The situation is more complicated with the rules of the lane. transcriptions when translating from Russian into English. If when transmitting Russian sounds and and X consistent application of compliance zh, kh, then for the transmission of iotated vowels the rule is very conditional: Yuri is transmitted as Yuriy. When translating royal titles, there are general rules for interlingual transcription, usually referred to as new, and the so-called tradition, that is, a form that came into use until the end of the 19th century. For example, the English king James I Stewart traditionally referred to in Russian texts as Jacob 1 Stuart; in recent times in a number of publications, the form Yakov 1 is found. When translating Russian royal and princely names, there are also discrepancies: for example, Ivan the Terrible is found in 2 forms: Ivan the Terrible, John the Terrible.

In addition to proper names in the group of units translated through translation transcription, most specialists also include the names of peoples and tribes, geographical names, names of business establishments, companies, firms, periodicals, names of names of hockey and other sports teams, stable groups of rock musicians, cultural objects, etc. most of these names lend themselves easily to translation transcription or, more rarely, transliteration.

Bank of London - Bank of London

The Beatles - The Beatles

The Capitol - Capitol

In its pure form, transliteration is rare, associated with long-established forms of names:

Illinois - Illinois (not Illinois)

Michigan - Michigan (not Michigan)

When transcribing place names, the accent often shifts due to the phonetic preferences of the target language:

Florida (accent on the first syllable)

Florida (accent on the second syllable)

Washington (accent on the first syllable)

Washington (accent on the last syllable

There is a rule according to which, if the name includes meaningful word, mixed translation is often used. That is, a combination of transcription and semantic translation:

Gulf of Mexico - Gulf of Mexico

River Thames - River Thames

The Pacific Ocean- Pacific Ocean

Hilton Hotel - Hilton Hotel

No name Restaurant - No name restaurant

Transcription is used when translating the names of Firms, companies, publishing houses, car brands, periodicals:

Ford Mustang - Ford Mustang

New Press Quarterly - New Press Quarterly

New newspaper – Novaya Gazeta

The names of educational institutions, as a rule, undergo partial or complete semantic translation:

Western Michigan University

Western Michigan University

Cherry Hill High School

Cherry Hill Upper School

St. Petersburg State University

St. Petersburg State University

When filling out various kinds of international questionnaires, it is often proposed to give 2 options for the name educational institution: semantic and transcriptional:

Tobolsk Teachers Training College

Tobolsky Pedagogical Institute

Translational transcription may be associated with a specific area of ​​cross-cultural correspondence: English transcription foreign cultural names may differ significantly from Russian; even more different are the traditional forms of representation of such names in Russian and English-speaking cultures. So, the correspondence of the Russian version is not immediately recognizable Genghis Khan and English Genghis Khan ( option: Jenghiz) with stress on the first syllable; Russian version of the name of the capital of China Beijing significantly different from English Beijing, and the king Belshazzar very little recognizable in English Bel-shaz-zar(moreover, with the stress on the second syllable); Thebes sounds different than Thebes, and the pharaoh Amenophis IV (Inkhnaton) in Russian tradition is known as Amenhotep, or Akhenaten. The list of such inconsistencies is quite large and requires the translator not only language, but also general cultural training.

Titles Orthodox churches can be translated in several ways: translating transcription, semantic matching, mixed way. A simple transcription will introduce long, hard-to-read elements into the English text, devoid of both meaning and internal form of the word for the English recipient: Krestovozdvizhenskaya Tserkov. A simple semantic correspondence will deprive the names of their "domestic", Orthodox beginning, give the names of churches a certain neutral international status of the Christian church. Perhaps the best solution is a mixed type, in which the common Christian version of the name is combined with an exotic Orthodox one, reflecting the Russian tradition of naming churches. – The exaltation of the Cross Church.

