Educational psychology as a science. The subject of educational psychology.

Educational psychology is an independent branch of psychological science, most closely associated with such branches as developmental psychology and labor psychology. Both of these sciences are close due to common object study, which is a person in the process of his development, but their subjects are different. The subject of pedagogical psychology is not just the mental development of a person, as in developmental psychology, but the role in this process of training and education, that is, certain types of activity. This is what brings pedagogical psychology closer to the psychology of labor, the subject of which is the development of the human psyche under the influence of labor activity. One of the types of the latter is pedagogical activity, which directly affects the development of the psyche of both the student and the teacher himself.

The subject of pedagogical psychology is also the facts, mechanisms and patterns of a person's assimilation of sociocultural experience and the changes in the level of intellectual and personal development caused by this assimilation. In particular, pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities, the features of the formation of active independent creative thinking in students, the impact of training and education on mental development, the conditions for the formation of mental neoplasms, the psychological characteristics of the personality and the activities of the teacher. The main problems of educational psychology have always been the following:

1. The relationship of conscious organized pedagogical influence on the child with his psychological development.

2. The combination of age-related patterns and individual characteristics of development and methods of education and upbringing that are optimal for age categories and specific children.

3. Finding and the most effective use of sensitive periods in the development of the child's psyche.

4. Psychological readiness of children for conscious upbringing and education.

5. Pedagogical neglect.

6. Security individual approach in teaching.

The subject of each branch of scientific knowledge also determines its thematic structure, that is, the sections included in this science. Traditionally, there are three sections in the structure of educational psychology: 1) the psychology of learning; 2) the psychology of education; 3) psychology pedagogical activity and personality of the teacher. However, such a classification excludes from consideration the personality and activity of the student himself. Indeed, the word “learning” refers to the impact on the student by the teacher in order to assimilate knowledge and develop skills, i.e., the teacher is considered as an active party, the subject of activity, and the student as an object of influence. The concept of "education" also means the impact on the educator in order to form in him certain psychological properties and qualities that are desirable for the educator, that is, the child again finds himself in the role of an object that needs to be influenced in a certain way, and only a separate issue in this topic considered self-education.

Structure and tasks of pedagogical psychology.

Tasks of educational psychology:

1. - disclosure of the mechanisms and patterns of teaching and educating influence on the intellectual and personal development of the student;

2.- determination of the mechanisms and patterns of learning by students of sociocultural experience, its structuring, preservation in the individual mind of the student, its use in different situations;

3. - determination of the relationship between the level of intellectual and personal development of the student and the forms, methods of teaching and educating influence (cooperation, active forms of learning, etc.).

4. - study of the features of the organization and management of educational activities of students and the influence of these processes on their intellectual, personal development;

5. - the study of the psychological foundations of the teacher's activity, his individual psychological and professional qualities;

6. - determination of patterns, conditions, criteria for the assimilation of knowledge;

7. - determination of the psychological foundations for diagnosing the level and quality of assimilation in accordance with educational standards.

The structure of educational psychology, those. sections included in this branch of scientific knowledge. Traditionally considered as part of three sections:

1. -psychology of learning;

2. - psychology of education;

3. -psychology of the teacher.

Or more broadly:

1. psychology educational activities;

2.psychology of educational activity and its subject;

3.psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject;

4. psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.

Psychological and pedagogical experiment: schemes for its implementation.

Experiment(from Latin eexperimental - “trial”, “experience”, “test”) - the most complex type of research, the most time-consuming, but at the same time more accurate and useful in cognitive terms. Well-known psychologists - experimenters P. Kress and J. Piaget wrote: “The experimental method is a form of mind approach that has its own logic and its own technical requirements. He does not tolerate haste, but instead of slowness and even some cumbersomeness, he gives the joy of confidence, partial, perhaps, but final.

It is impossible to do without an experiment in science and practice, despite its complexity and laboriousness, since only in a carefully thought out, properly organized and conducted experiment can one obtain the most conclusive results, especially those relating to cause-and-effect relationships.

The purpose of the experiment is to identify regular relationships, i.e. stable, essential, links between phenomena and processes. It is this purpose that distinguishes the experiment from other research methods that perform the function of collecting empirical data.

Experiment- this means studying the influence of independent variables on dependent ones with constant characteristics of controlled variables and spontaneous ones taken into account.

Scheme of the psychological and pedagogical experiment.

D. Campbell introduced the concept of an ideal experiment, which is satisfied by the following conditions:

1. The experimenter changes only one independent variable, and the dependent variable is strictly controlled.

2. Other conditions of the experimenter remain unchanged.

3. Equivalence (equality) of subjects in the control and experimental groups.

4. Carrying out all experimental influences simultaneously.

There are practically no ideal experiments.

General concept of learning.

Learningdenotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth).
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". AT domestic psychology(at least in Soviet period its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, in recent times a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov and others) use this term in relation to a person.
The term "learning" is used primarily in the psychology of behavior. In contrast to the pedagogical concepts of training, education and upbringing, it covers a wide range of processes for the formation of individual experience (addiction, imprinting, the formation of simple conditioned reflexes, complex motor and speech skills, sensory discrimination reactions, etc.).
In psychological science, there are a number of different interpretations of learning.

All types of learning can be divided into two types: associative and intellectual.
Characteristic for associative learning is the formation of links between certain elements of reality, behavior, physiological processes or mental activity based on the contiguity of these elements (physical, mental or functional). Varieties of associative learning:

1. Associative-reflex learning divided into sensory, motor and sensorimotor.

· sensory learning consists in the assimilation of new biologically significant properties of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world.

· motor learning consists in the development of new biologically useful reactions, when the sensory component of the reactions is mainly kinesthetic or proprioceptive, i.e. when sensory information arises in the process of performing a movement.

· sensorimotor learning consists in developing new or adapting existing reactions to new conditions of perception.

2. Associative Cognitive Learning It is divided into knowledge learning, skill learning and action learning.

· At learning knowledge, a person discovers new properties in objects that are important for his activity or life, and assimilates them.

· Learning skills consists in the formation of an action program that ensures the achievement of a certain goal, as well as a program for the regulation and control of these actions.

Learning action involves the learning of knowledge and skills and corresponds to sensorimotor learning at the cognitive level.
At intellectual learning the subject of reflection and assimilation are essential connections, structures and relations of objective reality.
Varieties of intellectual learning:

More complex forms of learning are related to intellectual learning, which, like associative learning, can be divided into reflex and cognitive.

1. Reflex intellectual learning It is divided into relationship learning, transfer learning and sign learning.

Essence relationship learning consists in isolating and reflecting in the psyche the relations of elements in a situation, separating them from the absolute properties of these elements.

· Transfer Learning lies in the "successful use in relation to the new situation of those skills and innate forms of behavior that the animal already possesses." This type of learning is based on the ability to identify relationships and actions.

· sign learning associated with the development of such forms of behavior in which "the animal reacts to the object as a sign, i.e., responds not to the properties of the object itself, but to what this object means" (Ibid., p. 62).

In an animal, intellectual learning is presented in the simplest forms; in humans, it is the main form of learning and proceeds at the cognitive level.

2. Intelligent Cognitive Learning It is divided into learning concepts, learning thinking and learning skills.

· Learning understanding of concepts lies in the assimilation of concepts that reflect the essential relations of reality and are fixed in words and combinations of words. Through the mastery of concepts, a person assimilates the socio-historical experience of previous generations.

· Learning thinking consists in "the formation in students of mental actions and their systems, reflecting the main operations, with the help of which the most important relations of reality are learned. Learning to think is a prerequisite for learning concepts.

. Learning skills is to form in students ways to regulate their actions and behavior in accordance with the goal and situation.

Theories of learning.

T. n. strive to systematize the available facts about learning in the simplest and most logical way and direct the efforts of researchers in the search for new and important facts. In the case of T. n., these facts are associated with conditions that cause and maintain a change in behavior as a result of the body's acquisition of individual experience. Despite the fact that some differences between T. n. caused by variations in the degree of importance they attach to certain facts, most of the differences are due to disagreements about how best to interpret the total body of evidence available. Theoret. an approach that calls itself an experiment. analysis of behavior, trying to systematize the facts on a purely behavioral level, without k.-l. appeal to hypothetical processes or physiology. manifestations. However, pl. theorists do not agree with the interpretations of learning, which are limited only to the behavioral level. Three things are often mentioned in this connection. First, the time interval between behavior and its premises can be quite large. To fill this gap, some theorists have suggested the existence of hypothetical phenomena such as habits or memory processes that mediate the observed premise and subsequent actions. Secondly, we often behave in various ways in conditions that outwardly look like the same situation. In these cases, unobservable states of the organism, often referred to as motivations, are invoked as hypothetical explanations for the observed differences in behavior. Finally, thirdly, a complex evolutionary and individual history of development makes it possible for highly organized reactions to appear in the absence of observable intermediate, transitional forms of behavior. Under such circumstances, the former external conditions , necessary for the emergence of a skill, and the events that occur between the occurrence of a problem and the appearance of an answer to it, turn out to be inaccessible to observation. In conditions of limited knowledge about events that precede the observed behavior, and a lack of knowledge about intermediate physiologists. and nervous processes, unobservable cognitive processes are involved in order to explain behavior. Owing to these three circumstances, the majority of T. n. suggest the existence of unobservable processes - commonly referred to as intermediate variables - which wedged between observable environmental events and behavioral manifestations. However, these theories differ as to the nature of these intermediate variables. Although T. n. consider a wide range of issues, this discussion will focus on one topic: the nature of reinforcement. Experimental analysis of behavior In behavior analysis, two procedures are recognized by which behavior change can be induced: respondent conditioning and operant conditioning. With respondent conditioning - more often called in other theories. contexts by classical or Pavlovian conditioning - an indifferent stimulus is regularly followed by another stimulus that already causes a reaction. As a result of this sequence of events, the first, previously ineffective, stimulus begins to produce a reaction, which may bear a strong resemblance to the reaction caused by the second stimulus. Although respondent conditioning plays an important role in learning, especially in emotional responses, most learning is related to operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, a response is followed by a specific reinforcement. The response on which this reinforcer depends is called an operant because it acts on the environment to elicit the given reinforcer. Operant conditioning is thought to play a more important role in humans. behavior, since, by gradually modifying the reaction, reinforcement is associated with a cut, new and more complex operants can be developed. This process is called operant formation. In the experiment In the analysis of behavior developed by B. F. Skinner, reinforcement is simply an irritant, which, when included in the system of connections determined by the use of respondent or operant procedures, increases the likelihood of behavior being formed in the future. Skinner studied the value of reinforcement for humans. behavior in a much more systematic way than any other theorist. In his analysis, he tried to avoid the introduction of c.-l. new processes that are inaccessible to observation in the conditions of laboratory experiments on animal learning. His explanation of complex behavior rested on the assumption that the often observable and subtle behaviors of humans follow the same principles as fully observable behaviors. Theories of Intermediate Variables supplemented the Skinner experiment. analysis of environmental and behavioral variables by intermediate variables. Intermediate variables yav-Xia theoret. constructs, the value of which is determined through their relationship with a variety of environmental variables, whose general effects they are designed to summarize. Tolman's expectation theory. Thorndike, influenced by Darwin's premise of the continuity of evolution biologist. species, began the transition to a less mentalistic psychology. John B. Watson completed it with a complete rejection of mentalistic concepts. Acting in line with the new thinking, Tolman replaced the old speculative mentalistic concepts with logically defined intermediate variables. As far as the subject of our discussion is concerned, here Tolman did not follow Thorndike's example. Thorndike considered the consequences of the response to be of the utmost importance in strengthening the association between stimulus and response. He called this the law of the effect, which was the forerunner of the modern. reinforcement theory. Tolman believed that the consequences of the reaction do not affect learning as such, but only the external expression of the processes underlying learning. The need to distinguish between learning and performance arose in the course of attempts to interpret the results of experiments on latent learning. As the theory has developed, the name of Tolman's intermediate learning variable has been changed several times, but the most appropriate name would probably be expectation. The expectation depended solely on the temporal sequence - or contiguity - of events in environment and not from the consequences of the response. Physiological theory of Pavlov. For Pavlov, as for Tolman, the contiguity of events was a necessary and sufficient condition for learning. These events are physiologist. are presented by the processes proceeding in those areas of a bark of a brain, to-rye are activated by indifferent and unconditioned irritants. The evolutionary consequences of the learned reaction were recognized by Pavlov, but not tested in experiments. conditions, so their role in learning has remained unclear. Molecular theory of Gasri. Like Tolman and Pavlov, and unlike Thorndike, Edwin R. Ghazry considered contiguity to be a sufficient condition for learning. However, concurrent events were not determined by such broad events in the environment as Tolman claimed. Each molar environmental event, according to Gasri, consists of many molecular stimulus elements, to-rye he called signals. Each molar behavior, which Gasri called "action", in turn consists of many molecular reactions, or "movements". If the signal is combined in time with the movement, this movement becomes completely conditioned by this signal. Behavioral action learning develops slowly only because most actions require learning many of their constituent movements in the presence of many specific cues. Hull's drive reduction theory. The use of intermediate variables in learning theory reached its widest development in the work of Clark L. Hull. Hull made an attempt to develop a common interpretation of the behavioral changes resulting from both classical and operant procedures. Both the conjugation of stimulus and response and the reduction of drive were included as necessary components in Hull's concept of reinforcement. Fulfillment of learning conditions affects the formation of an intermediate variable - habits. Habit was defined by Hull as a theory. a construct summarizing the overall effect of a set of situational variables on a set of behavioral variables. Relationships between situational variables and an intermediate variable, and further between habit and behavior, were expressed in the form of algebraic equations. Despite the use in formulating some of his intermediate variables, the physiologist. terms, experiment. research and Hull's theory were exclusively concerned with the behavioral level of analysis. Kenneth W. Spence, Hull's collaborator, who made a significant contribution to the development of his theory, was particularly thorough in defining intermediate variables in purely logical terms. Subsequent development Although none of these theories of intermediate variables retained their significance in the second half of the 20th century, the subsequent development of T. n. influenced by two of their key features. All subsequent theories, as a rule, relied on mat. apparatus and considered a strictly defined range of phenomena - that is, they were "miniature" theories. Hull's theory was the first step towards creating a quantitative theory of behavior, but its algebraic equations served only to briefly formulate the basics. concepts. The first ones are really mate. T. n. were developed by Estes. Dr. quantitative theories, instead of using probability theory and math. statistics, relied mainly on the theory of information processing. or computer models. Within the framework of theories of intermediate variables, the most significant contribution to the development of the reinforcement principle was made by empirical research. Leona Karnin and related theorists. works by Robert Rescola and Alan R. Wagner. In the procedure of classical conditioning, an indifferent stimulus combined with c.-l. other effective reinforcement, does not acquire control over the reaction, if an indifferent stimulus is accompanied by another stimulus, which already causes this reaction. At the behavioral level, a certain discrepancy between the response elicited by the reinforcer and the response that occurs during the presentation of this indifferent stimulus must be complemented by a similarity if we want learning to occur. In addition, the nature of this discrepancy must be precisely determined. In terms of experiments. behavior analysis theoret. work mzh acquired more mat. character, although ch. arr. deterministic rather than probabilistic systems. Theoret. research here they developed in the direction from the analysis of a single reinforced reaction to many others. reinforced responses and the interaction of reinforced responses with other responses. In the most broad sense, these theories describe various reinforcers as causes that cause a redistribution of the body's responses within the limits of possible behavioral alternatives. The redistribution that has taken place minimizes the change in the current reaction up to the establishment of a new operant contingency and is sensitive to the instantaneous value of the probability of reinforcement for each reaction. There are reasons to believe that the work carried out by representatives of the theory of intermediate variables in the field of classical conditioning and experiments. analysts in the field of operant conditioning, leads to a common understanding of reinforcement, in which behavior is modified in order to minimize the network of discrepancies associated with the action of all excitatory stimuli present in a given environment.

