the glandular cells of animals, crystals of some salts (mainly calcium oxalates) in plant cells. A special type of cell inclusions - residual bodies - products of the activity of lysosomes.

gas exchange, a set of processes of gas exchange between the body and the environment; consists in the consumption of oxygen by the body, the release of carbon dioxide, a small amount of other gaseous substances and water vapor. biological significance gas exchange is determined by its direct participation in metabolism, the conversion of the chemical energy of digested nutrient products into the energy necessary for the life of the body.

Gamete(from the Greek gamete - wife, gametes - husband), sex cell, reproductive cell of animals and plants. The gamete ensures the transmission of hereditary information from parents to offspring. The gamete has a haploid set of chromosomes, which is provided by a complex process of gametogenesis. Two gametes, merging during fertilization, form a zygote with a diploid set of chromosomes, which gives rise to a new organism.

Gametogenesis development of sex cells (gametes).

gametophyte, sexual generation in the life cycle of plants developing with alternation of generations. It is formed from a spore, has a haploid set of chromosomes; produces gametes either in ordinary vegetative cells of the thallus (some algae) or in specialized organs of sexual reproduction - gametangia, oogonia and antheridia (lower plants), archegonia and antheridia (higher plants with the exception of flowering plants).

Haploid(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and eidos - view), an organism (cell, nucleus) with a single (haploid) set of chromosomes, which is denoted by the Latin letter n. In many eukaryotic microorganisms and lower plants, the haploid normally represents one of the stages of the life cycle (haplophase, gametophyte), and in some species of arthropods, males are haploid, developing from unfertilized or fertilized eggs, but in which one of the haploid sets of chromosomes is eliminated. In most animals (and humans) only germ cells are haploid.

Haplont(from the Greek haplos - single, simple and on - being), an organism in which all cells contain a haploid set of chromosomes, and only the zygote is diploid. Some protozoa (eg coccidia), fungi (oomycetes), many green algae.

hemicelluloses, a group of polysaccharides of higher plants that, together with cellulose, make up the cell wall.

Gene(from the Greek genos - genus, origin), hereditary factor, functionally indivisible unit of genetic material; a section of a DNA molecule (in some viruses, RNA) that encodes the primary structure of a polypeptide, transport and ribosomal RNA molecules, or interacts with a regulatory protein. The totality of the genes of a given cell or organism makes up its genotype. The existence of hereditary discrete factors in germ cells was hypothetically postulated by G. Mendel in 1865 and in 1909. V. Johansen called them genes. Further ideas about genes are associated with the development of the chromosome theory of heredity.

…genesis(from the Greek genesis - origin, occurrence), part of compound words meaning origin, the process of formation, for example, ontogenesis, oogenesis.

genetic information, information about the properties of the organism, which is inherited. Genetic information is recorded by the sequence of nucleotides of nucleic acid molecules (DNA, in some viruses also RNA). Contains information about the structure of all (about 10,000) enzymes, structural proteins and RNA of the cell, as well as the regulation of their synthesis. Various enzymatic complexes of the cell read the genetic information.

Genetic map of the chromosome, scheme of mutual arrangement of genes in the same linkage group. To compile a genetic map of chromosomes, it is necessary to identify many mutant genes and carry out numerous crosses. The distance between genes on the genetic map of chromosomes is determined by the frequency of crossing over between them. The distance unit on the genetic map of the chromosomes of meiotically dividing cells is the morganide, which corresponds to 1% crossing over.

Genetic code, a unified system for recording hereditary information in nucleic acid molecules in the form of a sequence of nucleotides, characteristic of living organisms; determines the sequence of inclusion of amino acids in the synthesized polypeptide chain in accordance with the nucleotide sequence of the gene. Implementation of the genetic code in living cells, i.e. the synthesis of the protein encoded by the gene is carried out using two matrix processes - transcription and translation. General properties genetic code: triplet (each amino acid is encoded by a triple of nucleotides); non-overlapping (codons of one gene do not overlap); degeneracy (many amino acid residues are encoded by several codons); uniqueness (each individual codon encodes only one amino acid residue); compactness (there are no “commas” between codons and mRNA - nucleotides that are not included in the codon sequence of a given gene); universality (the genetic code is the same for all living organisms).

genetic material, cell components, the structural and functional unity of which ensures the storage, implementation and transmission of hereditary information during vegetative and sexual reproduction.

Genome(German Genom), a set of genes characteristic of the haploid set of chromosomes of a given type of organism; main haploid set of chromosomes.

Genotype, the genetic (hereditary) constitution of an organism, the totality of all hereditary inclinations of a given cell or organism, including alleles of genes, the nature of their physical linkage in chromosomes and the presence of chromosome structures.

gene pool, the totality of genes that individuals of a given population, group of populations or species have.