A number of cultural names subject to translation transcription - names, names of fantastic creatures mentioned in folklore, literary sources:

Baba Yaga - Baba Yaga

Hobbit - Hobbit

Goblin - goblin

However, some of these names, especially those containing semantic components that reflect certain real properties of the object, are translated either in a mixed way or by tracing:

Koshchey the Deathless (Immortal)

Earthsea - earth sea

Mirkwood - Mirkwood

A special type of language units that are usually subject to transcription are terms. The transcription source is Greek, Latin or English units, depending on what roots underlie the original term: cable - cable, etc.

CONCLUSION: transcription / transliteration can be used as a component of mixed translation, in parallel with tracing, semantic translation or commentary. Semantic translation consists in the most complete transfer of the contextual meaning of the elements of the source text in terms of the target language.

Semantic translation is performed to transfer source texts of high scientific or socio-cultural significance, the detailed content of which is intended for a wide range of specialists.

Tracing- reproduction of not a sound, but a combinatorial composition of a word or phrase, when the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) or phrases (lexemes) are translated by the corresponding elements of the translating language. Tracing as a translation technique served as the basis for a large number various kinds of borrowings in intercultural communication in those cases. When transliteration was unacceptable for aesthetic, semantic or other reasons.

Tracing is used to transfer part of geographical names, names of historical and cultural events and objects, titles and titles, names of educational institutions, art. Works, government agencies, museums, terms, etc.

head of government - head of the government

Supreme Court - Supreme Court

Mixed laws - mixed laws

Winter palace

white house

The White Guard - The White Guard

The Rocky Mountains

The Salt Lake - salt lake

The Indian Ocean Indian Ocean

In some cases, especially with regard to historical events or periods or cult objects, there are several parallel correspondences:

Troubled times– the period of unrest, the Time of Trouble

Old Believer schismatics - raskolniki, Old Believers

A specific complication when using this method of translation is the need to expand or collapse the original structure, that is, add additional elements to it or reduce the original elements: posadnichestvo transmitted in mixed unfolded tracing paper office of posadnik, a Yuri Dolgoruky – Yury the Long Hands (not:Long-handed)

Transcription implies the maximum phonetic reproduction of the original foreign language, with the help of graphic means of the translating language. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages ​​differ from each other, due to the lack of letters in the target language that are similar to the sound in a foreign language, combinations of letters are used that give the desired sound.

So, the Russian "zh" is transmitted in English through the combination "zh", "x" through "kh", "u" through "shch" and so on.

Sometimes to use transcription or not may depend on the reader. It is necessary to take into account whether he is familiar with the realities of a foreign language. The translator must make sure that the text is perceived by the reader. So, for example, in a translated article about football published in a youth magazine, the concept of "fan" (from the English "fan") will not cause misunderstanding. But if the translation of this article is intended for publication in a journal whose readers may include people of retirement age, then the translator should think about the appropriateness of transcription and consider other methods of translation (for example, replacing with a more neutral concept of “fan”. ").

One of important reasons application of transcription is conciseness.

But as we have repeatedly said, one must know the measure in everything. The abundance of transcription can lead to an overload of the text with realities, which may not bring the reader closer to the original, but move him away from it.

Also, when using transcription, one should always remember about homonymy, close-sounding words, since they can remind the reader of funny-sounding or indecent words. mother tongue. Often this factor forces the translator to abandon the use of transcription.

Transliteration means writing foreign word, so that the letters of the foreign language are replaced by the letters of the native language. When transliterating, the word is read according to the rules of reading the native language.

The main method at the moment is considered a combination of transcription and transliteration. Since the phonetic and graphic systems of languages ​​differ significantly from each other, the transmission of the word form in the target language is always somewhat arbitrary and approximate.