Types of learning in humans

1. Learning by mechanism imritinga , i.e. rapid, automatic adaptation of the organism to the specific conditions of its life using forms of behavior practically ready from birth. The presence of imriting unites a person with animals that have a developed central nervous system. For example, as soon as a newborn touches the mother's breast, he immediately manifests an innate sucking reflex. As soon as the mother duck appears in the field of view of the newborn duckling and begins to move in a certain direction, so, standing on its own paws, the chick automatically begins to follow her everywhere. It - instinctive(i.e., unconditionally reflex) forms of behavior, they are quite plastic for a certain, usually very limited, period (“critical” period), subsequently they are not very amenable to change.

2. Conditioned Reflex Learning - a conditioned stimulus is associated by the body with the satisfaction of the corresponding needs. Subsequently, conditioned stimuli begin to play a signal or indicative role. For example, a word as some combination of sounds. Associated with the selection in the field of view or holding an object in the hand, it can acquire the ability to automatically call up in the mind of a person the image of this object or movement aimed at searching for it.

3. operant learning Knowledge, skills and abilities are acquired by the so-called trial and error method. This type of learning was identified by the American behavioral psychologist B.F. Skinner in addition to conditioned reflex learning. Operant learning is based on active actions ("operations") of the organism in the environment. If some spontaneous action turns out to be useful for achieving the goal, it is reinforced by the achieved result. A pigeon, for example, can be taught to play ping-pong if the game becomes a means of obtaining food. Operant learning is implemented in the system of programmed learning and in the token system of psychotherapy.

4. vicarious learning - learning through direct observation of the behavior of other people, as a result of which a person immediately accepts and assimilates the observed forms of behavior. This type of learning is partially represented in higher animals, such as monkeys.

5. verbal learning - the acquisition of new experience by a person through language. In this case, we mean learning, carried out in a symbolic form through a variety of sign systems. For example, symbolism in physics, mathematics, computer science, musical literacy.

The first, second and third types of learning are characteristic of both animals and humans, and the fourth and fifth - only for humans.

If the learning conditions are specifically organized, created, then such an organization of learning is called learning. Training is broadcast a person of certain knowledge, skills, abilities. Knowledge, skills and abilities are the forms and results of reflective and regulatory processes in the human psyche. Therefore, they can arise in a person's head only as a result of his own activities, i.e. as a result of the mental activity of the student.

In this way, education - the process of interaction between the teacher (teacher) and the student (student), as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities.

Knowledge, skills and abilities will be formed only if the influence of the teacher causes a certain physical and mental activity.

Teaching (learning activity)- this is a special type of cognitive activity of the subject, performed in order to acquire a certain composition of knowledge, skills, intellectual skills.

The structure of learning activities.

Target- mastering the content and methods of teaching, enriching the personality of the child, i.e. the assimilation of scientific knowledge and relevant skills.

motives- this is what encourages learning, overcoming difficulties in the process of mastering knowledge; a stable internal psychological reason for behavior, actions, activities.

Classification of motives for teaching:

Social : the desire to acquire knowledge, to be useful to society, the desire to earn the praise of the teacher, the desire to earn the respect of comrades, the avoidance of punishment.

cognitive : orientation to mastering new knowledge, orientation to the learning process (the child finds pleasure in activity in this type of activity, even if it does not immediately bring certain results), result orientation (the child tries in the lesson to get "10", although the subject itself he is not interested).

Emotional: emotional interest.

What are the main motives learning activities of six-year-olds? Research shows that dominance children of this age have motives for learning that lie outside the educational activity itself. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs in recognition, communication, self-affirmation. At the beginning of the school year, motives associated with learning itself, learning, have little weight. But by the end of the school year, there are more children with this type of learning motivation (obviously, under the pedagogical influence of a teacher, educator). However, the researchers warn: it is too early to calm down. Cognitive motives six-year-olds are still extremely unstable, situational. They need constant, but indirect, unobtrusive reinforcement.

It is important for the teacher to maintain and increase the interest of children in school. It is important for him to know what motives are most significant for the child at this stage in order to build his education with this in mind. Recall that a learning goal that is not related to motives that are relevant to the child, that has not touched his soul, is not kept in his mind, and is easily replaced by other goals that are more consonant with the child’s habitual motives.

Since at the age of six, the internal, cognitive motivation for learning is just being formed and the will (so necessary in learning) is not yet sufficiently developed, it is advisable to maintain the maximum variety of motives for learning (its polymotivation) when teaching children at school. Children need to be motivated- playful, competitive, prestigious, etc. - and emphasize it to a greater extent than is currently done in teaching six-year-olds.

learning task- this is what the child must master.

Learning action- these are changes in the educational material necessary for the child to master it, this is what the child must do in order to discover the properties of the subject that he is studying.

Learning action is formed on the basis of mastering ways of teaching (operational side of the doctrine) – these are practical and mental actions with the help of which the student masters the content of the teaching and at the same time applies the acquired knowledge in practice.

Practical actions - (actions with objects) - with images of objects, diagrams, tables and models, with handouts

mental actions : perceptual, mnemonic, mental (analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification, etc.), reproductive - according to given patterns, methods (reproducing), productive - creating a new one (carried out according to independently formed criteria, own programs, new ways, new a combination of means), verbal - a reflection of the material in the word (designation, description, statement, repetition of words and statements), i.e. performing an action in a speech form, imaginative (aimed at creating images of the imagination).

To learn successfully, a child needs certain skills (automated ways to perform actions) and skills (a combination of knowledge and skills that ensure the successful performance of an activity). Among them - specific skills and abilities necessary for certain lessons (addition, subtraction, phoneme selection, reading, writing, drawing, etc.). But along with them, special attention should be paid to generalized skills that are needed in any lesson, lesson. These skills will be fully developed later, but their beginnings appear already at preschool age.

Action of control (self-control) - this is an indication of whether the child correctly performs an action corresponding to the model. This action should be performed not only by the teacher. Moreover, he must specifically teach the child to control his actions, not only according to their final result, but also in the course of achieving it.

Assessment action (self-assessment)- determination of whether the student has achieved the result or not. Result educational activity can be expressed by: the need to continue learning, interest, satisfaction from learning or unwillingness to learn, negative attitude towards the educational institution, avoidance of studies, non-attendance at classes, leaving the educational institution.

Learning and its main components. Learnability – this is a set of fairly stable and widely manifested features of the child's cognitive activity, which determine success, i.e. speed and ease of assimilation of knowledge and mastery of methods of teaching.

Methods of influence in education

Consciousness formation method: story, explanation, clarification, lecture, ethical conversation; exhortation, suggestion, briefing, dispute, report, example. The method of organizing activities and forming the experience of behavior: exercise, accustoming, pedagogical requirement, public opinion, educational situations. Incentive method: competition, reward, punishment.

Pedagogical impact- a special type of teacher's activity, the purpose of which is to achieve positive changes in the psychological characteristics of the pupil (needs, attitudes, relationships, states, behavior patterns).

The purpose of any psychological impact is to overcome the subjective defenses and barriers of the individual, restructuring his psychological characteristics or behavior patterns in the right direction. There are three paradigms of psychological influence and three strategies of influence corresponding to them.

First strategy - strategy of imperative influence; its main functions: the function of controlling the behavior and attitudes of a person, their reinforcement and direction in the right direction, the function of coercion in relation to the object of influence. The second strategy is manipulative - is based on penetration into the mechanisms of mental reflection and uses knowledge to influence. Third strategy - developing. The psychological condition for the implementation of such a strategy is dialogue. The principles on which it is based are the emotional and personal openness of communication partners,

Traditionally, in psychological science, two main types of pedagogical influence are distinguished: persuasion and suggestion.

Belief - psychological impact addressed to the consciousness, the will of the child. This is a logically reasoned impact of one person: or a group of people, which is accepted critically and carried out consciously.

Suggestion - psychological impact, which is characterized by reduced argumentation, is accepted with a reduced degree of awareness and criticality.

38. Methods of self-education and self-education

Self-education is the acquisition of knowledge through self-study outside educational institutions and without the help of a teaching person.

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Klyueva N. V., Batrakova S. N., Varenova Yu. A., Kabanova T. B., Kashapov M. M., Rozhkov M. I., Smirnov A. A., Subbotina L. Yu., Tretyakova G. F

Pedagogical psychology

Foreword

Pedagogical psychology is a science whose subject field is education. The main goal of education in modern conditions is the upbringing of a person capable of self-education and self-development, to a free and competent definition of oneself in society, culture, and profession. Developing education puts in the forefront the creation of such conditions that would contribute to the activation of creativity all spheres of the student's personality (emotional, personal, spiritual and moral). In education, practice-oriented learning is increasingly used, the task of which is to develop the ability of students to gain knowledge based on their own experience through reflection. For a psychologist working in education, it is important to answer the question: “Does education create conditions for the full functioning, mental and physical health, and personal growth of a child?” Any action of the pedagogical community is valuable only if the Convention on the Protection of the Rights of the Child, adopted in 1989 by the United Nations and ratified in 1990 in Russia (Appendix 1), is observed.

The possibilities of pedagogical psychology as a constructive, practice-oriented science, acting as a factor in the development of education, each of its subjects - children, parents and teachers - are enormous. Modern pedagogical psychology is based on the principle of the inseparability of subject and object. She turns the construction of life into the starting point of her research, considering, in turn, the study itself as the design of phenomena, thus forming the consciousness of both psychologists and educators. The psychological and pedagogical theories given in the textbook explain the accumulated information, make complex phenomena more understandable, predict the consequences of decisions made and discover new facts. But most importantly, they solve one of the most important problems, which is how a psychologist working in education should be, what principles should determine his professional and personal position. And this largely depends on the knowledge of the psychologist, which can be obtained from textbooks. However, to a greater extent, the effectiveness of the work of a psychologist is determined by his personal characteristics: a deep interest in people, emotional stability, respect for the rights of another person, awareness of professional duty, the ability to inspire confidence, high level self-understanding. The ethical code of a psychologist in Russia has not yet become a regulator of his professional activity. All the more important is the responsibility that he takes upon himself, the awareness of each of his actions, understanding the consequences of the decisions made.

Basic and universal principles The work of a psychologist in education are:

- humanity - respect for the personality and rights of the subjects of the educational process, recognition of their personal growth as a priority and main goal work of a psychologist;

- environmental friendliness - rejection of any form of expansion, focus on non-manipulative, non-violent ways of working, providing a safe atmosphere of communication;

- democracy - reliance on democratic principles in the implementation of work in education; the psychologist strives to take a position of equal cooperation, partnership and complicity with parents, children and teachers;

- constructiveness - the work of a psychologist is not aimed at identifying errors, violations, etc., but at finding resources for the development and improvement of the educational process;

- openness - the actions of the psychologist are carried out publicly, openly;

- understandability and acceptability for educators of the methods used by the psychologist;

- confidentiality - the results of the work of a psychologist cannot be announced without the consent of the one who interacted with him.