Heterogamy, 1) the type of sexual process, male and female gametes that merge during fertilization are different in shape and size. For higher plants and multicellular animals, as well as for some fungi, oogamy is characteristic; according to the ratio of individuals of a number of protozoa that copulate and conjugate during the sexual process, the term "anisogamy" is used. 2) Change in the function of male and female flowers or their location on the plant (as an anomaly).

heterozygote, an organism (cell) in which homologous chromosomes carry different alleles (alternative forms) of a particular gene. Heterozygosity, as a rule, determines the high viability of organisms, their good adaptability to changing environmental conditions, and therefore is widespread in natural populations.

heterotrophic organisms, heterotrophs, organisms that use exogenous organic matter as a source of carbon. As a rule, these same substances serve for them at the same time as a source of energy (organotrophy). Heterotrophic organisms, as opposed to autotrophic organisms, include all animals, fungi, most bacteria, as well as chlorophyll-free land plants and algae.

Heterochromatin, areas of chromatin that are in a condensed (densely packed) state throughout the entire cell cycle. They are intensely stained with nuclear dyes and are clearly visible under a light microscope even during interphase. Heterochromatic regions of chromosomes, as a rule, replicate later than euchromatic regions and are not transcribed; genetically very inert.

Hyaloplasm, the main plasma, the matrix of the cytoplasm, a complex colorless colloidal system in the cell, capable of reversible transitions from sol to gel.

Glycogen, a branched polysaccharide whose molecules are built from a-D-glucose residues. Molecular weight 10 5 -10 7 . The rapidly mobilized energy reserve of many living organisms accumulates in vertebrates mainly in the liver and muscles.

Glycocalyx(from Greek glykys - sweet and Latin callum - thick skin), a glycoprotein complex associated with the outer surface of the plasma membrane in animal cells. Thickness - several tens of nanometers. In the glycocalyx, extracellular digestion occurs, many cell receptors are located in it, and with its help, apparently, cell adhesion occurs.

glycolysis, the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnassus pathway, an enzymatic anaerobic process of non-hydrolytic breakdown of carbohydrates (mainly glucose) to lactic acid. It provides the cell with energy in conditions of insufficient oxygen supply (in obligate anaerobes, glycolysis is the only process that supplies energy), and under aerobic conditions, glycolysis is the stage preceding respiration - the oxidative breakdown of carbohydrates to carbon dioxide and water.

glycolipids, lipids containing a carbohydrate moiety. They are present in the tissues of plants and animals, as well as in some microorganisms. Glycosphingolipids and glycophospholipids are part of biological membranes, play an important role in the phenomena of intercellular adhesion, and have immune properties.

Glycoproteins, glycoproteins, complex proteins containing carbohydrates (from fractions of a percent to 80%). Molecular weight from 15,000 to 1,000,000. Present in all tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms. Glycoproteins, which are part of the cell membrane, are involved in cell ion exchange, immunological reactions, tissue differentiation, intercellular adhesion phenomena, etc.

globular proteins, proteins whose polypeptide chains are folded into compact spherical or elliptical structures (globules). The most important representatives of globular proteins are albumins, globulins, protamines, histones, prolamins, glutelins. Unlike fibrillar proteins, which mainly play a supporting or protective role in the body, many globular proteins perform dynamic functions. Globular proteins include almost all known enzymes, antibodies, some hormones, and many transport proteins.

Glucose, grape sugar, one of the most common monosaccharides of the hexose group, the most important source of energy in living cells.

Homogamety, a characteristic of an organism (or group of organisms) that has a pair or several pairs of homologous sex chromosomes in the chromosome set and, as a result, form gametes that are identical in chromosome set. The sex represented by such individuals is called homogametic. In mammals, fish and some plant species (hemp, hops, sorrel), homogamety is characteristic of the female, and in birds, butterflies and some types of strawberries - for the male.

Homozygote, a diploid or polyploid cell (individual), whose homologous chromosomes carry identical alleles of a particular gene.

homologous chromosomes, contain the same set of genes, are similar in morphological features, conjugate in the prophase of meiosis. In a diploid set of chromosomes, each pair of chromosomes is represented by two homologous chromosomes, which can differ in the alleles of the genes they contain and exchange sites in the process of crossing over.

Gram-positive bacteria prokaryotes whose cells stain positively according to the Gram method (they are able to bind the main dyes - methylene blue, gentian violet, etc., and after treatment with iodine, then alcohol or acetone, retain the iodine-dye complex). In modern literature, gram-positive bacteria include bacteria of the Firmicutes department with the so-called gram-positive type of cell wall structure. Gram-positive bacteria are characterized by: sensitivity to certain antibiotics (not acting on gram-negative bacteria), some features of the composition and structure of the membrane apparatus, the composition of ribosomal proteins, RNA polymerase, the ability to form endospores, true mycelium, and other properties.

deoxyribonucleic acids, DNA, nucleic acids containing deoxyribose as a carbohydrate component, and adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T) as nitrogen bases. They are present in the cells of any organism, and are also part of the DNA molecule. The sequence of nucleotides in an unbranched polynucleotide chain is strictly individual and specific for each natural DNA and represents a code form for recording biological information (genetic code).

Division, a form of reproduction of some organisms and many cells that make up the body of multicellular organisms.

