Sections: Russian language

A student-centered approach, differentiated learning are the key concepts without which it is impossible to imagine a modern school. The Russian language lesson also requires close attention. If the forms of work with students with low motivation are already clear for many teachers, then what can be offered to those who are able to work at a high level of complexity?

One of the forms of work with gifted children in Russian language lessons can be a linguistic experiment. The dictionary of linguistic terms gives the following definition: a linguistic experiment is a test of the conditions for the functioning of a particular language element in order to determine its characteristic features, limits of possible use, and optimal use cases. “Thus, the principle of experiment is introduced into linguistics. Having made some assumption about the meaning of this or that word, this or that form, about this or that rule of word formation or form formation, etc., one should try whether it is possible to say a number of various phrases (which can be infinitely multiplied) by applying this rule . An affirmative result confirms the correctness of the postulate ... But negative results are especially instructive: they indicate either the incorrectness of the postulated rule, or the need for some kind of its restrictions, or the fact that the rule no longer exists, but there are only dictionary facts, etc. . P." (L. V. Shcherba). The importance of applying the linguistic experiment was noted by A. M. Peshkovsky, A. N. Gvozdev.

Finding new knowledge is carried out by the students themselves in the process of analyzing specific, particular phenomena of the language, from which they move on to the general, to theoretical conclusions and laws.

So, for example, when studying the topic “Animate and inanimate nouns”, the knowledge of students with increased learning motivation can be deepened with the help of a morphological experiment. Even in elementary school, children learned that animate nouns are those that answer the question: “Who?”, And inanimate nouns, respectively, answer the question: “What?”. In order for students to expand their knowledge and learn the difference between the scientific interpretation of nouns from the point of view of the category of animation - inanimateness and the everyday idea of ​​​​this phenomenon, you can create the following problem situation: is the word “doll” an animate or inanimate noun?

The linguistic experiment will consist in the declension of this noun in the plural according to cases and comparing it with the forms of nouns that do not raise doubts about belonging to animate or inanimate nouns (for example, “sister”, “board”).

As a result of independent observations, students will come to the conclusion: for the nouns “doll” and “sister” in the plural, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the genitive case: ( no) dolls = (see) dolls(no sisters = see sisters), R. p. = V. p.

The nouns “doll” and “board” in the plural form of the accusative case do not match: no dolls = I see dolls, but there are no boards = I see boards. Doll formula: R.p. = V.p. Board Formula: I.p.=V.p

The division of nouns into animate and inanimate does not always coincide with the scientific idea of ​​animate and inanimate nature.

For animate nouns in the plural, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the genitive case (for animate nouns male 2nd declension and in the singular).

For inanimate nouns in the plural, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative case (for masculine nouns of the 2nd declension and in the singular, the form of the accusative case coincides with the form of the nominative case).

The nouns dead and corpse are synonymous, but the noun dead is animate (V.p. = R.p.: I see a dead person - there is no dead person), and the noun corpse is inanimate (V.p. = I.p.: I see a corpse - here there is a corpse).

The same can be observed in the example of the noun microbe. From the point of view of biology, this is part of wildlife, but the noun microbe is inanimate (V.p. = I.p.: I see a microbe - there is a microbe here).

Sometimes fifth graders have difficulty determining the case of nouns. Mix nominative and accusative, genitive and accusative. To understand what case the nouns of the 2nd and 3rd declension are in, they can be replaced by nouns of the 1st declension, in which the endings of the indicated cases do not match: I bought a briefcase, a notebook - I bought a book; invited a friend, mother - invited a sister. The singular form of nouns of the 1st declension, in which the dative case coincides with the prepositional case, can be replaced by the form plural: on the road - on the roads (prepositional case - about the roads).

In working with students with increased motivation, the method of syntactic experiment can be widely used.

From textbooks, students learn that prepositions are not members of a sentence.

But interested children can be introduced to another point of view on the syntactic role of prepositions. Linguist Yu. T. Dolin believes: “In the process of speech practice, both the lexical and syntactic independence of a number of non-derivative prepositions noticeably increases.” The essence of the experiment will be to compare the use of two prepositions. For observation, let's take the lines of N. Rubtsov:

I, the young son of trading posts,
I want the storm to sound forever
So that for the brave there was a sea,
And if without, then the pier.

Students will be sure to pay attention to the different uses of the two prepositions.

One preposition is used before an adjective, and the second without a nominal form. In a sentence, the preposition “without” answers the question “How?” and is a circumstance. To confirm the observation, we can offer an example from a poem by E. Yevtushenko:

And this explosion is heard (sometimes late),
From now on, dividing my whole life into before and after.