The textbook includes questions and tasks that students can think about on their own or discuss with the teacher and the group at the seminar, situations are proposed that can be used when mastering new educational material, to systematize knowledge in the relevant section, while monitoring the quality of assimilation of the material, when conducting seminars. Situations can be discussed in groups (3-4 people each), each of which justifies its own solution and determines approaches to the formation of the child's personality. Teachers who teach the course "Pedagogical Psychology" will benefit from the topics of the seminars proposed after each chapter.

Educational psychology as a subject of study

Subject, tasks and structure of educational psychology

Pedagogical psychology is a branch of psychological science that studies the facts, patterns and mechanisms of personality formation in the context of the educational process.

In modern psychological and pedagogical literature, there are various interpretations of the subject of pedagogical psychology. On the one hand, educational psychology is represented as a borderline complex field of knowledge, which has taken a certain place between psychology and pedagogy and has become an area for joint study of the relationship between education, training and development of the younger generations. On the other hand, focusing on the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions developed by P.Ya. Galperin, the subject of pedagogical psychology is defined as a learning process, which includes its structures, characteristics, patterns of flow, age and individual characteristics of the student, conditions that give the greatest development effect. The object of pedagogical activity is the processes of teaching and education, and the subject is the indicative part of the activity of students. This definition does not represent such subject areas of pedagogical psychology as the psychology of education and the psychology of the work of a teacher.

A.V. Petrovsky, emphasizing the inseparable connection between developmental and pedagogical psychology, believes that "the subject of pedagogical psychology is the study of the psychological patterns of education and upbringing." From his point of view, educational psychology studies the issues of managing the learning process, the formation of cognitive processes, seeks reliable criteria for mental development, determines the conditions under which it is achieved, considers the relationship between students, as well as between teacher and student.

Due to the complexity of the educational process, there are tendencies to emphasize the diversity of the subject of educational psychology, which lies in the fact that with the help of facts, mechanisms and patterns of mastering the sociocultural experience of a person (child), there is a process of changing his intellectual and personal development as a subject of educational activity, organized and managed teacher.

Pedagogical psychology is a developing area of ​​professional psychological activity, designed to solve actual problems education. The psychological education service began to take shape in Russia in 1970. Using modern achievements in pedagogical psychology, it increases the effectiveness of the process of education and upbringing. In 1999, the “Regulations on the Service of Practical Psychology in the System of the Ministry of Education in Russian Federation". As the main goal psychological service Education The Regulation determines the promotion of the formation of a developing lifestyle of students, the development of their creativity, creating positive motivation for learning, as well as determining psychological reasons violations of personal and social development and prevention of the conditions for the occurrence of such violations.

Traditionally, educational psychology as a science is expected to study, explain and describe the phenomena occurring in education. At the same time, teachers and psychologists who are directly involved in educational practice sometimes do not find answers in pedagogical psychology to questions that are essentially important for themselves: what are the goals, meaning and purpose of the teacher and psychologist in modern society how to act in a particular problematic professional situation. Representatives of academic psychology and practitioners miscellaneous items professional activity, different goals and means of its implementation, different professional language. The recommendatory way of interaction between science and practice, especially such a complex one as education, turns out to be insufficiently effective. This is due to the fact that the recommendations lag behind the dynamically developing real situation according to its own laws. In addition, it is not always taken into account who will use them. Practical psychologists also act in a difficult situation. On the one hand, the results of scientific research enrich their understanding of the essence of the educational process, on the other hand, they often do not find an answer in them, in particular, to such questions as: what is the meaning of the work practical psychologist in education? How do the activities of a psychologist and a teacher compare? How to build technology psychological work with the subjects of the educational process? scientific world the need to comprehend the psychology of education as a socio-cultural and practical-transformative science was realized. "It is necessary to consider science from the point of view of its involvement in the processes of creation by man of the human world and himself in this world." The methodology, theory and methodology of education today, and, in particular, the psychology of education, “have gotten rid of the status of a lower genre unworthy of scientific reflection, and the practice of education itself has become a testing ground for discovering ways and means of new anthropotechnics, which tends not to affect a person, but to change situations systemically.” his interactions with people and with himself.

Thus, educational psychology not only explores the psychological mechanisms and patterns of processes occurring in education, but also seeks to integrate them into modern educational practice. Concerning the subject of educational psychology is the mechanisms, patterns and conditions that ensure the process of personality formation in the educational process. Pedagogical psychology as an applied discipline is focused on the psychological support of the educational process, which involves the identification and design of effective methods of work of a psychologist and teacher with educational practice.

Educational psychology is a branch of science closely related to developmental and differential psychology, psychogenetics, pedagogy, social psychology, philosophy, and cultural studies.

The main tasks of educational psychology are:

- study of the mechanisms and provision of conditions necessary for the full mental development of students and the formation of their personality at each age stage;

- identification and design of socio-pedagogical conditions that maximally contribute to personal development, self-determination and self-development of the subjects of the educational process;

- creation of methodological tools that allow to identify and predict the features of the intellectual and personal development of the child;

– study of the psychological characteristics of participants in the educational process (parents, teachers, administration educational institution) and the mechanisms of their influence on the child.

Structure of educational psychology includes three sections: the psychology of pedagogical activity, the psychology of learning and the psychology of education.

Psychology of pedagogical activity explores the structure of the teacher's activity, the characteristics of his personality and communication, the stages and patterns of his professionalization. Particular attention is paid to the relationship within the teaching staff, the causes and ways to resolve conflict situations. Recently, the attention of scientists and practitioners has been drawn to the development of technologies to ensure the professional and personal development of teachers, to create optimal conditions for their interaction with the managers of an educational institution.

Psychology of learning studies the patterns of the course of the learning process, the features of the formation of educational activities, the issues of its motivation, the features of the formation of cognitive processes in the classroom, the role of the teacher in the development of the creative potential and positive "I-concept" of the child. Within the framework of the psychology of learning, a psychological analysis of the forms and methods of teaching is given, aimed at the formation of knowledge, skills, and ensuring the development of a psychologically healthy personality.

Psychology of education studies the patterns of personality formation at different age stages, considers the influence of the near and far social environment on the development of the child, identifies and designs optimal ways of interaction between participants in the educational process.

Faced with educational psychology new tasks: development of conceptual approaches to the activities of the psychological service of education, ensuring its effective methods work, the creation of a scientifically based and practice-oriented system for the training of educational psychologists.

The most productive approaches to understanding places of a psychologist in education are as follows:

- a psychologist - a diagnostician of the situation, helping the child choose the path of development, find a training program for him, taking into account individual characteristics;

- psychologist - conflictologist and psychotherapist;

- psychologist - designer of the situation of the development of the child and the educational environment as a whole;

– a psychologist responsible for building communications in the educational environment of the institution;

- a psychologist responsible for maintaining the psychological health of children;

- psychologist - management consultant and specialist in the development of the school as an educational institution.

The function of a psychologist in education is a function of the development of both education itself and all its subjects (the child and the children's team, teachers, parents, heads of the educational institution).

Questions and tasks

1. What does educational psychology study?

2. Give a description of the connection between educational psychology and philosophy, cultural studies, developmental psychology, and general psychology.

3. Imagine that you are talking to a teacher. Formulate in a form that is understandable to him the goals and objectives of the psychological service of the school.

Seminar plan

"Goals, tasks and functions of a psychologist in education"

1. The subject and tasks of educational psychology.

2. Functions of a psychologist working in education.

3. Regulatory support for the work of a psychologist in education.

Main literature

1. Ananiev B.G. On the problems of modern human science. M., 1977.

2. Bityanova M.R. Organization of psychological work at school.

3. Zimnyaya I. A. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1999.

4. Slobodchikov V.I., Isaev E.I. Human psychology. Introduction to the psychology of subjectivity. M., 1995.

5. Yakunin VA. Pedagogical psychology. SPb., 1998.

additional literature

6. Verbitsky AA. Some theoretical and methodological grounds for the need to develop the psychology of education as a new branch of psychological science // Problems of the psychology of education. M., 1992.

7. Zinchenko V.P., Morgunov E.B. A developing person. Essays on Russian psychology. M., 1994.

8. Zlobin N.S. Cultural meanings of science. M., 1997.

9. Lyaudis V.Ya. Psychological education in Russia: new guidelines and goals. // Issues of psychology. 1998. No. 5.

10. Talyzina N.F. Pedagogical psychology. M., 1998.

Principles and methods of educational psychology

Principles of educational psychology

The formation of modern pedagogical psychology is determined by the humanitarian ideals of scientific character, aimed at the formation of an independent, viable person as a unique spiritual education in the conditions of training and education.

The principle of social expediency. The development of educational psychology is conditioned by the system of social values ​​and expectations adopted within the framework of the educational system and in society as a whole, which determine the social expediency of certain actions of theory and practice. So, at the present stage, it becomes socially expedient to create such educational systems, which contribute to the education of an independent, autonomous personality, capable of defining and implementing the goals of their own development and further development society.

Any mental phenomenon or system that has become the subject of study of educational psychology is analyzed from the point of view of social expediency on two levels:

– level of adaptation(non-contradiction of the individual norms of the subject to social requirements in ensuring his life);

– conversion level themselves and society (the creation of new socio-historical forms that contribute to the development this person(system) and the progress of society as a whole).

The principle of unity of theory and practice. Educational practice is the main source of problems for theoretical and experimental research in educational psychology, as well as a criterion for evaluating their effectiveness. Psychological and pedagogical theory and practice mutually influence each other.

There are three key issues in organizing the interaction between the theory and practice of educational psychology:

What for? The search for semantic grounds for the application of new psychological knowledge by a person (involving a person in an event community with new knowledge and with a psychologist, acquiring personal meaning in new knowledge, acquiring the potential for further transformations).

What? Determining the goals of psychological impact (depending on the understanding of human nature and its development);

How? Evaluation of the effectiveness of the applied psychotechnics (expediency of application, the nature of the psychologist's influence, short-term and long-term results of the psychologist's influence, etc.).

development principle. The purpose of any impact of the theory and practice of educational psychology is the formation and development of participants in the educational process and the education system as a whole. Any phenomenon and process is studied in development and formation, and not as a complete system. An effective system of education and upbringing harmoniously combines the development of three types:

– growth and maturation – the acquisition of mental neoplasms through their biological maturation in the process of ontogenesis without active intervention from the participants in the educational process. Examples of educational systems based on this type of development are systems of free education of the individual (Waldorf school, M. Montessori school, etc.);

– formation – the acquisition of mental neoplasms due to the internalization of social experience and norms actively broadcast by adult participants in the educational process. Educational approaches based on this type of development are behavioral and activity-based;

– transformation – the acquisition of mental neoplasms through an independent search for the means of one's own mental development. This type of development is carried out with the assistance of adult participants in the educational process, whose main task is to create opportunities for self-improvement of the child. Humanistic pedagogy, existential-humanistic and subjective approaches to education implement this principle of development in practice.

Principle of determination allows you to establish the relationship of the subject of research with previous or subsequent events and relationships in his life, to predict his future behavior depending on certain environmental influences. There are two types of determination:

Causal determination establishes such relations between mental phenomena, when an event / relation of past experience inevitably leads to the formation of a certain mental quality of a person. For example, the deviant behavior of a teenager suggests the presence adverse factors family education of this child and develop a program for their optimization. The disadvantages of an interpretation based on causal determination are the influence of stereotypes, as well as a rigid attachment to the subject's past experience, the impossibility of considering the subject's unique capabilities in overcoming any difficulties.

Target determination establishes such relations between mental phenomena, when the goals and values ​​of the subject direct and determine his life activity. Psychological assistance to a deviant teenager in this case will be based on the identification of his life goals and values, as well as the formation of independent skills to achieve these goals.

The principle of system. The subject of research is considered as a component of a system that has an independent purpose of functioning. In educational psychology, the goal of any system is the development of its participants, carried out at various levels:

individual, which includes genotypic, cognitive, emotional-volitional, need-motivational, personality traits etc.;

social, which contains the communication skills of the participants, the performance of social roles, the principles of the existence of a social community, etc.;

spiritual, having value-semantic foundations of human existence, human subjectivity - a balance between individual and social determinants of behavior, reflected subjectivity - a contribution to the culture and life of other people.

After the composition of the levels of the system is established, the relationships between them are analyzed, the patterns of their functioning are revealed, the genesis of the system and the systemic qualities of the subject being studied are studied.

1. Pedagogical psychology as a science. Subject, tasks and structure of pedagogical psychology. The place of educational psychology in the system of human sciences.