Tracing . This is a method of borrowing in which the associative meaning and structural model of a word or phrase are borrowed. Tracing papers are borrowings in the form of a literal translation of a foreign word or expression, i.e., its exact reproduction by means
host language with preservation morphological structure and motivation. When tracing, the components of a borrowed word or phrase are translated separately and combined according to the model of a foreign word or phrase. Russian noun“suicide” - tracing paper of the Latin suicide (sui - `self, cide - `murder); the English noun self-service, borrowed into Russian by the method of tracing, has the form `self-service`.
The so-called half-calques are funny, when one of the roots of a two-root foreign word is calque, and the other is transcribed. According to the rules, the traffic light should have been called either phosphorus (transcription) or light-bearer (full tracing paper), and television - either television (as in Polish), or far-sightedness (as in German - Fernsehen). It is interesting that in the word TV there was no tracing.

Specification is called the transformation of the meaning of a word into foreign language translating language from broad to more concise.

: Dinny waited in a corridor which smelled of disinfectant. Dinny was waiting in the corridor, which smelled of carbolic acid. Was not at the ceremony. He attended the ceremony.

Generalization. The reception is the opposite of concretization. Converting the meaning of words from narrow to broad.

Does not visit me practically every week-end. He visits me almost every week. The use of a word with a more general meaning relieves the translator of the need to specify whether the author means Saturday or Sunday when speaking of "weekend".

Modulation or semantic development is the replacement of a word or phrase in a foreign language with a word from the target language, the meaning of which is logically derived from the meaning of the original unit. Quite often, the meanings of the correlated words in the original and the translation turn out to be connected by causal relationships: I don "t blame them. - I understand them. (The reason is replaced by the consequence: I don't blame them because I understand them). He" s dead now . - He died. (He died, so he is now dead.) Not always made you say everything twice. - He always asked again. (You were forced to repeat what you said because he asked you again.)

1. Permutations

Permutation is used when it is necessary to swap words during translation. This technique can only be used with words that can be moved. Often this technique is used because of the different structure of sentences in English and Russian. As a rule, in English, a sentence begins with a noun, followed by a verb, and the circumstance often comes at the end.

The Russian system is different: usually at the beginning of the sentence they go minor members, then the verb and finally the subject. The translator needs to take this into account. This phenomenon has a name, "communicative division of the sentence."

Antonomic translation implies in the process of translation the replacement of the lexical unit of the original with the opposite one, but at the same time preserving the essence of the content.

Don't stop moving! (English) - Keep moving!

We had no end of good time. - We had a great time.

But we must keep in mind that not every antonym with negation in translation can reflect the true essence of the original. It is impossible, for example, to paraphrase sentences in this way: I opened the door (I did not close the door), he laughed (he did not cry). It should also be remembered that antonyms can replace each other only when included in a larger speech unit. The separate word "danger" cannot be replaced in translation with "security" or "darkness" with "light".

Another trick is compensation. It is used to achieve translation equivalence. A technique is used when certain lexical items do not have a corresponding equivalent in the target language. In this case, the translator can compensate for this with another word that is semantically appropriate.

This technique is considered one of the most difficult and requires great skill from the translator.

Holistic transformation. This technique by itself implies the transformation of both a lexical unit and the entire sentence. An equivalent transformation of the phrase is carried out, with the preservation of the semantic idea.

Variants accepted in English: Watch the doors, please. Keep clear of the doors.

Nevertheless, in comparison with the method of semantic development, a holistic transformation has greater autonomy. main feature its is that the synthesis of meaning occurs without a direct connection with the analysis, the semantic connection between the elements may not be traced, the most important thing is the equivalence of the content plan: How do you do? - Hello!; Here you are! - Here!; Well done! - Bravo!; Help yourself - Help yourself!; Hear, hear - That's right!

Explication or descriptive translation. This is a transformation in which a word can be replaced by a phrase that gives a more detailed definition of the original in the target language. Using this technique, you can give a clearer explanation to a word for which there is no equivalent in the target language. conservationist - a supporter of environmental protection; whistle-stop speech - speeches of the candidate during the election campaign trip. But this technique has a drawback - it is its voluminousness and verbosity.

Car owners from the midway towns ran a shuttle service for parents visiting the children injured in the accident. – Car owners from cities between these two points were constantly bringing and taking parents who visited their children injured during the crash.