Students' conclusions will be approximately as follows: the prepositions "before" and "after" answer the questions "what?" and are additions.

At parsing You can also apply the method of linguistic experiment. In the case when difficulties arise with the definition of a sentence member, it is necessary to replace indistinct syntactic constructions with distinct ones. So in the sentence “Tourists finally noticed the exit to the surface”, difficulties may arise with the word “surface”. Instead of the sentence “Tourists finally spotted the exit to the surface”, you can use “Tourists finally spotted the exit leading to the surface” or “Tourists finally spotted the exit that leads to the surface”.

The possibility of replacing the prepositional-nominal combination “on the surface” with a participial phrase and an attributive clause proves that we are dealing with a definition.

The “silent” dictation can also be attributed to the linguistic experiment. A numeral is written on a piece of paper with a number, an object is drawn next to it. It is necessary to put the numeral and noun in a certain case. For example, no 97 (drawing), to 132 (drawing).

The linguistic experiment can take place in a group form. Each group receives a task in which a question is formulated, didactic material is presented and an experiment program is proposed to obtain a certain result. The results of the experiment can be evaluated both by the teacher himself and by a group of expert students, consisting of the most prepared students.

A linguistic experiment helps students to understand many difficult facts of the language, serves as a means to make sure that the interpretation of these facts is correct.

The essence and main goal of the linguistic experiment in the lessons of the Russian language

Linguistic experiment is one of the main methods of working on the text. It can be carried out at grammar lessons, speech development; while working on the language works of art; can accompany many other types of work.

The wide and conscious use of this technique requires a deep understanding of the essence of the experiment, knowledge of its various types. Mastering a linguistic experiment will help the teacher to choose the right solutions in problem situation, both in the classroom and outside the classroom, for example, when selecting didactic material.

What is the essence of a linguistic experiment, what are its types?

The source material of the linguistic experiment is the text (including the text of a work of art), the final material is its deformed version.

main goal the educational experiment is the rationale for the selection of language means in this text, the explanation of “the only correct placement of the only necessary words” (L. N. Tolstoy); moreover, the establishment of an internal relationship between the linguistic means selected for a given text.

Awareness of this should warn teachers against excessive enthusiasm for the process of experimentation and, at the same time, aim at the obligatoryness of detailed and purposeful conclusions after comparing the secondary and primary materials of the text.

So, for example, experimenting with the sentence:Wonderful Dnieper in calm weather... "(Gogol), we get secondary material:"The Dnieper is beautiful in calm weather; Wonderful Dnieper in calm weather…” But this cannot be stopped in any way. This would deprive the experiment of purposefulness and turn it into an end in itself. The following conclusion is needed: N.V. Gogol did not accidentally choose the wordwonderful, not synonymouswonderful, wonderfuletc., for the wordwonderfulalong with the main meaning (“very beautiful”) contains a shade of originality, extraordinary beauty, originality .

An indispensable condition for the truth of the conclusions in the experiment is the clarification of the boundaries of the observed linguistic unit: sound, word, phrase, sentence, etc. This means that if the teacher starts the experiment, operating with a word, then until the end of the experiment, he must work with the word, and not replace it with a phrase or other units of the language.

Linguistic experiment in its orientation can be analytical (from the whole text to its components) and synthetic (from language units to the text). When studying the language of works of art at school, as a rule, an experiment of an analytical nature is used. This does not mean at all that an experiment of a synthetic nature should not take place at school. It can be successfully used in grammar lessons and in this case is called construction .

According to the communicativeness - non-communicativeness of the final material (deformed text), a linguistic experiment can be positive and negative.

A negative experiment is the best way to outline the boundaries of the manifestation of the considered linguistic phenomenon and thereby reveals its specificity.

So, for example, attempts to replace in the phrasepour contemptthen the first, then the second word give one possible replacementscorn.

All other substitutions are negative material: “sprinkle with contempt”, “pour with anger”, “pour with disdain”, etc.

Such experimentation reveals the phraseological essence of the phrasepour contempt.

Visual display of the features of modern Russian literary language, the choice of a solution in a problem situation, the analysis of the writer's language can be carried out at school with the help of experiments of various types.

1. Elimination of this linguistic phenomenon from the text. For example, the exclusion of all adjectives in the definition function from the text (an excerpt from "Bezhin Meadows" by I. S. Turgenev). Primary text:It was a beautiful July day, one of those days that only happens when the weather has settled for a long time. From early morning the sky is clear; the morning dawn does not burn with fire: it spreads with a gentle blush.