Pedagogical psychology studies the mechanisms, patterns of mastering knowledge, abilities, skills, explores individual differences in these processes, the patterns of formation of creative active thinking, determines the conditions under which effective mental development is achieved in the learning process, considers the relationship between the teacher and the student, the relationship between students .
AT structure educational psychology can be divided into areas:
-psychology of educational activity (as a unity of educational and pedagogical activity);
- psychology of educational activity and its subject (pupil, student);
-psychology of pedagogical activity and its subject (teacher, lecturer);
-psychology of educational and pedagogical cooperation and communication.
In this way, subject pedagogical psychology are the facts, mechanisms and patterns of the development of sociocultural experience by a person, the patterns of the intellectual and personal development of the child as a subject of educational activities organized and managed by the teacher in different conditions of the educational process.
tasks are the study of the essence of the formation and development of the human personality and the development on this basis of the theory and methodology of education as a specially organized pedagogical process.
Pedagogy explores the following issues:
-study of the essence and patterns of development and formation of personality and their impact on education;
-determination of the goals of education;
- development of the content of education;
-research and development of methods of education.
There are many different classifications of sciences, in most of them educational psychology occupies an intermediate position between several categories. This is due to a wide range of issues that psychology deals with and the methods that are used in this case. In some classifications, in addition to the humanities and natural sciences, social sciences (sociology, political science) are also distinguished - a significant part of modern psychology can be attributed to this group. Soviet psychologist B.G. Ananiev pointed to the place of psychology as the core of the system of human sciences.

2. Modern interpretations of educational psychology (I. S. Yakimanskaya, A. P. Lobanov, N. F. Vishnyakova , Ya. L. Kolominsky). Problems and methodological principles of pedagogical psychology.
I.S. Yakimanskaya believes that the subject of educational psychology as an academic discipline should be not so much the analysis of the products of the student's activity, i.e. its end result (although this is an important aspect of the teaching), how much is the process of achieving (obtaining) the product - knowledge, i.e. ways of mastering knowledge, which by their nature are individual, and therefore variable. They do not obey the law of "large numbers", they need not so much quantitative as qualitative analysis (description). Significant emphasis in modern educational psychology should be placed on the study of learning as an individual cognitive activity (in contrast to learning as a specially organized, socially significant activity).
The ratio of training and development in this context acquires a different content. Development, obeying the law of internalization, is ensured not by the transformation of learning into learning, but by the use of the internal reserves of each child to organize (implement) his teaching. With this understanding, learning becomes not a goal, but a means of development. At the same time, it undoubtedly plays an important role, but on the condition that it activates (stimulates, directs) the personal potential of each student; provides an educational trajectory for his individual development.
The educational standard (mandatory for everyone) is provided with a variable didactic material that allows the student to show individual selectivity to the content, type, type and form of the knowledge being given in order to effectively assimilate it.
The teaching methodology should provide the student with the freedom to choose how to work out the program material, and not just introduce them to the logical techniques developed in the system of scientific knowledge.
Pedagogical psychology is thus called upon to develop the theoretical foundations of psychodidactics). This presupposes knowledge not only of the scientific field, but also of the peculiarities of its organization; representation of its empirical material, the nature of its classification, generalization.
In this way, in her opinion, educational psychology studies, designs, organizes complex educational processes that, on the one hand, ensure the socialization of the individual through training, and on the other hand, contribute to its formation as an individual in the dynamics of age development.
A.P. Lobanov clarifies the principles on which educational psychology should be built:
1. The principle of the unity of consciousness (psyche) and activity - the psyche is formed and manifested in activity
2. The principle of development (genetic conditioning) - every studied mental phenomenon is considered as the result of a certain development, in its specific history
3. The principle of determinism - the conditionality of psychological processes by external and internal factors
4. The principle of objectivity - the researcher does not influence the results obtained.
Noteworthy are studies devoted to the formation of the teacher's personality, the most important component of which is pedagogical communication. Data from a number of studies conducted by A.A. Bodalev, Ya.L. Kolominsky, S.V. Kondratieva, N.V. Kuzmina, A.A. Leontiev, V.S. Merlin, A.V. Mudrik and others, convince how important the issues of improving pedagogical skills, optimizing pedagogical communication, developing an individual style of activity and communication of a teacher.
Among the various factors of the success of pedagogical activity, an important role belongs to the properties of the teacher's personality. Considering a teacher as a professional, it is necessary to place special emphasis on the fact that his personal characteristics will be a working tool in his activities. Ya.L.Kolominsky highlights such system components as constitutional factors, organizational and communicative qualities, motivational structure, emotional and characterological basis, as well as the style of pedagogical communication.
The problems of pedagogical psychology are analyzed on the basis of a personality-activity approach in general context the main trends in the development of modern education. According to this approach,
a) in the center of the educational process is the student himself, the formation of his personality by means of this particular academic subject,
b) the educational process implies the organization and management of the educational activities of students, aimed at their comprehensive development and mastery of subject knowledge.
In accordance with the personal-activity approach to learning, a number of problems arise that today form the foundation of educational psychology. Of these, the key ones are:

the interaction of the teacher and students as an educational cooperation of equal partners, aimed at solving educational and cognitive problems;
psychological characteristics of the teacher and students as subjects of educational activities and pedagogical communication;
psychological features of the educational activity itself;
psychological mechanisms and patterns of assimilation, etc.

3. The history of the formation and development of educational psychology.

The development of pedagogical psychology is an uneven process in which 3 stages are conditionally distinguished:
First stage- since the middle of the 17th century. and until the end of the 19th century. – can be called general didactic. The contribution of educators - thinkers to the development of educational psychology is determined primarily by the range of the problems that they considered: the relationship of development, training and education; the creative activity of the student, the child's abilities and their development, the role of the teacher's personality, the organization of training, and many others. In works Ya.A.Komensky(“Great Didactics”, “Laws of a Well-Organized School”, “Mother's School”) contained ideas about the relationship between learning and development of a child and a student, about the influence of a teacher's characteristics on the effectiveness of the learning process, etc. Kapterev wrote that his didactics "lacks psychology", that Comenius exaggerates the importance of methods. I. Pestalozzi- paid great attention to the atmosphere in the classroom, showed how the personality of the teacher affects the development of the child, proved that learning activities depend on the activity, on the creativity of the child himself. A. Diesterweg considers the educational process as a unity of the student - the subject being taught, the teacher, the subject being studied and the learning conditions. Self-improvement, taking into account the characteristics of the student and the energy of the teacher's actions are the key and basis for educative education. I. Herbart showed the inextricable link between education and upbringing, introduced the concept of "educational education", described the stages of development of the child's cognitive interest. Herbart's didactics is characterized by one-sided intellectualism, i.e. I saw the basis of learning in the development of memory, thinking, attention. Herbart is considered the founder of "authoritarian pedagogy", he made the greatest contribution to the development of pedagogy. The work K. D. Ushinsky“Man as an object of education. Experience of Pedagogical Anthropology. Ushinsky showed that the formation of a person takes place holistically, all cognitive processes (memory, thinking, speech) are interconnected, interdependent. In the 19th century, a situation arose when in many countries there was a need to create a science at the intersection of pedagogy and psychology and independently of each other. The very concept of "pedagogical psychology" entered into scientific circulation with the appearance in 1877 of the book Kapterev "Pedagogical psychology". Book E. Thorndike of the same name was published only a quarter of a century later (in 1903). However, the priority remained with our pedagogical psychology.
Second phase lasted from the end of the 19th century. until the middle of the 20th century. During this period, ped. Ps-gia began to take shape in an independent industry, focusing on and using the results of psychic, psychophysical experimental studies. Of particular importance is the development of test ps-gy, psychodiagnostics. During this period, a number of laboratories at schools were formed in Europe. So, in France, A. Binet founded an experimental children's laboratory at one of the schools in Paris. The laboratory studied the physical and mental abilities of the child, as well as methods of teaching academic disciplines. This stage is characterized by the form of a special PS. - ped-th direction - pedology, which comprehensively determined the characteristics of the child's behavior in order to diagnose its development.
The basis for selection third stage Development of educational psychology is the creation of the theoretical foundations of educational psychology. So, in 1954, B. Skinner put forward the idea of ​​programmed learning.
At present, educational psychology is an interdisciplinary independent branch of knowledge based on knowledge of general, age, social psychology, personality psychology, theoretical and practical pedagogy.

4. The emergence and development of educational psychology in the Republic of Belarus. The current state of educational psychology in Belarus.

L. A. Kandybovich highlights 1960–1990 as an independent period in the history of psychology in Belarus. In the history of Belarusian psychology, the most fruitful period of development dates back to the 1970s-1980s. Social and educational psychology initially developed as interdisciplinary branches of scientific knowledge, as a result of the differentiation and integration of the human sciences.
By the end of the study period, about half of all practicing psychologists in the republic were certified specialists. Seven of them were PhDs. Along with traditional research, new research that was relevant for that time began to be approved: labor education of schoolchildren of all ages, training and education of students of higher education, problems of productive mental activity, issues of psychological service and its organization. Most psychological research was dictated by the ongoing reform and restructuring of the middle and high school.
It was those years that were marked by the holding of scientific-theoretical and scientific-practical conferences in the republic, in which leading specialists from other regions of the country took part.
A significant part of psychologists was concentrated in pedagogical institutes and universities, which to a certain extent predetermined the priority role of psychological and pedagogical research. However, psychology was also represented in a number of scientific institutions of the republic. The Academy of Sciences of the BSSR studied the personal characteristics of specialists in design activities in CAD conditions, including the use of tools and methods for automating this activity in their work. The Institute of Philosophy and Law studied the socio-psychological mechanisms of the involvement of the individual in the ideological process, production and social activities ( V.I. Sekun). The Institute of Linguistics continued to develop applied issues of psychology and psycholinguistics, processing sensory information ( G.V. Losik).
The problems of higher education were studied at the Belarusian State University: the work “Psychological foundations for the effectiveness of students' educational activities” was completed by a group of employees (R.I. Vodeiko, L.A. Gurinovich, I.A. Kulak, A.M. Kukharchik, S.P. .Tsuranova) a number of serious studies have been carried out (communication in an academic group as a factor influencing the success of this activity; providing various information saturation of the learning process; ways to influence students' confidence; the specifics of the professional orientation of teaching; optimization of reading skills and abilities, etc. The result of the study is D .M. Kuchinsky about the essence of internal dialogue in thinking, about the relationship between external and internal dialogues among communication partners was the publication of a monograph.
The psychological foundations of the effectiveness of learning at school were studied by Mozyr psychologists (I.Ya. Kaplunovich, T.A. Pushkina).
The specialty 19.00.05 - social psychology was introduced by the Higher Attestation Commission of the Republic of Belarus in 1996, until that time the defense of dissertation research was carried out only in the specialty 19.00.07 - pedagogical psychology.
Formation and development of social psychology in Belarus from 1960 to 1991 represents a holistic period and is characterized by the direction of research in the field of social pedagogical psychology (SPP), which corresponds to theoretical analysis. On the contrary, a preliminary thematic analysis of dissertation research carried out in the period from 1991 to 2007. allows us to state that while maintaining the main directions of integration and differentiation of pedagogical and social psychology (SSS, SPP, SSP, SPP), dissertations in the field of educational social psychology (SSP) dominate in quantitative terms at this time (table).
As can be seen from the table, from 1960 to 1991. studies carried out within the framework of social pedagogical psychology prevail (19 dissertations), in the period from 1992 to the present, the focus has shifted to the study of educational social psychology (22 works). At the same time, one can state an undoubted increase in the interest of the Belarusian scientific community in the study of the problems of social psychology proper (from 5 to 14 papers).
Table - Historical periods of integration and differentiation of social and educational psychology in Belarus

Theoretical and methodological factors in the development of educational psychology in Belarus during the period under study (1960–1991) determined the specifics of the subject of psychology as a science, the direction of intersectoral integration and interdisciplinary differentiation of social and educational psychology, as well as central and peripheral theories that make up the structure of socio-psychological research .
At the philosophical level, the main determinants of scientific knowledge are internal and external factors. At the general scientific level, external and internal factors are commonly understood as internal (intra-scientific) and external (external in relation to science) aspects of a scientist's research activity. At the private scientific level, the manager's scientific program acts as an internal factor as a subjective and objective reflection of the subject of a particular field of science. As an external factor - the scientific community as a carrier of scientific knowledge and ideas adopted in related scientific areas and influencing the implementation of dissertation research. In general, the development of social psychology in Belarus is conditioned by the interaction of internal and external theoretical and methodological factors.
The specificity of the development of Belarusian psychology is the transition from intersectoral differentiation of science to its interdisciplinary integration, which led to the substantiation of the possibility of such sections of social psychology as social pedagogical psychology and pedagogical social psychology. The direction of integration and differentiation of social and pedagogical psychology according to the criterion of the object, subject and contingent corresponds to the study of socio-psychological phenomena in the pedagogical contingent.
The methodological foundations of dissertation research by Belarusian authors reflect in a concentrated form the totality of scientific ideas, the methodology of scientific leaders and the scientific community as a whole. The index of methodological contingency specifies the nature of the relationship between internal and external theoretical and methodological factors in the development of social psychology in Belarus in the period from 1960 to 1991.
The current situation in the development of social psychology in Belarus (from 1991 to the present) is characterized by the expansion of problem areas of socio-psychological research, as well as self-determination of psychologists in scientific priorities in new historical conditions.
In general, from 1956 to 2007. Belarusian authors defended 277 dissertations. Of these, in the period from 1960 to 1991. - 109 (39%). Social and psychological issues are presented in 36 (33%) dissertations.