Denaturation(from the Latin de- prefix, meaning removal, loss, and natura - natural properties), the loss of the natural (native) configuration of molecules of proteins, nucleic acids and other biopolymers as a result of heating, chemical treatment, etc. due to the rupture of non-covalent (weak) bonds in biopolymer molecules (weak bonds maintain the spatial structure of biopolymers). Usually accompanied by a loss of biological activity - enzymatic, hormonal, etc. It can be complete and partial, reversible and irreversible. Denaturation does not violate strong covalent chemical bonds, but due to the unfolding of the globular structure, it makes the radicals inside the molecule accessible to solvents and chemical reagents. In particular, denaturation facilitates the action of proteolytic enzymes, giving them access to all parts of the protein molecule. The reverse process is called renaturation.

differentiation, the emergence of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues, their changes in the course of the development of an individual, leading to the formation of specialized cells, organs and tissues.

Idioblasts(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar), single cells included in a tissue and differing from the cells of this tissue in size, function, shape or internal contents, for example, cells with calcium oxalate crystals or thick-walled supporting cells in the leaf parenchyma (sclereids ).

Idiogram(from the Greek idios - special, peculiar and gramma - drawing, line) a kind of generalized image of the karyotype in compliance with the average quantitative relationships between individual chromosomes and their parts. The idiogram depicts not only morphological features chromosomes, but also features of their primary structure, spiralization, regions of heterochromatin, etc. Comparative analysis of the idiogram is used in karyosystematics to identify and assess the degree of relatedness of various groups of organisms based on the similarity and difference of their chromosome sets.

isogamy, a type of sexual process in which confluent (copulating) gametes do not differ morphologically, but have different biochemical and physiological properties. Isogamy is widespread in unicellular algae, lower fungi, and many protozoa (radiolarian rhizomes, lower gregarines), but are absent in multicellular organisms.

Interphase(from Latin inter - between and Greek phasis - appearance), in dividing cells part of the cell cycle between two successive mitoses; in cells that have lost the ability to divide (for example, neurons), the period from the last mitosis to cell death. Interphase also includes the temporary exit of the cell from the cycle (resting state). Synthetic processes take place in the interphase, which are associated both with the preparation of cells for division and with the provision of cell differentiation and the performance of specific tissue functions. The duration of interphase, as a rule, is up to 90% of the time of the entire cell cycle. A distinctive feature of interphase cells is the despiralized state of chromatin (an exception is the polytene chromosomes of Diptera and some plants, which persist throughout the entire interphase).

Intron(English intron, from intervening sequence - literally an intermediate sequence), a section of a gene (DNA) of eukaryotes, which, as a rule, does not carry genetic information related to the synthesis of the protein encoded by this gene; located between other fragments of the structural gene - exons. The regions corresponding to the intron are present, along with exons, only in the primary transcript, the mRNA precursor (pro-mRNA). They are removed from it by special enzymes during mRNA maturation (exons remain). A structural gene can contain up to several tens of introns (for example, there are 50 of them in the chicken collagen gene) or not contain them at all.

ion channels, supramolecular systems of membranes of a living cell and its organelles, which are of a lipoprotein nature and ensure the selective passage of various ions through the membrane. The most common channels for Na + , K + , Ca 2+ ions; Often, proton-conducting systems of bioenergetic complexes are also referred to as ion channels.

ion pumps, molecular structures built into biological membranes and carrying out the transfer of ions towards a higher electrochemical potential (active transport); function due to the energy of ATP hydrolysis or the energy released during the transfer of electrons through the respiratory chain. Active transport of ions underlies the bioenergetics of the cell, the processes of cellular excitation, absorption, as well as the removal of substances from the cell and the body as a whole.

Karyogamy, the fusion of the nuclei of male and female germ cells in the nucleus of the zygote during fertilization. In the course of karyogamy, the pairing of homologous chromosomes is restored, carrying genetic information from the maternal and paternal gametes.

Mitosis(from karyo-kernel and Greek kinesis - movement), division of the cell nucleus.

Kariology, a section of cytology that studies the cell nucleus, its evolution and individual structures, including sets of chromosomes in different cells - karyotypes (nucleus cytology). Kariology arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. after establishing the leading role of the cell nucleus in heredity. The possibility of establishing the degree of relationship between organisms by comparing their karyotypes determined the development of karyosystematics.

Karyoplasm, karyolymph, nuclear juice, the contents of the cell nucleus, in which chromate is immersed, as well as various intranuclear granules. After extraction of chromatin with chemical agents, the so-called intranuclear matrix is ​​preserved in the karyoplasm, consisting of protein fibrils 2-3 nm thick, which form a framework in the nucleus that connects the nucleoli, chromatin, pore complexes of the nuclear membrane and other structures.

Karyosystematics, a branch of systematics that studies the structure of the cell nucleus in different groups of organisms. Karyosystematics developed at the intersection of systematics with cytology and genetics and usually studies the structure and evolution of the chromosome set - the karyotype.

Karyotype, a set of features of a chromosome set (number, size, shape of chromosomes) characteristic of a particular species. The constancy of the karyotype of each species is maintained by the laws of mitosis and meiosis. Changes in the karyotype can occur due to chromosomal and genomic mutations. Usually, the description of the chromosome set is made at the stage of metaphase or late prophase and is accompanied by counting the number of chromosomes, morphs.