Secondary text:There was...a day, one of those days that only happens when the weather has settled for a long time. From the very morning the sky is clear; ... the dawn does not burn with fire; it spreads ... blush.

Conclusion: the secondary text is devoid of the qualitative characteristics of the described details or objects. Such a text does not give an idea of ​​what artistic details by color, by shape, etc.

This is how the teacher shows and learns the semantic and artistic-figurative function of adjectives.

2. Substitution (replacement) of a language element with a synonymous or single-functional one. For example, in the text of A.P. Chekhov "Chameleon" wordgoesreplace with the wordwalking,a wordstridingwordgoes: A police overseer, Ochumelov, walks across the market square in a new overcoat and with a bundle in his hand. A red-haired policeman walks behind him with a sieve filled to the top with confiscated gooseberries.

This substitution gives a secondary text with other combinations of words: a police officer is walking, a red-haired policeman is walking. After such a replacement, the conclusion is inevitable about the advantages of the primary text, in which the neutral verb is given first.goesin relation to a person of high rank, then a synonymous verb is givenstridingwith a hint of solemnity

Expanding (common text) may aim to deepen understanding of it when reading slowly .

Interpretation by the method of deployment requires, in our opinion, the beginning of the poem by M. Yu. Lermontov:And it’s boring and sad, and there is no one to give a hand to in a moment of spiritual adversity ...The deployment reveals the generalized nature of the first impersonal sentence: “I, and you, and each of us are both bored and sad ...” It would be wrong to relate the feelings expressed in this poem only to the personality of the author.

4. Curtailment may have the purpose of showing the conditions and scope of the artistic transformation or metaphorization of the word. For example, in the text of V.P. Kataev “Khutorok in the steppe” we fold the last phrase. Primary text: ...the storm had gone far out to sea, where lightning frantically ran along the blue horizon and the growl of thunder was heard.

Secondary text: ...The storm went far into the sea, where lightning frantically ran along the blue horizon and a growl was heard…

Conclusion: wordgrowl(thunder) in the text of V.P. Kataev becomes a metaphor within the phrase. A phrase is a minimal framework for the metaphorization of words.

5. Transformation (transformation) is used in school grammar when replacing the actual construction of a passive, declarative sentence with an interrogative one(Student wrote an essay – The presentation was written by a student. Brother was at work today - Was brother at work today?).

6. Permutation of words and other language units. For example, we make a permutation in the first line of I. A. Krylov's fable "The Wolf and the Lamb":On a hot day, a lamb went to the stream to get drunk.We get: Zwent to the stream to get drunk lamb on a hot dayetc. Putting the verb first emphasizes the action. Is this the intention of the author? Such permutations vary the thought, accentuate either the action, or its time, or the purpose of the action, etc., and provide justification for the “only necessary placement of words”, fixed by I. A. Krylov.

Unification is the removal of the multidimensionality of the text. Any text (speech) is multifaceted and semantically capacious. It manifests the meanings and shades of the meanings of words, the semantics of grammatical meanings and categories (for example, gender, number of nouns, aspect of verbs); features of syntactic links and structure of sentences, paragraphs; finally, the originality of rhythm and melody, the timbre of speech .

We can propose the following unification experiment:

Take as a basis five texts of approximately the same volume as primary material: business style, scientific, colloquial, artistic, journalistic. Words have been replaced by syllablesta-ta-ta.At the same time, the number of syllables, word stress and rhythm melodics were preserved.

Thus, vocabulary, morphology, syntax were eliminated to a certain extent in the texts, and the phonetic, sound side was partially preserved.

The secondary material of the experiment can be recorded on magnetic tape. When listening to it, it can be assumed that most of those in the audience will guess the style. Then the conclusion follows: rhythm-melodic is a style-forming means, “makes style”. An observation was made: listening from a distance to the muffled voice of a television or radio announcer, only by the rhythm and melody, without distinguishing words, one can guess what kind of transmission is going on (business, artistic, journalistic, etc.)

When experimenting with a coherent text, over the language of works of art or the "art of the word" and inevitably dissecting the text to some extent, one must try not to allow the aesthetic impression of the whole text to be destroyed. From time to time, to the extent necessary, during the experiment, a whole or partial text should sound again and again, preferably in an exemplary performance (a magnetic tape with a recording of the masters of the artistic word, the best artists, records, reading by the teacher, students) .

Applying the experiment in the lessons of the Russian language and literature, one should maintain a sense of proportion; select the type, nature of the experiment in accordance with the selection of linguistic means in the text, in connection with the artistic and visual means of the work, which make it unique.