5. Classification of methods of pedagogical psychology. Correlation of methodology, methods and methods of research.

Depending on the level of scientific knowledge - theoretical or empirical - methods are defined as theoretical or empirical. Observation- the main and most distributed in the ped. crazy. empirical method of purposeful study of h-ka. The observed does not know that he is yavl. object of observation, cat.m.b. continuous or selective - with fixation of the entire course of the lesson or the behavior of one or several teachers. Based on observation m.b. given an expert assessment. The results of the observation are entered into special protocols, where the name of the observer, date, time and purpose are noted. Flowing data is subjected to qualitative and quantitative processing. Self-monitoring is a method of observing oneself with oneself on the basis of reflective thinking. This method underlies self-reports. He har-Xia enough subjective-Tew, ispol-Xia as an additional th. Conversation-empirical method of obtaining information about a h-ke in communication with him, as a result of his answers
Purposeful questions. The leader of the conversation does not report its purpose to the one who is being studied. The answers are fixed by tape recording or in cursive writing. Interview-specific form of conversation. It can be used to obtain information not only about the interviewee himself, but also about other people and events. Questionnaires - empirical socio-psychological method of obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions and corresponding to the main task of the study. When compiling the questionnaire, he learns: 1) the content of the questions, 2) their form - open / closed (the answer is “yes” / “no”), 3) their wording (clarity, without prompting the answer) ,4) the number and order of the next questions. Time for questionnaires is no more than 30-40 minutes. The anekt-tion can be oral, letters, individual, group. The experiment is the center of empirical method of scientific research in ped.psych. Differences between laboratory and natural. The most effective and widespread in present. time-shaping experiment (studying changes in the level of knowledge, skills, attitudes, values ​​at the level of psychological and personal development under targeted training and education).
Analysis of activity products is a method of studying a person through deobjectification, analysis, interpretation of material and ideal (tests, music) products of his activity. Analysis of presentations, essays, summaries, etc. This method presupposes a specific goal, hypothesis and methods for analyzing each specific product (text, figure, etc.). All listed methods yavl. max. available and used in the ped-oh ps-ii.
At the same time, the testing method became widespread. The test, if it is well designed, should show what the subject knows and can do, and not what he is like against the background of others representing the same population.
Various types of tests are grouped into 12 groups:
1) tests of methods (intellectual function, knowledge, methods, etc.),
2) U&N tests (visual-motor coordination, passing the maze),
3) perception tests,
4) questionnaires (questionnaire survey about behavior, health status, etc.),
5) opinions (identifying attitudes towards other people, norms, etc.),
6) aesthetic tests (revealing preferences for paintings, drawings, etc.),
7) projective tests (formalized personal tests),
8) situational tests (studying the performance of a task in different situations individually, in a group, in a competition, etc.),
9) games, in a cat. most fully manifested people,
10) physiological tests (ekg, kgr, etc.),
11) physical (anthropometric),
12) random observations, i.e. the study of how the test is conducted (recording the test, conclusions, etc.).
Most often, achievement tests are used (they determine the effectiveness of programs and learning processes). They cover all learning programs for integral image systems. It is they who give the final assessment of the achievements of the individual upon completion of training, what the individual can do to this day. time.
Sociometry is an empirical method for studying intragroup interpersonal relationships. This method, which uses answers to questions about the preferred choice of group members, allows you to determine its cohesion, the leader of the group, etc. It is used to form and regroup academic teams, determine intragroups th interaction.
Methodology (from the Greek methodos - the path of research, logos - science) - a system of principles and methods of organizing and building theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system. Methodology - the doctrine of the scientific method in general and the methods of individual sciences. It is a culture of scientific inquiry.
Methods (from the Greek methodos - the path of research or knowledge) are those techniques and means by which scientists obtain reliable information; these are the paths of knowledge through which the subject of any science is known.
The method of psychology is concretized in research methods. A technique is a concrete embodiment of a method as a developed way of organizing the interaction between a subject and an object of research based on a specific material and a specific procedure. The methodology meets the specific goals and objectives of the study, contains descriptions of the object and the procedure for studying, the method of fixing and processing the data obtained. Based on a particular method, many methods can be created.
The effectiveness of any research is determined by the relationship of methodology, principles, methods and methods of research (Scheme 1).
Scheme 1 Interrelation of methodology, methods and methods of research

6. Observation as a method of pedagogical psychology. observation errors. Observation schemes of Flanders and Bales.

In educational psychology, the same methods are used as in other branches of psychological science. The main methods are observation and experiment.
Observation is one of the methods of data collection through direct visual and auditory contact with the object of study. A specific feature of this method is that when using it, the researcher does not influence the subject of study, does not cause phenomena of interest to him, but waits for their natural manifestation.
The main characteristics of the observation method are purposefulness, regularity.
Observation is implemented using a special technique that contains a description of the entire observation procedure. Its main points are as follows:
a) the choice of the object of observation and the situation in which it will be observed;
b) observation program: a list of those aspects, properties of the object that will be recorded.
In principle, two types of goals can be distinguished. In exploratory research, the goal is to obtain as much information as possible about the object of interest. In other cases, observation is very selective.
c) a way of fixing the received information.
The observer himself is a particular problem: his presence can change the behavior of the person he is interested in. This problem is solved in two ways: the observer must become a familiar member of the collective where he intends to observe. Another way is to observe while remaining invisible to the object of observation. This path has limitations, primarily moral ones.
The method of observation is used not only in research, but also in practical activities, including teaching. The teacher observes the behavior of children, how they perform various tasks in the class, and uses the information received to improve their work both with the class as a whole and with individual students. However, even in this case it is not easy to draw a correct conclusion about certain features of the child's inner life.
Various complex observation systems can be used (Flanders' system of analysis of categories of interaction, according to which speech interactions, conversation taking place in the classroom are analyzed; Bales' 12-categorical system of observation of verbal and non-verbal communications).
Deviations between data that correspond to reality and data obtained by observation are called observational errors. These errors can be divided into methodological and registration. The first are due to the use of incorrect methods of observation, while the others are due to inaccurate recording of data. Methodological are, first of all, representative errors that arise when, based on the observation of individual phenomena or features extracted from the general complex, conclusions are drawn about the general complex as a whole. Here, the error indicates that the number of objects of observation extracted from the total complex was calculated incorrectly or individual elements were unsuccessfully selected. Registration errors depend primarily on the personality of the observer. A psychologist or teacher who studies the pedagogical process must be extremely observant, have a good memory and have a certain amount of experience. It should be borne in mind that for pedagogical observation it is not enough just to describe pedagogical phenomena, they must be interpreted to some extent. It is important not only whether the student answers correctly, but also how he behaves when answering..). Registration errors stem mainly from the subjective attitude of the observer to a particular phenomenon.
7. Psychological and pedagogical experiment as a method of pedagogical psychology. Features of natural science and formative experiment.

The experiment occupies a central place in psychological research. It differs from observation in that the experimenter acts on the object under study in accordance with the research hypothesis. To test this hypothesis, it is necessary to take two groups of trainees who are approximately the same in terms of their initial level of development and other characteristics.
There are two types of experiment: laboratory and natural. The main difference between them is that in a laboratory experiment, the subject knows that something is being tested with him, that he is passing some kind of test. In a natural experiment, the subjects do not know this, since the experiment is carried out in the conditions familiar to them, they are not informed about it.
The above experiment can be organized both as a laboratory experiment and as a natural one. In the case of a natural experiment, students of the first two parallel classes during the period of teaching them to write can be taken as subjects.
A laboratory experiment can be carried out with the subjects, but already outside the scope of class work, and it can be carried out both in the form individual as well as in the form of a collective experiment.
Each of these types of experiment has its advantages and disadvantages. The main advantage of a natural experiment is that the subjects are unaware of the changes introduced into their activities. However, with this type of experiment, it is difficult to fix the features of children's activity that are of interest to the experimenter.
In a laboratory experiment, on the contrary, there are great opportunities for collecting and accurately recording data if it is carried out in a laboratory specially equipped for this. But the student's awareness of himself as a test subject can influence the course of his activity.
Any type of experiment includes the following steps:
1. Goal setting: concretization of the hypothesis in a specific problem.
2. Planning the course of the experiment.
3. Conducting an experiment: collecting data.
4. Analysis of the obtained experimental data.
5. Conclusions that allow us to draw experimental data.
Both laboratory and natural experiments are divided into stating and forming.
Ascertaining experiment It is used in those cases when it is necessary to establish the actual state of already existing phenomena. For example, to explore the ideas of six-year-old children about living and non-living things. Another type of problem solved with the help of this method is related to the clarification of the role various conditions in the course of existing processes. So, it was found that the significance of the problem being solved for the subject affects his visual acuity.
In the field of educational psychology, it is especially important formative experiment. As it was pointed out, pedagogical psychology is called upon to study the patterns of learning. The main way for this is to trace the assimilation of new knowledge and actions when various conditions are introduced into the process of their formation, i.e. use a formative experiment. The researcher must know the objective composition of the activity that he is going to form. The main methods that are used to highlight the objective composition of activities are divided into two types.
1. Theoretical modeling of this activity with subsequent experimental verification.
2. To identify the objective composition of the activity, the method of studying this activity in people who are good at it, and in people who make mistakes when performing it, is also used.

8. Comparative analysis of observation and experiment. Advantages and disadvantages of methods of observation and experiment.

Experiment is a Latin word, similar in meaning to the words "test, experience, proof." Experiment is always connected with observation, even in historical terms it can be considered as a development of the method of observation. However, unlike observation in an experiment, a person is not content with just contemplating phenomena, he actively intervenes in their course, leading them to such an “artificial” state, when their properties are easier to study than the natural state. The researcher, not content with simply observing phenomena, consciously and actively intervenes in their natural course and achieves this either by directly influencing the process under study, or by changing the actual conditions for the course of this process. Complementing the process of live observation with active influence turns the experiment into the Saami productive method empirical research. The famous American philosopher and sociologist G. Wales noted on this occasion that, unlike simple observation, the experiment, "penetrating deeper and deeper under the outer shell, provides a basis for studying the developing and interconnected essence of nature."
In comparison with observation, the experiment has a different advantage, it lies in the fact that the object studied through the experiment is selected connections, relationships, aspects that are of interest to the observer: it eliminates side factors that complicate the process, the main attention can be directed to the phenomenon or property of interest to the researcher. This also provides an opportunity to obtain more reliable knowledge about the object.
In comparison with observation, the experiment has a number of other advantages: it provides an opportunity to accurately determine the conditions for the occurrence of a phenomenon, change it, study the properties of an object under certain extreme conditions, create an analogue and model of natural processes, increasing the speed of the processes, penetrate deeper into their essence, on the basis of a comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the phenomena being studied, to expand the area of ​​their influence and, finally, to discover the internal causes of phenomena.
Along with the advantages of a laboratory experiment, it also has
certain disadvantages. The most significant disadvantage of this method is
its some artificiality, which under certain conditions can
lead to disruption of the natural course of mental processes, and
hence leading to wrong conclusions. This lack of laboratory
experiment to a certain extent is eliminated in the organization.
Natural experiment combines the positive aspects of the method
observation and laboratory experiment. Saved here
the naturalness of the observation conditions and the accuracy of the experiment is introduced.
A natural experiment is designed in such a way that the subjects are unaware of
that they are subjected to psychological research
ensures the naturalness of their behavior. For correct and successful
conducting a natural experiment, it is necessary to observe all those
requirements for a laboratory experiment. AT
according to the task of the study, the experimenter selects such
conditions that provide the most vivid manifestation of the
aspects of mental activity.

9. Auxiliary methods of psychological and pedagogical research: questioning, analysis of products of creative activity, conversation, testing,biographical method , sociometry, mathematical methods.

Other research methods. In addition to observation and experiment, pedagogical psychology also uses such methods as the method of conversation, the method of studying the products of activity, questioning, etc.
Conversation- a method of obtaining new information through free communication with a person. In a conversation, roles are distributed symmetrically. The conversation is often used in pedagogical practice.
Interview- a special form of conversation in which one of the partners is the leader and the other is the follower, and questions are asked one-sidedly. A variant is a standardized interview containing a strictly defined set of questions that must be asked, but, however, can be diluted with others that have the purpose of masking. Interview option - training exam.
Questionnaire- Obtaining information based on answers to specially prepared questions. The questionnaires differ in a) the content of the questions, b) their form - open and closed, c) the wording of the questions, d) the number and order of the questions.
Questioning is oral and written, individual and group. In working with children, the questionnaire method is usually used from the age of ten, and until then the answers can be recorded by the interviewer.
Sociometry studies the position (status) of a person in a group and can be used as an expert assessment on the grounds identified as a sociometric criterion (for example, a sociometric index can be used to judge how a person is considered altruistic, friendly, responsible, etc. by his colleagues in group). A variant of sociometry in preschool age is the well-known technique "Two Houses". Sociometry is often used in the study of adolescent groups and their dynamics.
Analysis of products of activity (creativity)- mediated study of psychological reality through deobjectification (restoration of activity according to its result). This method is very often used in developmental psychology in various forms and variants, depending on what kind of productive activity the subject has formed. In psychological and pedagogical research, the method takes the form of various types of knowledge control (essays, dictations, tests), which allow you to reproduce the dynamics of a person's educational activity.
Testing- a short, standardized test designed to establish inter-individual, intra-individual or inter-group differences. Testing is more often used in psychodiagnostics than in scientific research (to establish the intellectual abilities of a person or his professional inclinations). The use of tests must comply with the Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Depending on the reality being studied, the tests can be conditionally combined into the following groups (the classification is empirical in nature, the classes intersect):
1. Ability tests; 2. Tests of skills and abilities; 3. Perception tests; 4. Opinions (interests, social attitudes); 5. Aesthetic tests; 6. Projective tests; 7. Situational tests (performance of tasks in different conditions); 8. Game tests.
There are standardized criteria-oriented test batteries designed to solve specific practical problems (for example, to diagnose psychological readiness for school, school skills, neuropsychological characteristics of children).