Cinematography carries commercial functions, and the title is advertising. Therefore, the name undergoes various transformations so that it becomes bright and attracts as much attention as possible to the domestic audience. For example, if the film Hitch were translated as simply "Hitch" and not "Removal Rules - The Hitch Method", it would not be as promising for a potential viewer.

example

Alice promised to help

Olga Alexandrovna, I can't paraphrase this passage in any way. On the Internet, I reviewed a bunch of sites, everything is in the same style, I did not find any simplified wording. I really need your help!

Hello dear readers!

In an age when international relations are well developed, people travel to different countries, you have to fill out a lot of documents. And here many questions immediately arise. The article "Transliteration into English" will help you resolve them.

Basic Rules

Transliteration is the transfer of the spelling of the letters of one language by the letters of another. Since the Russian alphabet and phonetics differ significantly, it is sometimes quite difficult to convey our sounds with the letters of a foreign language. Remember the last one about timing?

For example, the sounds [zh,] [yo], [th] have no correspondences. Because of this, a lot of controversy and disagreement arises. Over time, the rules change, so I will show you the latest 2018 transliteration rules. I will show you the translation in the table:

Russian letters	Their corresponding Latin characters
BUT	A
B	B
AT	V
G	G
D	D
E	E
Yo	E
AND	Zh
W	Z
And	I
Y	I
To	K
L	L
M	M
H	N
O	O
P	P
R	R
FROM	S
T	T
At	U
F	F
X	Kh
C	Ts
H	Ch
W	SH
SCH	SHCH
Kommersant	IE
S	Y
b	—
E	E
YU	IU
I	IA

This year they are already issuing passports according to a new model. What has changed is that b was denoted in contrast to the previous rules. The letter C is now spelled TS instead of TC. Where Y was used, I is now put. Do you know how to correctly transliterate into English?

Be careful when filling out documents. Correct transliteration from Russian into English is very important. If an error is found in your passport, this document is invalid and must be changed.

Subscribe to my blog. Find even more useful articles and rules, and you will also receive as a gift - a basic phrasebook in three languages, English, German and French. Its main advantage is that there is a Russian transcription, therefore, even without knowing the language, you can easily master colloquial phrases.

To help you avoid unpleasant situations, I will show examples of names, surnames and patronymics written in Latin: Valerii Anatolevich Sukhorukov, Nadezhda Aleksandrovna Izmailova, Stanislav Petrovich Shukshin, Iana Fedorovna Shcherbak.
If you still have doubts, on various sites you can check the transliteration of the keyboard from Russian to English online. But be careful, make sure they obey the new rules. By the way, often, when buying tickets, there is an automatic translation into Latin. Remember the participial turnover?

Table with examples of surnames

But it's not limited to just the name and surname. But what if you are asked to provide an address, for example, when sending a parcel or filling out any other document. The name of the street is subject to the above rule, but the country and city must already be translated into English. Of course, if there is a translation. Remember the possessive form in English?

For example, the city of Irkutsk will remain Irkutsk. You also need to remember the abbreviations of such words as house, street and others. I propose to get acquainted with them in the table:

The spelling order is different for all countries, so you should clarify this question.

If you are filling out documents in the UK, you need to follow this pattern:

House number, street name
City
Index
Country
For example, 41, Pushkinskaia street, Moscow, Russia, 450002

I hope that the information was useful to you. Want to learn more about languages, culture and way of life European countries, subscribe to the Viva Europe blog.

I was with you, a philologist of the English language, Ekaterina Martynova.
Have a nice day, everyone!

Translation transcription is a formal phonemic reproduction of the original lexical unit using the phonemes of the target language, phonetic imitation of the original word.

Transliteration is a formal letter-by-letter reproduction of the original lexical unit using the alphabet of the translating language, a letter-by-letter imitation of the form of the original word.

There are many problems with the use of transcription in the translation of royal names - titles. For example, the English king James 1 Stewart was traditionally called - Jacob 1 Stewart, the form Jacob 1 is found, but there is no form James 1. There are discrepancies: Ivan the Terrible - Ivan the Terrible, and John the Terrible.