Kupalova A.Yu. Tasks of improving the system of methods of teaching the Russian language. M.: Wolters Kluver, 2010. S. 75.

Shakirova L.Z. Workshop on the methodology of teaching the Russian language in the national school. Moscow: Unity-Dana, 2008. P. 86.

Fedosyuk M.Yu. Ladyzhenskaya T.A. Russian language for students of non-philology. Tutorial. - M: Nauka, 2007. S. 56.

1. It is known that in the XX century. in various fields of science and art (in mathematics, biology, philosophy, philology, painting, architecture, etc.), many valuable ideas and undertakings of Russian scientists and cultural figures died out in the stuffy atmosphere of Soviet totalitarianism, but were recognized and developed in the West and decades later they return to Russia again. This applies to a large extent to the method linguistic experiment, whose enormous role was persistently emphasized in the 1920s by A.M. Peshkovsky and especially L.V. Shcherba. “Having made any assumption about the meaning of this or that word, this or that form, about this or that rule of word formation or form formation, etc., one should try whether it is possible to say a number of various phrases (which can be infinitely multiplied) using this rule.<...>In the possibility of applying the experiment lies the enormous advantage - from a theoretical point of view - of the study of living languages" (Shcherba 1974: 32).

In words, the need for experimentation in synchronic studies is apparently recognized by all Russian linguists, but in reality, however, the possibilities of this method are still not used enough. Foreign research on grammar, semantics, pragmatics is, as a rule, a series of experiments on several carefully selected examples and the interpretation of the results. In Russia, work on contemporary language in this respect differ little from works on stories language: both in those and in others, large lists of examples from the examined texts are given, and the very size of the list is regarded as proof of the correctness of the position being developed. This ignores the fact that in real texts the analyzed phenomenon is often distorted. influence of additional factors. We forget the warning of A.M. Peshkovsky, who noted that it would be a mistake to see, for example, in the union and exponent of distribution, cause-and-effect, conditional-effect, adversative, etc. relationships; this would mean that “everything that can be extracted from the material content of the sentences it combines simply falls into the meaning of the union” (Peshkovsky 1956: 142). The student of language thus finds himself in the position of a chemist who, for chemical analysis of some metal would take pieces of its ore of different mineral composition and attribute the observed differences to the metal itself. Obviously, the chemist will take for his experiment a pure metal, devoid of impurities. We must also operate with carefully selected examples, excluding the influence of additional factors, if possible, and experiment with these examples (for example, replace a word with its synonym, change the type of speech act, expand the phrase due to the diagnostic context, etc.).

5. The experiment should become for the linguist researching modern language, just as common a working technique as it is, for example, for a chemist. However, the fact that it occupies a modest place in linguistic research is by no means accidental. The experiment requires certain skills and considerable effort. Therefore, it seems to us that it is especially important to use the experimental material that is already available, "lies underfoot." We mean language game.
A paradoxical fact: the linguistic experiment is much wider than linguists use (for many centuries, if not millennia) the speakers themselves– when they play with the form of speech.
An example is a series of experiments by O. Mandelstam with pronoun such indicating a high degree of quality (e.g., he is so strong). Here are the lines from a youthful poem of 1909:

I was given a body - what should I do with it,
So single and so mine.

Here is a somewhat unusual combination of the pronoun such with an adjective single and especially with the pronoun my. Combination so mine appears to be admissible, since it is close in meaning to "completely normal" combinations of the type so dear. However, Mandelstam himself clearly felt the unusualness of this combination and repeatedly used it in humorous poems, in a kind of auto-parody:

I was given a stomach, what should I do with it,
So hungry and so mine? (1917)

(The comic effect is created by narrowing and reducing the topic itself, reducing it to stomach problems.)

Do not be upset,
Get on the tram
So empty
Such an eighth. (c. 1915)

The comic effect is caused by the combination of the pronoun such with numeral eighth which is difficult to comprehend quality adjective. phrase such an eighth anomalous, but not meaningless: as a result of the game, a new meaning arises. The fact is that, unlike the first, “prestigious”, distinguished numerals (cf. the first beauty, the first guy in the village, the first thing) numeral eighth- unselected, "ordinary", and thus the combination such an eighth takes on the meaning of ‘so ordinary, ordinary’.

Surface and deep sentence structure

Surface structure

linguistic term to denote oral or written statements that have arisen from the deep structure after operations of generalization, distortion, omission, etc.

EXAMPLE. The surface structure of each language, reflecting the features historical development, determine the possibility of ambiguous translation from one language to another. For example, literal translation From Russian to Ossetian, the concept of “iron discipline” has a meaning opposite to Russian, since in Russian iron, as harder, is implicitly opposed to wood, and in Ossetian, as softer, it is steel.