10. The essence of concepts: learning, teaching, learning. Their differences and relationships.

There are several concepts related to the acquisition by a person of life experience in the form of knowledge, skills, abilities, abilities. It is learning, learning, learning.
Most general concept is learning. Intuitively, each of us imagines what learning is. Learning denotes the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth). Such familiar and widespread concepts as evolution, development, survival, adaptation, selection, improvement, have some commonality, which is most fully expressed in the concept of learning, which resides in them either explicitly or by default.
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "learning". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) use this term in relation to a person.
Scientists interpret this triad of concepts in different ways. For example, the points of view of A.K. Markova and N.F. Talyzina are.
A.K. Markova considers learning as the acquisition of individual experience, but first of all pays attention to the automated level of skills;
learning is interpreted from a generally accepted point of view - as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, ensuring the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren and mastering the methods of acquiring knowledge;
the teaching is presented as the student's activity in acquiring new knowledge and mastering the ways of acquiring knowledge (Markova A.K., 1990; abstract).
N.F. Talyzina adheres to the interpretation of the concept of "learning" that existed in the Soviet period - the application of the concept under consideration exclusively to animals; learning is considered by her only as an activity of a teacher in organizing the pedagogical process, and teaching - as an activity of a student included in the educational process (Talyzina N.F., 1998; abstract). Thus, the psychological concepts of "learning", "teaching", "learning" cover a wide range of phenomena associated with the acquisition of experience, knowledge, skills, abilities in the process of active interaction of the subject with the objective and social world - in behavior, activity, communication.
The acquisition of experience, knowledge and skills occurs throughout the life of an individual, although this process proceeds most intensively during the period of reaching maturity. Consequently, the learning processes coincide in time with the development, maturation, mastery of the forms of group behavior of the object of study, and in humans - with socialization, the development of cultural norms and values, and the formation of personality.
So, learning/education/teaching is the process of acquisition by the subject of new ways of carrying out behavior and activities, their fixation and/or modification. The most general concept denoting the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system (from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth) is “learning”. Teaching a person as a result of purposeful, conscious appropriation of the socio-historical experience transmitted to him and the individual experience formed on this basis is defined as teaching.

11. Understanding the mechanisms of learning in associative psychology
The idea of ​​association as a possible mechanism for the formation of mental phenomena was first expressed J. Lockcom (1632-1704), although the very concept of association, its types, features was introduced by Aristotle. The merit of a clear presentation of the basic principle of the future school, according to which everything is explained by primary sensations and the association of representations or ideas evoked by them, belongs to D. Gartley (1747). D. Hartley proceeded from the materialistic idea that an external influence causes a response action of the nervous tissue, in which large and small vibrations arise. According to D. Gartley, “once having arisen, small vibrations are stored and accumulated, forming an “organ” that mediates subsequent reactions to new external influences. Through this, the organism... becomes a learning system with a history to match. The basis of learning is memory. It is for Hartley a common fundamental property of nervous organization.
The reasons for the formation of associations of representations or ideas were further considered. J. St. Millem , who argued that “our ideas (representations) are born and exist in the order in which the sensations existed, from which they are a copy. The main law is the association of ideas, and there seem to be two reasons for the association: the liveliness of the associated sensations and the frequent repetition of the association. Analysis of the main laws of formation of associations (associations by similarity, associations by contiguity (coincidence in place or time), causal associations, etc.) and secondary laws of their formation, which include “the duration of initial impressions, their liveliness, frequency, delay in time”, led researchers to the conclusion that these laws are nothing more than a “list of conditions for better memorization” (M.S. Rogovin). Respectively memorization was determined by the operation of the laws of association.
Experimental data G. Ebbinghaus simultaneously characterized a person's ability to both memorize and memorize material, which subsequently allowed researchers to closely approximate two concepts - "memory" and "learning" (as the acquisition and preservation of a skill or system of skills). In the future, in the works of behaviorists, a complete merging of these concepts occurs. At the end of the XIX century. E. Thorndike, prominent representative experimental comparative psychology, one of the fundamental theories of learning of that time was put forward - the theory of trial and error. Its essence lies in the fact that the animal (E. Thorndike conducted experiments on cats), as a result of repeated trial and error, accidentally finds one of its reactions that corresponds to the stimulus - stimulus. This coincidence generates satisfaction, which reinforces the given response and associates it with the stimulus. If a similar stimulus is repeated, the reaction will also be repeated. This is the first and basic law of E. Thorndike - law of effect. Second law - law of exercise- lies in the fact that the response to a stimulus is determined by the number of repetitions, the strength and duration of the stimulus. According to the third law of learning - the law of readiness the reaction of the animal depends on its readiness for this action. As E. Thorndike stated, "only a hungry cat will look for food." Developing his theory, E. Thorndike subsequently identified several more learning factors, of which the factor of “identical elements” plays a special role. In the subsequent development of learning theory, this factor correlates with the principle of skill transfer. So, E. Thorndike believed that such a transfer is carried out only in the presence of identical elements in different situations. Further research by E. Thorndike led to some change in the second law, especially in relation to the description of human learning. E. Thorndike introduced the concept of knowledge of the results as another pattern of learning, because, according to him, "practice without knowledge of the results, no matter how long it is, is useless." At the same time, knowledge of the results is considered by E. Thorndike as an accompanying moment of the operation of the law of effect, which strengthens the strength of the connection formed between the stimulus and the reaction. The works of E. Thorndike, associative in essence and behavioristic in method and approach, had a significant impact on the theoretical understanding of the educational process.

12. Behavioral approach to the problem of learning. Theory of social learning.
According to the general position of behaviorism, behavior is best understood in terms of external causes rather than mental processes, so the focus of these writings has been on external stimuli and responses.
Behavioral approach to learning contained other key provisions. According to one of them, simple associations of the classical or operant type are the "bricks" from which all learning is built. So, behaviorists believed that such a complex thing as mastering speech, in fact, is the memorization of many associations. According to another position, regardless of what exactly is being learned and who is learning by heart - be it a rat learning to navigate a maze, or a child mastering the operation of division by a column - the same basic laws of learning apply everywhere.
One of the largest followers of I.P. Pavlova was an American psychologist John Watson (1878-1958). Watson applied the concept of conditioned reflexes to learning theory and formulated the basic principles of behavioral psychology. According to Watson, human behavior can be described in terms of stimuli and responses (S-R), where the stimuli are environmental influences. He argued that psychology, as a science of behavior, should be concerned with the prediction and control of human actions, and not with the analysis of his consciousness.
The psychology of behavior was further developed in the works of the American psychologist Barres Skinner Personality, from the point of view of learning, is the experience that a person has acquired during his life. This is an accumulated set of learned behaviors. The educational-behavioral direction deals with open (accessible to direct observation) actions of a person, as derivatives of his life experience.
Skinner's work most convincingly proves that environmental influences determine our behavior. Unlike other psychologists, Skinner argued that almost entirely behavior is directly conditioned by the possibility of reinforcement from the environment. In his opinion, in order to explain behavior (and thus implicitly understand personality), we need only analyze the functional relationship between visible action and visible consequences. Skinner's work provided the foundation for a behavioral science unparalleled in the history of psychology. He is considered by many to be one of the most revered psychologists of our time.
Skinner's radical behaviorism clearly differs from social learning theories. Although approaches Albert Bandura and Julian Rotter reflect some of the core tenets of the teaching-behavioral movement, they offer a broader view of behavior that emphasizes the interconnection of factors within and outside people. Social learning theory is a cognitive theory of personality in the second half of the 20th century, developed by the American personologist Rotter. According to T. s. n., social behavior personality can be explored and described using the concepts of behavioral potential, expectation, reinforcement, reinforcement value, psychological situation, locus of control. Behavioral potential refers to the likelihood of behavior occurring in situations with reinforcement; it is understood that each person has a certain potential and a set of actions of behavioral reactions that have been formed during life. Waiting in T. with. n. refers to the subjective likelihood that a certain reinforcement will be observed in behavior in similar situations. Stable expectation, generalized on the basis of past experience, explains the stability and integrity of the personality. In T. s. n. A distinction is made between expectations that are specific to one situation (specific expectations) and expectations that are most general or applicable to a number of situations (generalized expectations), reflecting the experience of different situations.
13. Interpretation of the concept of "learning" in foreign and domestic psychology. Theory of learning in cognitive and humanistic psychology.

Learning refers to the process and result of the acquisition of individual experience by a biological system.(from the simplest to man as the highest form of its organization in the conditions of the Earth). Such familiar and widespread concepts as evolution, development, survival, adaptation, selection, improvement, have some commonality, which is most fully expressed in the concept of learning, which resides in them either explicitly or by default. The concept of development, or evolution, is impossible without the assumption that all these processes occur as a result of a change in the behavior of living beings. And at present, the only scientific concept that fully embraces these changes is the concept of learning. Living beings learn new behaviors that enable them to survive more efficiently. Everything that exists, adapts, survives, acquires new properties, and this happens according to the laws of learning. So, survival basically depends on the ability to learn.
In foreign psychology, the concept of "learning" is often used as an equivalent of "teaching". In domestic psychology (at least in the Soviet period of its development) it is customary to use it in relation to animals. However, recently a number of scientists (I.A. Zimnyaya, V.N. Druzhinin, Yu.M. Orlov, etc.) use this term in relation to a person.
The founder of the theory of learning E. Thorndike considered consciousness as a system of connections that unites ideas by association. The higher the intelligence, the more he can make connections. Thorndike proposed the law of exercise and the law of effect as the two fundamental laws of learning. According to the first, the more often an action is repeated, the deeper it is imprinted in the mind. The law of effect states that connections in consciousness are established more successfully if the response to a stimulus is accompanied by a reward. Thorndike used the term “belonging” to describe meaningful associations: connections are more easily established when objects seem to belong to each other, i.e. interdependent. Learning is facilitated if the material being learned is meaningful. Thorndike also formulated the concept of "effect spread" - the willingness to learn information from areas adjacent to those areas that are already familiar. Thorndike experimentally studied the propagation of the effect to determine whether learning one subject affects the learning of another - for example, whether knowledge of the ancient Greek classics helps in the preparation of future engineers. It turned out that positive transfer is observed only in cases where areas of knowledge are in contact. Learning one type of activity can even prevent the mastery of another (“proactive inhibition”), and newly mastered material can sometimes destroy something already learned (“retroactive inhibition”). These two types of inhibition are the subject of the theory of interference in memorization. Forgetting some material is associated not only with the passage of time, but also with the influence of other activities.
Famous representative, humanistic psychology C. Rogers emphasizing that freedom is the realization that a person can live on his own, "here and now", according to his own choice. It is the courage that makes a person able to enter into the uncertainty of the unknown, which he chooses for himself. It is the understanding of meaning within oneself. According to Rogers, a person who expresses his thoughts deeply and boldly acquires his own uniqueness, responsibly "chooses himself." He may have the happiness of choosing among a hundred external alternatives, or the misfortune of having none. But in all cases, his freedom nonetheless exists.
traditions B. Skinner were continued S. Bijou and D. Baer, also using the concepts of behavior and reinforcement. Behavior can be reactive (responsive) or operant. Stimuli can be physical, chemical, organismal or social. They can evoke reciprocal behavior or enhance operant behavior. Instead of individual stimuli, whole complexes often act. Special attention is given to differentiation stimuli, which are attitudinal and perform the function of intermediate variables that change the influence of the main stimulus.
The distinction between reciprocal and operant behavior is of particular importance for developmental psychology. Operant behavior creates stimuli, which, in turn, significantly influence the response behavior. In this case, 3 groups of influences are possible:

environment (incentives);
an individual (organism) with its formed habits;
changing influences of the individual on the influencing environment.

Trying to explain what is the cause of the changes that occur to a person throughout his life, S. Bijou and D. Baer essentially introduce the concept of interaction. Despite the wide spread of variables that determine the learning process, they note the homogeneity of the course of development for different individuals. It is, in their opinion, the result of:

identical biological boundary conditions;
the relative homogeneity of the social environment;
difficulties in mastering different forms of behavior;
prerequisite relationships (for example, walking precedes running).