In its pure form, transliteration is rare and, as a rule, is associated with long-established forms of naming.

For example, Michigan - Michigan (and not Michigan), Illinois - Illinois (and not Ilina).

For a number of objects, traditional forms of translation have been established, which either partially coincide with the original name: Moscow - Moscow, the Hague - The Hague, or may not coincide at all with the name of the object in the source language: England - England, the English Channel - English Channel .

When transcribing geographical names, there is often a shift in stress due to the phonetic preferences of the target language: `Florida - Florida, `Washington - Washington.

Transcription is used when translating the names of companies, publishers, car brands. e.g. Subaru - Subaru, Ford Mustang - Ford Mustang.

There is a rule according to which, if a significant word is included in the name, a mixed translation is often used, i.e. combination of transcription and semantic translation: Gulf of Mexico - Gulf of Mexico, Pacific Ocean - the Pacific Ocean, Hilton Hotel - Hilton hotel.

Quite complex problems arise when translating the names of educational institutions in the conditions of various educational traditions in different countries. Yes, in American system education, the word school is widely applied to a number of educational institutions, completely different in level and type: high school - secondary school the highest level (grades 10-11 approximately), school of law - legal institute, graduate school - postgraduate study. In such cases, the translator usually relies on particular conditions when making a decision; as a result, however, the inconsistency in the translation of the names of educational institutions introduces some chaos into intercultural communication. After all, in Russian the word "institute" is used to designate a university, as well as a research or even an administrative and managerial institution, while in English speaking countries the word institute is used in the second meaning.

It is difficult to translate the names of the indigenous peoples of Siberia from Russian. There are Buryat correspondences - buryat, chukchi - Chukchi, Khanty - khanty. However, a number of titles require an independent transcription from the translator.

For example, Yukaghirs live among Evens, Chukchis, Yakuts and Russian old-timers (yukagiry, aeveny or evveng or heveny).

Discrepancies also exist in the translation of such names of tribes in America as Flathead - flatheads, or flatheads, Blackfoot - blackfoot, or blackfoot.

When translating realities - transcription or standard transliteration (commentary or semantic translation in parallel).

Transcriptions are also subject to the names and names of fantastic creatures:

e.g. Baba-Yaga - Baba Yaga, goblin - goblin.

However, some of the names containing semantic components that reflect the properties of the object are translated either mixed type, or by tracing:

For example, Koshchey the Deathless (Immortal).

CONCLUSION: transcription/transliteration can be used as a component of mixed translation, in parallel with tracing, semantic translation or commentary. Semantic translation consists in the most complete transfer of the contextual meaning of the elements of the source text in terms of the target language.

Semantic translation is performed to transfer source texts of high scientific or socio-cultural significance, the detailed content of which is intended for a wide range of specialists.

CALCING - reproduction of not sound, but combinatorial composition of a word or phrase, when the constituent parts of a word (morphemes) or phrases (lexemes) are translated by the corresponding elements of the translating language. (It often occurs when translating borrowings in cases where the transliteration was for some reason unacceptable for aesthetic, semantic or other reasons). e.g. skinheads - skinheads (skinheads). Terms and commonly used words and phrases are subjected to calquing: Winter Palace- Winter Palace, White House - White House.

CONCLUSION: Tracing is used in cases where it is required to create a meaningful unit in the translated text and at the same time preserve the elements of form or function of the original unit.

TRANSLATION OF THE ARTICLE AND EXPRESSION OF THE CATEGORY OF CERTAINTY - UNCERTAINTY

The article is a vivid example of the discrepancy between the grammatical systems of English and Russian. Such a phenomenon as an article is absent in the Russian language. As a rule, English articles are not translated into Russian, but there are some cases where the article plays an important role in the communication process and must be transferred when translating.

The meaning of the article can be expressed in Russian using:

1) CASE:

Pour the water into the glass. - Pour water into a glass.