Granovskaya R.M., Elements practical psychology, St. Petersburg, "Light", 1997, p. 251.

At different levels - the level of sounds, the level of words, the level of sentences, the level of paragraphs, etc. - There are different rules. Database of numerous forms of building journalistic, popular science, etc. texts at the level of several paragraphs are collected in the computer program "Techniques of Journalism & PR".

Generative grammar

A trend in linguistics that arose in the 1950s of the 20th century, founded by the American linguist Noam Chomsky.

The approach is based on the idea of ​​a finite set of rules (techniques) that generate all the correct sentences of the language.

Thus, within the framework of the approach, the language is not described "as is", as traditional linguistics did, but the process of language modeling is described.

Deep Structure

The complete linguistic form, the complete content of a particular statement (message), from which, for example, after generalizations, omissions and distortions, a "surface structure" appears, used in everyday communication.

Analyzing various languages, N. Chomsky suggested that there are innate "deep structures" that are the same for different languages. The number of such structures is relatively small and it is they that make it possible to translate texts from one language into another, since they fix general schemes construction of thoughts, statements.

EXAMPLE. “As an example of the transition of a deep structure to a surface one in the production of speech, N. Chomsky considered sentence (9), which, in his opinion, consists of two deep ones (10) and (11):

(9) A wise person is honest.

(10) The person is honest.
(11) Man is wise.

In order to “bring out” the surface structure from the deep structure, a person, according to Chomsky, sequentially performs the following operations: replaces the second group of the subject with the word who (a person who is wise, honest); omits which (a person is wise, honest); rearranges the person and is wise (the person is wise, honest); replaces short form adjective wise complete - and gets a surface structure.

N. Chomsky introduces a number of rules for the transition of the deep structure to the surface one (rules of substitution, permutation, arbitrary inclusion of some elements, exclusion of other elements, etc.), and also proposes 26 transformation rules (passivization, substitution, permutation, legation, adjunction, ellipse and etc.)".

NLP guide: Dictionary terms // Comp. V.V. Morozov, Chelyabinsk, "A. Miller's Library", 2001, p. 226-227.

The deep structure forms the meaning of the sentence, and the surface structure is the written or sound embodiment of this meaning.

EXAMPLE. “We can say that language is always smarter than us, because it has accumulated and accumulated all the experience of mankind. This is generally the main accumulator of experience. Secondly, the one who understands, bringing his own situation, always understands according to this situation and often sees in the text more or different than the author. There have been situations with me more than once when people came and said that in such and such a work I wrote this and that. I wondered. They took the text and started to show me that I really have it written there. And when I took their position, I had to admit that it was written there. But I didn't put it there deliberately, reflexively. We often have a lot of things in the text that we do not even suspect. And this is revealed through the process of understanding.”

Shchedrovitsky GP, Organizational thinking: ideology, methodology, technology. Course of lectures / From the archive of G.P. Shchedrovitsky, Volume 4, M., 2000, p. 134.

EXAMPLE. “When a hooligan pesters you on the street, he has a certain “scenario” in advance - a mental template of future behavior for himself and for a potential “victim” (the content of such a “scenario” is usually easily calculated). At the same time, the bully calculated in advance how to behave if you refuse to let him smoke (“What, bitch, is it a pity ?!”). There is a template in case you give a cigarette (“What are you, a bastard, giving raw ?!”). Even for the most unexpected, it would seem, case - and that is a template (“Who did you send?”). Therefore, it is necessary to break all and any patterns of communication.

Real Case:

Man, do you want an awl in the eye?

Back off, goat, I have cops on my tail.

And they both parted ways. The semantics of the second phrase (in this case deep structure - Approx. Dictionary editor) is: "I'm cool myself, don't touch me, but they're following me." The aggressor's fantasy works in the direction: "He can fight back, besides, I can be detained by police officers who are on his tail."

Kotlyachkov A., Gorin S., Weapons - the word, M., "KSP +", 2001, p. 57.

EXAMPLE. “The Soviet linguist Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, at an introductory lecture on the course of linguistics, suggested that students make out what the phrase means: “The glitched kuzdra shteko boked the bokra and curls the bokrenka.”

Think about this phrase, and you will agree with the students who, after grammatical analysis, came to the conclusion that the meaning of this phrase is something like this: something female in one step, she did something with some male creature, and then she began to do something long with his cub. Someone specified: "The tigress broke the neck of the buffalo and is biting the buffalo."