14. Teaching reactive forms of behavior. Learning as a result of operant conditioning. Cognitive learning.

It is customary to distinguish three groups of ways (mechanisms) of learning according to the degree of participation of the organism as a whole in them: 1) reactive behavior; 2) operant behavior (or learning from operant conditioning) and 3) cognitive learning.
Reactive behavior is manifested in the fact that the body reacts passively, but at the same time neural circuits are transformed and new memory traces are formed. Among the varieties of reactive behavior, there are: a) addiction; b) sensitization; c) imprinting; and d) conditioned reflexes. Habituation (or habituation) consists in the fact that the body, as a result of changes at the level of receptors or the reticular formation, "learns" to ignore some kind of repeated or permanent stimulus, "making sure" that it does not have much significance for the activity that is currently moment is carried out. Sensitization is the opposite process. The repetition of a stimulus leads to a stronger activation of the organism, which becomes more and more sensitive to the given stimulus. Imprinting (imprinting) is a hereditarily programmed and irreversible formation of a certain specific form of response, for example, the attachment of newborn animals to the first moving object that comes into their field of vision in the first hours of life.
Artifical stable functional connections (ASFS) are the fixation in long-term memory of the connection between pharmacological and physical (photostimulation) effects after a single combination of them.
Operant behavior, or learning as a result of operant conditioning, is the consolidation of those actions, the consequences of which for the organism are desirable, and the rejection of actions that lead to undesirable consequences. There are three varieties of this type of learning: a) trial and error; b) the formation of automated responses and c) imitation. Learning by trial and error lies in the fact that, sorting out ways to achieve the goal (overcoming obstacles), a person refuses inefficient ones and eventually finds a solution to the problem. Formation of automated reactions is the creation of very complex behavioral reactions in stages. Each stage is reinforced (positive and negative reinforcement, extinction, differentiation, generalization).
Cognitive learning is evolutionarily the latest and most effective type of learning. In full, such learning is inherent only in humans, although we can identify some of its evolutionary predecessors or individual elements in higher animals. There are the following forms of cognitive learning: a) latent learning; b) teaching complex psychomotor skills; c) insight; and d) learning by reasoning. Latent learning is the analytical processing of incoming information, as well as the information already available (stored) in memory, and on this basis the choice of an adequate response. Teaching complex psychomotor skills, which a person masters in a large volume throughout his life, depending on the individual characteristics of the organization of psychomotor activity, lifestyle, profession, etc., goes through the stage of cognitive strategy (choosing a program), associative (checking and improving this program) and the autonomous stage, when the psychomotor skill passes to the level of automatism with a weakening or complete absence of consciousness control. Insight (from the English insight - insight, penetration; in French an identical term - intuition) lies in the fact that the information "scattered" in the memory, as it were, is combined and used in a new integration. Learning by reasoning is learning through the thought process. The foundation for thinking is perceptual learning (image recognition) and conceptual learning (abstraction and generalization).

15. Essence of teaching. Interdisciplinary approach to learning (I. Lingart).

The problem of teaching is interdisciplinary; Accordingly, it can be viewed from different perspectives. I. Lingart identifies nine aspects (positions) of consideration
From the standpoint of philosophy (in epistemological terms), teaching is a specific form of knowledge. In teaching, contradictions arise and are resolved between the objective and the subjective, form and content, and so on.
From the standpoint of the axiology of ethics, teaching is seen as a process of value formation and self-determination, internalization of social norms, rules, and values.
From a biological point of view, learning is an adaptive process, where heredity, environment, adaptation, regulation are considered.
From the position of physiology, teaching is considered in terms of neurohumoral mechanisms, the development of conditioned reflexes, the laws of higher nervous activity, and the analytical and synthetic activity of the brain.
From the standpoint of psychology, teaching is viewed as an activity of the subject, as an activity, as a factor in mental development.
From a pedagogical point of view, teaching is viewed in the context of "an upbringing and educational system, where upbringing and training are a system of purposeful, desirable conditions from the point of view of the needs of society, which should ensure the effective transfer of social experience."
From a cybernetic position, learning can be viewed as an information process in a learning system characterized by control through direct and feedback, development and change of strategies, programs and algorithms.
16. Psychological theories of learning.

In domestic psychology, there are several approaches to the analysis of learning problems. One of these theoretical approaches is to consider learning as the assimilation of knowledge by students and the formation of methods of mental activity in them (N.A. Menchinskaya, E.N. Kabanova-Meller, D.N. Bogoyavlensky, etc.). It is based on the position according to which the assimilation of knowledge by schoolchildren is determined by external circumstances (primarily, the program and teaching methods) and at the same time is the result of the activity of the student himself.
The central point of the teaching is the assimilation of knowledge, presented in the form scientific concepts. Such assimilation is not reduced to a simple copying in the minds of students of the concepts introduced by the teacher. The concept given from the outside is formed to the extent that it is the result of the student's mental activity, the mental operations carried out by him (analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction). In the assimilation of concepts, successive stages arise: the movement from incomplete knowledge to complete. This movement, depending on the content of concepts, can be of a different nature. In many cases it goes from the particular, concrete to the general, abstract. But there is another variant of assimilation: from the undifferentiated general to the particular, the concrete, and through the concrete to the truly abstract.
The assimilation of knowledge is closely related to their application in various educational and practical situations. The application of acquired knowledge depends on the relationship between theoretical and practical, abstract and concrete thinking. They correlate differently at different stages of learning, which makes it necessary to use the processes of internalization and externalization (transition from external actions to solve mental problems to action in the mental plane and vice versa).
In the process of learning, not only knowledge is acquired, but also those mental operations are improved, with the help of which students acquire and apply knowledge, there is a formation of mental activity techniques, including both the mastery of operations and the emergence of motives, needs to use these operations as ways of activity.
The formulation and fairly wide use of methods of mental activity leads to the formation of certain qualities of the mind in students: activity and independence, productivity, flexibility, etc.
Teaching is a developing process, including the transition from elementary situations, where it is carried out on the basis of imitation of a model with minimal activity of the student himself, to higher levels based on the "self-management" of the student, who independently acquires new knowledge or applies previously acquired knowledge to solve new problems.
Another approach to the problems of learning is contained in the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions and concepts, developed by P.Ya. Galperin, N.F. Talyzina and their staff. In this theory, learning is viewed as the assimilation of certain types and methods of cognitive activity, which include a given system of knowledge and further ensure their application within predetermined limits. Knowledge, skills and abilities do not exist in isolation from each other, the quality of knowledge is always determined by the content and characteristics of the activity in which they are included.
The unit acquired in the process of learning cognitive activity is a mental action, and the task of controlling learning is, first of all, the task of forming mental actions with certain, predetermined properties. The possibility of such management is provided by the knowledge and use of the laws by which the formation of new actions takes place, the identification and consideration of the conditions affecting their quality.
Such laws and conditions were the subject of research by the authors of the theory of stage-by-stage formation. They found that the initial form in which a new mental action with given properties can be constructed by students is its external, material (or materialized) form, when the action is carried out with real objects (or their substitutes - models, diagrams, drawings, etc.). etc.). The process of assimilation of an action includes the initial mastery of its external form and subsequent internalization - a gradual transition to execution on an internal, mental plane, during which the action not only turns into a mental one, but also acquires a number of new properties (generalization, brevity, automation, reasonableness, consciousness) .

17. Essence, structure and features of the learning process.

The learning process is a system of successive educational actions of the teacher to achieve a cognitive result and a corresponding successive change in the mental development of the student.
Training performs the function of education, upbringing and the function of personality development. Since the process is movement, advancement, the question arises about its driving forces. M.A. Danilov concluded that the main driving force behind the learning process is contradictions. Contradictions are external and internal. The first are those that arise outside the personality, although they relate to its development: between the needs of society to prepare the young generation for life and the current level of this preparation. Internal contradictions characterize the level of readiness of the student himself to perform compulsory educational tasks.
The structure of the educational process is made up of the goal, the teacher, the student, the content of education (I.Ya. Lerner, B.T. Likhachev they are called elements). The goal is a social order, i.e. a certain amount and corresponding quality of knowledge that a student must master. A student is a person interested in learning, shows his activity. In this sense, both he and the teacher strive for cooperation. Content in the learning process has several functions. Firstly, it is the subject of educational activity, in which scientific terms, concepts and other information are concentrated. Secondly, for the teacher and for the students it is an object of learning activity. The teacher “processes” it and transmits (transmits) it to students so that they learn it. For a student, this is also an object that needs to be processed, assimilated and appropriated as an element of social culture. Thirdly, for the teacher, the content is also a means of teaching, educating and developing students. Through the content of education, it affects the minds, moral and other cultures. This is the structure of the educational process. Their interaction is the process.
etc.................

Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and methods of educational psychology 5

Plan................................................. ................................................. ............................... 5

1. Subject and tasks of pedagogical psychology. Psychology and Pedagogy.... 5

2. History of the development of educational psychology in Russia and abroad......... 6

3. The structure of educational psychology. The connection of educational psychology with other sciences .............................................. ................................................. ................................................. 17

4. The main problems of educational psychology and their a brief description of 19

5. General characteristics of the methods of educational psychology .................................. 21

Lecture 2. Psychology of pedagogical activity and the personality of the teacher 24

Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 24

1. The concept of pedagogical activity. Concepts pedagogical process and their psychological rationale .............................................................. ................................. 24

2. The structure of pedagogical activity ............................................... .............. 25

3. The functions of the teacher in the organization of the educational process ........... 27

4.Psychological requirements for the personality of the teacher .............................................. .28

5. Problems of pedagogical communication ............................................... ................... 31

6. The concept of an individual style of pedagogical activity 33

7. Psychological features teaching staff ........................ 34

Lecture 3. Psychological service at school and its role in optimizing the educational process in school ...................... 36

Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 36

1. Fundamentals of the activities of the psychological service at school .............................. 36

2. Logic and organization of the psychological study of the personality of the student and the team of the school class ................................................. ................................... 38

3. The program for studying the personality of a student .............................................. .............. 38

4. The program of studying the collective of the school class .............................................. 42

5. Psychocorrective and educational activities of the psychological service 45

6. Psychological foundations of lesson analysis .............................................. ................ 46

Lecture 4

Plan................................................. ................................................. ............................... 48

1. The concept of the purpose of education .............................................. ......................................... 48

2. Means and methods of education ............................................... ................................. 49

3. Basic social institutions upbringing ................................................ 52

4. Psychological theories of education. The problem of personality stability.. 54

Lecture 5. Management of the upbringing of the child's personality and its psychological meaning ................................................. ................................... 56

Plan................................................. ................................................. .............................. 56

1.Psychological conditions for the formation of personality traits .............................. 56

Activity, personality orientation and its formation........................... 57

Development of the moral sphere of personality60

2. Socio-psychological aspects of education .............................................. 61

Communication as a factor in education.............................................................................. 61

The role of the team in the education of students............................................................... 63

Family as a socio-psychological factor in education.............................. 64

Education and formation of social attitudes of the individual........................ 66

3. The problem of managing the upbringing of the individual .............................................. ...... 67

4. Indicators and criteria for the upbringing of schoolchildren .............................................. 71

Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and methods of educational psychology

1. Subject and tasks of pedagogical psychology. Psychology and pedagogy

2. History of the development of educational psychology in Russia and abroad

3. Structure of educational psychology. Relationship of educational psychology with other sciences

4. The main problems of educational psychology and their brief description

5. General characteristics of the methods of educational psychology

The subject of educational psychology is the study of the psychological patterns of education and upbringing, both from the side of the student, the educator, and from the side of the one who organizes this training and education (i.e., from the side of the teacher, educator).

Education and training represents different, but interrelated aspects of a single pedagogical activity. In reality, they are always implemented together, so it is almost impossible to define learning from education (as processes and results). Raising a child, we always teach him something, while teaching, we educate him at the same time. But these processes in pedagogical psychology are considered separately, because they are different in their goals, content, methods, leading types of activity that realizes them. Education is carried out mainly through interpersonal communication of people and pursues the goal of developing the worldview, morality, motivation and character of the individual, the formation of personality traits and human actions. Education (realized through different kinds subject theoretical and practical activities) focuses on the intellectual and cognitive development of the child. Various methods of training and education. Teaching methods are based on a person's perception and understanding of the objective world, material culture, and upbringing methods are based on the perception and understanding of a person by a person, human morality and spiritual culture.

For a child, there is nothing more natural than to develop, form, become what he is in the process of education and training (S.L. Rubinshtein). Education and training are included in the content of pedagogical activity. Upbringing is a process of organized purposeful influence on the personality and behavior of the child.

In both cases, training and education act as specific activities of a particular subject (student, teacher). But they are considered as a joint activity of a teacher and a student, in the first case we are talking about educational activities or teaching (student). In the second, the pedagogical activity of the teacher and on the performance of the functions of organization, stimulation and management of the student's educational activities, in the third - on the process of education and training in general.

Pedagogical psychology is an interdisciplinary independent branch of knowledge based on knowledge of general, developmental, social psychology, personality psychology, theoretical and practical pedagogy. It has its own history of formation and development, the analysis of which allows us to understand the essence and specifics of the subject of its study.

General psychological context of the formation of pedagogical psychology. Pedagogical psychology develops in the general context of scientific ideas about a person, which were fixed in the main psychological trends (theories) that have had and continue to have a great influence on pedagogical thought in each specific historical period. This is due to the fact that the learning process has always acted as a natural research "testing ground" for psychological theories. Let us consider in more detail the psychological currents and theories that could influence the understanding of the pedagogical process.

Associative psychology(starting from the middle of the 18th century - D. Hartley and until the end of the 19th century - W. Wundt), in the depths of which the types, mechanisms of associations were determined as connections of mental processes and associations as the basis of the psyche. On the material of the study of associations, the features of memory and learning were studied. Here we note that the foundations of the associative interpretation of the psyche were laid by Aristotle (384-322 BC), who is credited with introducing the concept of "association", its types, distinguishing two types of mind (nousa) into theoretical and practical, definitions feelings of satisfaction as a learning factor.

Empirical data from the experiments of G. Ebbinghaus (1885) on the study of the process of forgetting and the curve of forgetting obtained by him, the nature of which is taken into account by all subsequent researchers of memory, the development of skills, the organization of exercises.

Pragmatic functional psychology W. James (late XIX - early XX century) and J. Dewey (practically the entire first half of our century), with an emphasis on adaptive reactions, adaptation to the environment, body activity, and the development of skills.