Pour some water into the glass. - Pour water into a glass.

2) WORD ORDER:

A woman came to me. - A woman came to me.

The woman came to me. - The woman came.

3) ONE, SOME, SOME (Article A);

4) THIS, THAT, MOST (Article THE).

A man is waiting for you. - A man is waiting for you.

I enjoyed the film. - I liked the movie.

1. Here is the article you want to read. - Here is the article you want to read.

2. Any child can understand this. – A child can understand it.

3. She is a Mrs Murray. “This is a Mrs. Murray.

The special semantic role of the English article can be compensated when translated into Russian due to pronouns:

They were powerful enough not to need a tsar, especially the tsar. – In this example, the articles certainly play not so much a grammatical as a semantic role, and therefore are subject to functional compensation when translated into Russian: They were powerful enough not to need any king, especially such a king.

TRANSLATION OF DEFINITIONS

Right definition. Left Definition

1. The right definition comes after the noun (presents difficulties).

2. The left definition comes before the noun.

Right Definitions can be expressed:

1) Participle 2 - The fuel used was oil. – The fuel used was oil.

2) Infinitive - He was the first to come. - He was the first to arrive.

3) Passive Infinitive - The book to be translated should be taken from the library.

4) Noun with a preposition - in question, under discussion, under consideration/construction: The problem in question was dealed at the conference.

The problem that was discussed was solved at the conference.

5) There are several adjectives that will be translated from their location in the sentence:

proper pronunciation, the proper decision - the right decision

the decision proper - the decision itself, directly.

Present situation - the current situation,

Students present - present students.

THE CONCEPT OF THE CHAIN ​​AND THE TRANSLATION OF THE CHAIN

There is a big difference between the semantic structures of attributive groups in Russian and English. To do this, the translator needs to make a deep analysis of the context. English speakers actively use attributive constructions with a large number their constituents. Let's trace the formation of the attribute group:

EXAMPLE: The tax paid for the right to take part in the election is described as – the poll tax. The states where this tax is collected are – the poll tax states – and the governors of these states are the poll tax states governors. Now these governors may hold a conference which will be referred to as – the poll tax states governors conference.

There are also such attributive groups in which the whole sentence can refer to the main noun and be its attribute:

For example: He was being the boss again, using the its-my-money-now-do-as-you`re-told voice.

Sometimes you even have to completely restructure English sentence when translated into Russian:

To watch it happen, all within two and a half hours, was a thrilling sight.- It was impossible not to admire how it all happened for some two and a half hours.

Definition: Chain of words called consecutive nouns, adjectives, numerals and participles within one sentence. The chain never includes: verb, adverbs. Inside the chain, the main one is the last word, all other words refer to it and are subordinate. An attributive group can be a noun and a phraseological phrase, a noun and pronouns, sometimes a whole subordinate clause.

For example: Federal Highway authorities - management of federal communications.

RULES for dividing long chains into subgroups:

1. Possessive endings signal the end of a subgroup.

2. Words in quotation marks are a separate subgroup.

3. Difficult words usually signal the end of a subgroup.

4. Words written with a hyphen.

5. If the numeral agrees in number with the main noun, then it will refer to it, and if not, then it forms a subgroup with the one following it.

6. There are several noun suffixes that signal the end of a subgroup: laboratory, authority, education, driver (doer suffix), development, strength - less often.

FALSE FRIENDS OF THE TRANSLATOR

There are words in the original language and the target language that are more or less similar in form. Formal similarity is usually the result of the fact that two words have a common source of origin, they can be formed from Greek or Latin. Since such words can be found in many languages, they are referred to as "international". But, as is usually the case, not all international words have the same meaning in different languages. In many cases, the semantics of such words do not match, and they are referred to as "pseudo-international" vocabulary. The formal similarity of such words gives reason to think that they are interchangeable, which is deceptive and leads to many translation errors. For this reason, such words are called false friends of the translator.

False friends of the translator: 1) common source; 2) borrowings with various stylistic shades.