The artist even managed to illustrate this phrase. But, as Lev Vasilyevich Uspensky, a student of Professor Shcherba, rightly writes in the wonderful book “A Word about Words”, because in this case no one will draw an elephant that broke a barrel and rolls the barrel.”

Platonov K.K., Entertaining psychology, M., "Young Guard", 1986, p. 191

The question of the need for experimental research in linguistics was first raised in the 30s. of the last century L. V. Shcherba (275, 276). They have developed theoretical basis theory of linguistic experiment.

According to the concept of L. V. Shcherba, an experiment can have both positive and negative results. Negative results indicate either the incorrectness of the postulated rule, or the need for some of its restrictions. Citing as an example examples of correctly and incorrectly constructed sentences (There was no trade in the city. There was no trade in the city. There was no trade in the city. There was no trade in the city.), L. V. Shcherba argued that the researcher should address the question of the correctness or incorrectness of the linguistic material, first of all, to the native speaker himself, not relying only on his intuition. Such a natural experiment is spontaneously carried out in the language environment, for example, when a child learns to speak or when an adult learns foreign language, as well as in cases of pathology, when the disintegration of speech occurs (275).

L. V. Shcherba proposed a structural scheme of a linguistic experiment: (1) introspection, self-observation and (2) setting up the actual experiment. He wrote about the "principle of experiment" as an important point that allows you to penetrate deeper into the understanding of human speech activity. The author distinguished two types of linguistic experiment:

1. positive, in which, having made an assumption about the meaning of a particular word or about the rule of word formation, one should try whether it is possible to compose a series of phrases using this rule: a positive result in this case will confirm the correctness of the assumption made (for example, by making some assumption about the meaning of this or that word, one or another of its forms, about this or that rule of word formation or form formation, one should try whether it is possible to connect a number of different forms using this rule);

2. a negative experiment, during which the researcher “creates” a deliberately incorrect statement, and the subject must find the error and make appropriate adjustments.

The third kind of linguistic experiment is the alternative experiment. It consists in the fact that the subject determines the identity or non-identity of two or more fragments of speech statements (segments of text) offered to him.

Thus, a linguistic experiment is an experiment that explores and "reveals" the linguistic instinct of the subject by checking the truth ("verification") of language or functional-speech models. When verifying models of language ability or a model of speech activity, one should speak of a psycholinguistic experiment. In some cases, the researcher is simultaneously the subject. This variant is called a “thought linguistic experiment” (139, p. 80).

Supporters traditional methods linguistic analysis raised a number of objections to the use of a linguistic experiment, pointing to limited opportunities experimental techniques (203, 245). This is due to the fact that deliberately artificial situations are created in the experiment, which is not typical for the natural functioning of language and speech. Spontaneous speech sometimes manifests features that cannot be identified under experimental conditions.

At the same time, according to the well-known Russian psycholinguist L. V. Sakharny, the fundamental features of speech activity revealed in the experiment are characteristic of it in other, non-experimental situations. Therefore, it is practically impossible to draw a clear line between typical and atypical, natural and artificial situations in the study of speech (language) activity (203, 204).

association experiment

In order to experimentally study the subjective semantic fields of words formed and functioning in the human mind, as well as the nature of the semantic relationships of words within the semantic field, psycholinguistics uses the method of associative experiment. Its authors in practical psychology are considered to be the American psychologists H. G. Kent and A. J. Rozanov (1910). Psycholinguistic variants of the associative experiment were developed by J. Dize and C. Osgood (299, 331 and others). AT domestic psychology and psycholinguistics, the methodology of the associative experiment was improved and tested in experimental studies by A. R. Luria and O. S. Vinogradova (44, 156, etc.).

At present, the associative experiment is the most developed technique for psycholinguistic analysis of the semantics of speech.

The procedure of the associative experiment is as follows. The subjects are presented with a word or a whole set of words and are told that they need to answer the first words that come to mind. Typically, each test subject is given 100 words and 7-10 minutes to answer *. Most of the reactions given in the associative dictionaries were obtained from university and college students aged 17-25 (in this case, the stimulus words were given in the native language of the subjects).

In applied psycholinguistics, several main variants of the associative experiment have been developed:

1. "Free" associative experiment. Subjects are not given any restrictions on verbal responses.

2. "Directed" associative experiment. The subject is asked to name only words of a certain grammatical or semantic class (for example, choose adjectives for nouns).

3. "Chain" associative experiment. The subjects are asked to respond to the stimulus word with several verbal associations at once - for example, name 10 different words or phrases within 20 seconds.