The theory of trial and error by E. Thorndike (late 19th - early 20th century), who formulated the basic laws of learning - the laws of exercise, effect and readiness; who described the learning curve and the achievement tests based on these data (1904).

Behaviorism J. Watson (1912-1920) and neo-behaviourism of E. Tolman, K. Hull, A. Gasri and B. Skinner (the first half of our century). B. Skinner already in the middle of our century developed the concept of operant behavior and the practice of programmed learning. The merit of the works of E. Thorndike preceding behaviorism, the orthodox behaviorism of J. Watson and the entire neo-behaviorist direction is the development of a holistic concept of learning (learning), including its laws, facts, mechanisms.

Few sciences, both in the past and today, are subject to such widespread public condemnation and accusations of pseudoscience as pedagogy and psychology. This is despite the fact that interest in these disciplines is steadily increasing. The need to solve psychological and pedagogical problems becomes urgent and largely determines the future of mankind.

Tangible changes in the landscape, human living conditions, the development of information technology and exact sciences, on the one hand, and fragmentary knowledge of human nature, on the other. Let's try to figure out: how objective are the accusations of uselessness for modern people against psychology and pedagogy.

What is psychology?

The word "psychology" itself consists of two Greek words- "soul" and "knowledge". As a science, psychology arose relatively recently - at the end of the 19th century, until that moment it was part of philosophy.

“Psychology is both a very old and still very young science - it has a 1000-year past behind it, and yet it is still all in the future. Its existence as an independent scientific discipline is calculated only for decades, but its main problem has occupied philosophical thought since philosophy has existed. Years of experimental research were preceded by centuries of philosophical reflection, on the one hand, and millennia of practical knowledge of people, on the other,” wrote Russian psychologist S.L. Rubinstein in 1940.

Since its inception, psychology has been studying the features and patterns of the emergence, formation and development of mental processes, and also explores mental states and mental properties of a person.

The subject of psychology from antiquity to the beginning of the 18th century was the soul, then the content of the subject of psychological science depended on its direction.

Thus, the English empirical associationist psychology of D. Hartley, John Stuart Mill, Alexander Bain, Herbert Spencer studied the phenomena of consciousness, Wilhelm Wundt, the founder of structuralism, considered the direct experience of the subject to be the subject of psychology. Functionalists studied adaptability (William James), psychophysiology as the origin of mental activities (Ivan Sechenov), behaviorism - behavior (John Watson), psychoanalysis - the unconscious (Sigmund Freud), Gestalt psychology - information processing processes and the results of these processes (Max Wertheimer), humanistic psychology - personal experience of a person (Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May), system-activity approach in psychology (L. Vygotsky, P. Galperin, D. Elkonin, V. Davydov) currently relevant in Russian pedagogy the subject of psychology calls activity.

Psychologists use general scientific methods, for example, experiment, observation, questioning, questioning, as well as the actual psychological methods for conducting research, analyzing the data obtained, drawing conclusions.

Modern psychology

Today it is a multi-colored kaleidoscope of various psychological directions, psychological techniques, theories and is divided into different branches: general, age, children's, social, pedagogical, history of psychology, personality theory, etc.

A practicing psychologist independently makes a choice on the basis of which method he will work - psychoanalysis, Gestalt therapy, cognitive psychology, behavioral approach, Synton method, neurolinguistic programming, etc.

Often a psychologist is forced to make some kind of compilation of several psychological methods to get a visible result of their activities. It should be noted that domestic psychologists are in a more difficult position than Western ones, since the 1936 decree "On pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education" eliminated pedology, which practically froze the development of psychological science in our country for several decades.

Only in 1966 were faculties of psychology created at the main universities of the country - Moscow State University and Leningrad State University, as well as the Department of Psychiatry and medical psychology at RUDN. However, the pressure from the ideology of Marxism-Leninism on psychology remains for a long period. Achievements, like the fallacies of Western psychology, became widespread in our country in the mid-1980s.

Meanwhile, despite the steady growth and accumulation of knowledge, research in various branches of psychology as a whole, the feeling of a crisis in psychology intensifies in society, since none of the areas of psychology fully and accurately explains the nature of a person, the reasons for his behavior. All this gives reason to doubt the scientific nature of psychology.

Between science and pseudoscience

Psychology is closely connected with natural science, ethnography, sociology, cultural theory, art history, mathematics, logic, and linguistics. Yes, it is so interconnected that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish the actual psychology.

In addition, psychological methods are poorly described and studied. The patterns identified by psychologists are not always the same. Many psychological theories are not confirmed in practice. Psychologists work to solve problems, and they should help to avoid them.

This prompts psychologists to look for effective recipes for working with people, for example, in astrology, esotericism, which allows, for example, Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Deputy Director of the Institute of Psychology of the Russian Academy of Sciences A. V. Yurevich to conclude: “Psychology occupies an intermediate position between science and parascience ".

A few words about pedagogy

Pedagogy, literally translated from Greek, means “child-bearing”, since in ancient Greece a teacher was called a slave who was assigned to a student.

The need for the emergence of a science that studies the laws of upbringing and education of a person arose as society accumulated knowledge and the need to understand the methods of successful transmission of social experience from generation to generation.

If psychology studies a person, his psyche, then pedagogy is a system of pedagogical phenomena associated with the development of an individual.

How to raise a child, reveal his talents, educate, instill social norms, contribute to the formation of personality? What changes occur in the human psyche under the influence of training and education?

Pedagogy is called upon to answer these questions in order to provide an opportunity to anticipate and manage educational process understand how to properly develop a personality.

However, by and large, today pedagogical science is not much different from everyday knowledge in the field of education and training, as it consists of disparate facts, theories that have little evidence in practice. more and more reminiscent of quackery in medicine.

social pedagogy

Social pedagogy is a branch of pedagogy that studies how the social environment affects the formation of personality and how best to organize socialization. It is designed to help solve psychological and pedagogical problems in practice, in modern realities. Social pedagogy explores only the field of education carried out by society and the state.

A.V. Mudrik in the textbook "Social pedagogy" writes: "Social pedagogy is a branch of knowledge, having studied which you can learn, firstly, about what will inevitably happen or can happen in the life of a person of a particular age in certain circumstances. Secondly, how can favorable conditions be created for human development, to prevent "failures" in the process of his socialization. And thirdly, how can one reduce the effect of the influence of those unfavorable circumstances in which a person finds himself, the effect of that undesirable thing that happens in the process of a person’s socialization.

Social pedagogy and psychology are very close. To check the psychological readiness of a child for school is psychology, but to prepare him for school is already pedagogy.

Thus, it is assumed that the psychologist should only state, explain, recommend, but really influence the behavior of a person, his psyche, this is the task of the teacher. From this it becomes clear the emergence of psychological and pedagogical faculties and the specialty of a teacher-psychologist.

At the same time, every year there is a growing need not only to provide direct psychological help people, but also in the prevention of problems, their prevention.

However, again, instead of effective methods, we see general recipes worn to holes:

if you want to solve a problem, know yourself (including your past lives); do not stop in your development - continuing education waiting for you; don't be a victim - be the author of your life; do not be a consequence - become the cause of everything that happens around you; value life, take care of your health; first love children, and then educate them; your thoughts are your life...

Meaningful invocations. Well, for some reason they don't work. Thinking doesn't change. A lump of social contradictions is growing, hatred, anger, aggressiveness, a decline in morality, and the number of people who do not feel the joy of life is increasing.

Formulas similar to spells - "should", "must", "should" - dissolve in the vacuum of psychological illiteracy, hanging in the air of topical questions about human nature.

System-Vector Psychology

And if you were told that a long-awaited breakthrough had occurred in psychology, would you believe it? No. And rightly so. Because all the provisions of real psychological science do not need to be taken on faith, as well as create special conditions in order to see how it works. Her theory is inseparable from practice. She is life itself.

So, the latest achievement in the world of psychology is the System-Vector Psychology of Yuri Burlan, which for the first time allows you to accurately differentiate people according to their innate inclinations and reveals the meaning of socialization (introducing a person to culture).

All people are initially born with - vectors that determine the way a person thinks, his life values, desires. Properties are given by nature, but their implementation and development are not predetermined. It depends on the landscape, the society in which a person falls.

Nobody is born a criminal or a genius. Yes, initially each child is different from the other, but how his innate abilities (and they always exist) will be realized and developed is a question for parents, teachers, and society.

System-vector psychology defines: anal, skin, muscle, urethral (lower vectors), oral, olfactory, sound, visual (upper vectors). Each modern person has several vectors, since the landscape is changing, and sometimes contradictory properties are needed to adapt to it.

Accordingly, the more dramatic changes occur in people's living conditions, the more multi-vectored (others are already in starting opportunities than their own parents) children are born.

Today we are clearly seeing children of the "information formation", unlike previous generations. The gap between them and us is enormous. Sharply on the agenda is the question of how to understand a child, how to help him discover his abilities to the fullest and become happy.

Basics of child psychology

Up to a year is simple. He is born with the given basic properties, which he will have to develop before the end of the puberty period (approximately 12-15 years). Then you can only correct all those conditions that "come from childhood."

The main thing that parents of a baby up to a year need to concentrate on is maintaining his life. In this period, the baby eats a lot, grows rapidly and takes the first steps in the knowledge of the world around him. His character is clearly visible, and this must be reckoned with.

For example, a baby who quickly adapts to changes easily endures trips, eats calmly on the road, but an anal toddler, endowed with a rigid psyche, hard tolerating changes, will worry, show anxiety, for him a new environment is stress (even when you change clothes) . By understanding the vector set of their child, parents will be able to provide him with a sense of security necessary for his full development.

The psychology of a child at the age of 2 changes - he begins to walk, the zone of exploration of the world expands, in addition, the baby constantly replenishes his vocabulary shows an active interest in his own body. Individuality, differences from other children appear more and more clearly. So, the skin baby is active in games, loves new games, toys, and the anal baby sits quietly and draws, looks at books for a long time, and shows conservatism in games.

At the age of three, a child often changes unexpectedly - an obedient daughter becomes a stubborn stubborn, "unwanted", does everything in defiance of her parents. The crisis of three years known in psychology is the birth of the "I" of the child, when he begins to separate himself from the world around him, to realize his desires and needs.

This is the first step towards independence. For many parents, the crisis of a child's three years is a test of their parental aptitude. Will they be able to agree, will they learn how to effectively cope with the baby's tantrums, direct the child's energy in the right direction?

A systematic approach greatly simplifies the life of parents: after the training, they understand what kind of baby is in front of them and what he really wants. freedom must be given, neither prohibitions, nor praise, nor punishment will affect him. It is important to praise the anal peanut for real deeds, adequately limit the skin peanut, build a clear system of prohibitions and rewards.

At the age of three, the most urgent need for children is communication with peers. For the successful socialization of the child, the development of the necessary communication skills in him, it is worth sending him to kindergarten.

It is there, in the children's team, a kind of model of a primitive flock, that he will pass the ranking, find his place in society, the team.

A 4-5-year-old child continues to actively explore the world, begins to ask more and more questions. Some children have obsessive fears - they are afraid of the dark, afraid to be alone. From the point of view of Yuri Burlan's System-Vector Psychology, the state of fear is a manifestation of a visual vector, and until a certain time, the fact that a child is afraid to sleep alone at night is quite normal, this is the archetype of the visual vector, which will develop from fear into love. underlies visual phobias.

It is important for parents to understand what and why is happening to the child in order to adequately respond to his archetypal behavior. For example, it is dangerous for the psyche to drive the viewer into great fear, to fixate him on this state by reading scary tales, where fictional characters eat each other. It is extremely harmful to beat a skinner with a belt for what seems to us to be petty theft, but in his perception he simply took what he needed to hide, make a reserve for a "rainy day", or punish him for swearing.

We subconsciously feel how painful it is to punish the baby: we close the spectator in the closet, we beat the mouthpiece, we shout at the soundman, we beat the leather worker, we don’t let him out of the house, we drive the anal man ... And then all these sins of parental upbringing remain anchors in the psyche of adults .

In the psychology of a child of 6-7 years old, the concept of sexuality arises. During this period, children go through primary puberty, so there are very frequent cases when children of this age become victims of pedophiles.

Most kids go, starts new stage in their social life - with new guidelines, authorities, demands. Parents are faced with the question of how best to help their child adapt to school. Without systemic knowledge, parents and educators act at random. Well, if the properties of parents and children coincide, then they understand each other through themselves. And if not? In this case, the child is faced with double stress, the sources of which are the school and misunderstanding of the parents.

In the psychology of a child at the age of 8, as in child psychology at the age of 9, the development of upper vectors, intellectual abilities, is relevant.

In general, by the puberty period, the child must already go through the ranking according to the animal type, where the strong defeat the weak, where relationships are sorted out through fights, and learn to gain authority in the team in a socially acceptable form, determine their niche in society.

Thus, the knowledge accumulated by pedagogy and psychology, social pedagogy, works selectively, from case to case, since they do not distinguish one person from another, they do not have an effective method of working with a person.

Such a technique is the System-Vector Psychology of Yuri Burlan. This is the microscope through which anyone who looks sees the differences (vectors, their level of development and implementation) of people and is unlikely to teach the "fish" to fly, and this is the basis of any methods of education and training, the foundation for solving urgent social problems through changing the consciousness of a particular member of society to a collective consciousness.

Proofreader: Zifa Akhatova

The article was written based on the materials of the training " System-Vector Psychology»