Pseudo-international words can be divided into 2 groups:

1) words that are similar in form but completely different in meaning. Here the translator has a very high chance of making a mistake if he does not refer to the dictionary. Many mistakes are made when translating words such as "decade, complexion, lunatic, accurate, actual - real, real."

It would seem that they correspond to "a decade, complexion, sleepwalker", but they are pseudo-international and are not suitable for translation.

1) It lasted the whole decade. “It went on for a whole decade.

2) She has a very fine complexion. - She has a beautiful complexion.

3) Well, he must be a lunatic. Yes, he must be crazy.

Secondly, there are many pseudo-international words that are not completely interchangeable, although they may coincide in form and partially in semantics:

meeting, surprise. (Here it is important for the translator to pay attention to the context).

The second group of false friends of the translator includes: original - the first, special - special, special; intelligence - mind, prospect - overview, view, panorama, film - film, conductor - conductor, to construct - build, deputy - deputy, student - studying, student, correspondence - correspondence, correspondence, analogue.

There are several factors, considering which you can choose the correct equivalent when translating the translator's false friends:

1. Semantic factor. Words borrowed into both languages ​​from the same source have undergone a certain development: for example, an English idiom can be translated as an idiom, but also develop such an additional meaning as a dialect (a local variety of an idiom), an individual style. When we say Shakespeare`s idiom, then we will translate as "dialect, adverb or style."

There are many ways to translate a lexical unit of the original text, especially if this unit does not have equivalents in the target language. The most interesting methods used by the translator in this case are transcription, transliteration and tracing.

So, what is transcription and transliteration? Transcription is the reproduction of the sound of a foreign word, and transliteration is the reproduction of the literal composition of a foreign word in the target language. The most common in translation is a kind of symbiosis of transcription and transliteration. Due to the fact that the phonetic and graphic structures of different languages ​​are very different from each other, the process of transliteration and transcription of a language unit is very conditional.

If we consider individual language pairs, it becomes clear that for each of them there should be a separate list of transcription and transliteration rules. In particular, for English-Russian translation characteristic is the transliteration of some consonants that cannot be pronounced; transliteration of reduced vowels; transmission of double consonants between vowels, as well as standing at the end of a word; preservation of the spelling features of a separate language unit.

Evidence of this are, for example, words related to English public life, as "peer", "mayor", "landlord", "esquire", or to Spanish, as "hidalgo", "torero", "corrida", etc .; words associated with the life of the French city, such as "fiacre", "concierge"; English addresses "Miss", "Sir" and many others like them. There is no such word that could not be translated into another language, at least descriptively, i.e. common combination of words in a given language. But transliteration is necessary precisely when it is important to observe the lexical brevity of the designation corresponding to its familiarity in the original language, and at the same time emphasize the specificity of the thing or concept called, if there is no exact match in the target language. When evaluating the feasibility of using transliteration, it is necessary to take into account exactly how important the transfer of this specificity is. If the latter is not required, then the use of transliteration turns into an abuse of foreign borrowings, leads to obscuring the meaning and clogging the native language.
Of special note as a translation problem are the so-called realities, the naming of national cultural objects that are characteristic of the original culture and relatively little or not at all known to the translating culture. In the conditions of large-scale intercultural communication, such namings constitute a very significant group, and the most common way to convey them in another language is translation transcription or standard transliteration.

The expediency and legitimacy of transliteration in certain cases is proved by the fact that often authors writing about the life of other peoples resort to this language tool as a way to name and emphasize the reality specific to the life of a given people. For example, the words "aul", "kishlak", "saklya" and many others entered the Russian language, and it was in this transliteration that they became traditional. This emphasized the specificity of the thing denoted by the word, its difference from what could be approximately denoted by the corresponding Russian word (cf. "aul" and "kishlak", on the one hand, and "village", on the other, "saklya" or " hut" and "hut").