On the basis of associative experiments in applied psycholinguistics, special "dictionaries of associative norms" (typical, "normative" associative reactions) have been created. In foreign specialized literature, the dictionary of J. Dize (299) is among the most famous. In domestic psycholinguistics, the first such dictionary (“Dictionary of Associative Norms of the Russian Language”) was compiled by a team of authors led by A.A. Leontiev (213). Currently the most complete dictionary is the “Russian Associative Dictionary” (Yu. N. Karaulov, Yu. A. Sorokin, E. F. Tarasov, N. V. Ufimtseva, etc.). It contains about 1300 stimulus words (in "everyday" speech, in live conversational communication 2.5-3 thousand words are used). As typical verbal reactions, it presents about thirteen thousand different words; in total, the dictionary contains over a million verbal reactions.

Dictionary entries in the "Russian Associative Dictionary" have the following structure: first, a stimulus word is given, then responses, arranged in descending order of frequency (indicated by a number). Within each group, verbal responses are listed in alphabetical order (198). The first digit indicates total reactions to stimuli, the second - the number of different reactions, the third - the number of subjects who left this stimulus unanswered, i.e. the number of refusals. The fourth digital indicator is the number of single answers.

Method for assessing the data of the associative experiment. There are several possible interpretations of the results of the association experiment. Let's take a look at some of them.

When analyzing the verbal reactions of the subjects, first of all, the so-called syntagmatic (the sky is blue, the tree is growing, the car is moving, smoking is harmful) and paradigmatic (table - chair, mother - father) associations are distinguished.

Syntagmatic associations are those whose grammatical class is different from the grammatical class of the stimulus word and which always express predicative relations. Paradigmatic associations are reaction words of the same grammatical class as stimulus words. They obey the semantic principle of "minimal contrast", according to which the less stimulus words differ from reaction words in terms of the composition of semantic components, the higher the probability of actualization of the reaction word in the associative process. This principle explains why, by the nature of the associations, it is possible to restore the semantic composition of the stimulus word: a number of associations that have arisen in the subject for this word contain a number of features similar to those contained in the stimulus word (for example: summer, summer, began, rest , soon, cheers, idleness, school, holiday camp). Based on these verbal reactions, it is quite easy to restore the stimulus word (in this case, the word vacation).

Some researchers believe that paradigmatic associations reflect language relations(in particular, the relations of words-lexemes within the framework of lexical and grammatical paradigms), and syntagmatic - object relations displayed in speech (21, 155, 251, etc.).

Among the verbal reactions in psycholinguistics, there are also reactions that reflect generic relations (a cat - a pet, a table - furniture), "sound" associations that have a phonetic similarity with a stimulus (a cat - a baby, a house - a tom), reactions that display situational connections designated objects (cat - milk, mouse), "clichéd", restoring "speech clichés" (master - golden hands, guest - uninvited), "socially determined" (woman - mother, hostess), etc.

The method of associative experiment is widely used in various areas of psycholinguistics (sociopsycholinguistics, applied psycholinguistics, etc.). Due to the fact that it is usually carried out on a large number of subjects, on the basis of the data obtained, it is possible to construct a table of the frequency distribution of reaction words for each stimulus word. At the same time, the researcher has the opportunity to calculate the semantic proximity (“semantic distance”) between different words. A peculiar measure of the semantic similarity of a pair of words is the degree of coincidence of the distribution of answers, i.e., the similarity of the associations given to them. This indicator appears in the works of various authors under the following names: “intersection coefficient”, “association coefficient”, “overlap measure” (299, 331).

The associative experiment is also used as one of the additional methods of distributive-statistical analysis of texts, when researchers conduct a statistical calculation of the frequency of phrases. different type(so-called "distribution"). An associative experiment allows us to find out how the components of the linguistic consciousness of native speakers of a given language are realized in speech activity.

In addition to being very actively used in applied linguistics and psycholinguistics, the associative experiment is widely used in practical psychology, sociology, psychiatry, as a method of psychological and linguistic diagnostics and examination.

J. Dize (299) in his psycholinguistic experiments tried to reconstruct the "semantic composition" of a word on the basis of the data of an associative experiment. He subjected the matrices of semantic distances of secondary associations to a stimulus word (i.e., associations to associations) to the procedure of "factorial analysis". The factors identified by him (frequency characteristics of verbal reactions, types of associative correlations) received a meaningful interpretation and were considered as semantic components of meaning. A. A. Leontiev, commenting on the results of the experiments of J. Dize, concludes that they clearly show the possibility of isolating (based on the processing of the data of the associative experiment) factors that can be interpreted as semantic components of words. Thus, an associative experiment can serve as a means of obtaining both linguistic and psychological knowledge about the semantic component of language signs and the patterns of their use in speech activity (123, 139).