An example of words borrowed by the original literature through transliteration serves as a motivation for using such words in translation. Often foreign words are transferred to the target language precisely to highlight the shade of specificity that is inherent in the reality they express - if possible lexical translation more or less accurate. When a transliterated word is rarely used or, moreover, is transferred to a Russian translated text for the first time, a commentary explanation and an appropriate context may be necessary.

However, in Russian translations of Western European fiction lately, there has been an increasing tendency to avoid such words that would require explanatory notes that are not intended by the original - i.e. namely transliterated designations of foreign realities, except for those that have already become familiar.

On the contrary, in modern translation from the languages ​​of the East, transliteration is used quite often when it comes to things or phenomena specific to material or social life, i.e. that do not match with us. Transliteration and transcription are used to translate proper names, names of peoples and tribes, geographical names, names of business institutions, companies, firms, periodicals, names of sports teams, stable groups of rock musicians, cultural objects, etc. Most of these names are relatively easy to transcribe or, less often, transliterate:
Hollywood - Hollywood
Pencey - Pansy
Saxon Hall - Saxon Hall
Robert Tichener - Robert Tichener
Bank of London - Bank of London
Minnesota - Minnesota
Wall Street Journal – Wall Street Journal
Detroit Red Wings - Detroit Red Wings
Beatles - The Beatles, etc.

The names and names of fantastic creatures mentioned in folklore and literary sources are also subjected to transcription:
Baba Yaga - Baba Yaga
Hobbit - Hobbit
goblin - goblin, etc.
In relation to foreign proper names - whether they are the names or surnames of real or fictitious persons, geographical names, etc. - Of great importance is the question of their sound design in translation and, accordingly, of their writing. The more discrepancies in the phonetic structure of the two languages, in the composition and system of their phonemes, the more acute this issue.

In the presence of common system alphabets in two languages ​​(as, for example, in Western European Romance, Germanic and Finno-Ugric languages), the reproduction of the sound form of names in translations and in original texts is generally refused, limited only to the exact reproduction of their spelling - transliteration.

In Russian literature, both translated and original, there is (to the extent possible) a tradition of transferring the sound image of foreign proper names. Of course, with a significant phonetic difference between two languages ​​(as, for example, between English and Russian), the reproduction of their phonetic side can only be partial and conditional and usually represents a certain compromise between the transmission of sound and spelling.
When it comes to common names (big cities, rivers, famous historical figures) or common names, the translator is guided by tradition - regardless of the opportunity to get closer to the original sound. Sometimes the traditional Russian spelling is quite close to the exact phonetic form. foreign name, for example: "Schiller", "Byron", "Dante", "Brandenburg", etc.
Anthony Wayne Avenue - Anthony Wayne Street.
The rule that exists in translation practice for applying translation transcription or transliteration to names often turns out to be insufficient if a proper name is burdened with a symbolic function, that is, it becomes a name unique object, or is used not as a name, but as, for example, a nickname, that is, it is a kind of common noun, as it reflects the individual characteristics and properties of the named object. In such cases, in addition to transcription or instead of it, a combination of semantic translation with tracing is used. In some cases, tradition will require different renderings of the same name, in the same language, for different texts: thus, the English "George" is usually transcribed in the form "George", but when it is the name of the king, it is transliterated in the form " George".
Some problems may arise when translating the names of educational institutions in the context of different educational traditions in different countries. Thus, in the American education system, the word school is widely applied to a number of educational institutions, completely different in level and type.

Translation from Russian can also have some difficulties: for example, the word institute in Russia is used to refer to a higher educational institution, as well as to a research or even administrative and administrative institution, while in English-speaking countries the word institute is used only in the second sense , and therefore is not always adequate as a correspondence, since it distorts the essence of the original concept.
Whooton School - Huttnon School
Finally, a special type of language units, usually subject to transcription, are terms. Transcriptions are usually sourced from Greek, Latin, or English units, depending on which roots underlie the source term. Russian terms marked with national flavor also often become the object of transcription when translated into Russian. English language:
chernozem - chernozem
Duma - Duma.