Thus, the associative experiment shows the presence in the meaning of the word (as well as in the denotation - the image of the object denoted by the word) of a psychological component. Thus, the associative experiment makes it possible to identify or clarify the semantic structure of any word. His data can serve as valuable material for studying the psychological equivalents of what is defined in psycholinguistics by the concept of "semantic field", behind which are the semantic connections of words objectively existing in the mind of a native speaker (155, etc.).

One of the main distinguishing features of the associative experiment is its simplicity and accessibility of application, since it can be carried out both individually and simultaneously with a large group of subjects. The subjects operate on the meaning of the word in the context of the situation speech communication, which allows you to identify during the experiment and some unconscious components of the value. So, according to the results of an experiment conducted by V.P. Belyanin (21), it was found that in the word exam in the minds of students - native speakers of the Russian language - there are also such emotional-evaluative "psychological components" of the semantics of this word as difficult, fear, terrible, heavy. It should be noted that they were not reflected in the corresponding "associative" dictionaries.

Associative experiments show that one of the personal-psychological features of the associative reactions of subjects of different ages (respectively, those with different level language development) is a leading orientation to phonological and grammatical features stimulus words.

At the same time, some phonetic (“sound”) associations can also be considered as semantic (mother - frame, house - smoke, guest - bone). Most often, the predominance of such associations is noted in children who have not yet mastered the semantics of signs sufficiently. mother tongue, as well as in children lagging behind in speech development. (In adults, they may occur in the background of fatigue, for example, at the end of a long experiment.) High degree the frequency or predominance of phonetic associations is also characteristic of persons (both children and adults) with disabilities intellectual development (21, 155).

A significant part of verbal associations in adolescents and adults is due to speech stamps, clichés. At the same time, the associations also reflect various aspects of the cultural and historical experience of the subject (the capital is Moscow, the square is Krasnaya) and textual reminiscences (the master is Margarita).

The associative experiment is of particular importance for practical psychology; it is no coincidence that it is one of the oldest methods of experimental psychology. Among the first variants of the associative experiment is the method of "free associations" by X. G. Kent - A. J. Rozanov (313). It uses a set of 100 words as stimuli-irritants. Speech reactions to these words are standardized on the material a large number studies (mentally healthy people, mostly adults), on the basis of which the specific gravity non-standard speech reactions (their correlation with standard ones). These data make it possible to determine the degree of eccentricity and "eccentricity" of the subjects' thinking.

The semantic fields of the words of the "active dictionary" (as well as the associative reactions determined by them) for each person are distinguished by a great individual originality, both in the composition of lexical units and in the strength of the semantic links between them. The actualization of this or that connection in the response-reaction is not accidental and may even depend on the situation (for example, in a child: friend - Vova). The general level of education and culture has a great influence on the structure and characteristics of a person's speech (verbal) memory. Thus, associative experiments of a number of domestic psychologists and linguists revealed that persons with higher technical education give more often paradigmatic associations, and with the humanitarian - syntagmatic (41, 102).

The nature of associations is affected by both age and geographical conditions, and a person's profession. According to A. A. Leontiev (139), residents of Yaroslavl (brush - mountain ash) and Dushanbe (brush - grapes) gave different reactions to the same stimulus in his experiment; people of different professions: conductor (brush - smooth, soft), nurse of the surgical department of the hospital (brush - amputation) and builder (brush - hair).

However, belonging to a certain people, one culture makes the "center" of the associative field as a whole quite stable, and connections - regularly repeated in given language(poet - Yesenin, number - three, friend - faithful, friend - enemy, friend - comrade). According to the Russian psycholinguist A. A. Zalevskaya (90), the nature of verbal associations is also determined by the cultural and historical traditions of a given people. Here are, for example, typical verbal associations to the word “bread”: a Russian person has bread and salt, an Uzbek has bread and tea, a French person has bread and wine, etc. The data obtained by A. A. Zalevskaya are indicative in this regard. when comparing word associations "in a historical perspective". So, when the author compared associations to the same stimuli, it turned out that the three most frequent reactions to the stimulus word "bread" in 1910 accounted for an average of approximately 46% of all responses-reactions, and in 1954 - already about 60% of all responses, i.e. the most frequent reactions became even more common. This can be explained by the fact that as a result of standard education, the influence of radio, television and other mass media, the stereotype of speech reactions has increased, and people themselves began to carry out their speech actions more uniformly (21, 90).

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL "SYMBOL OF SCIENCE" №11-4/2016 ISSN 2410-700X

2. Reichstein A. D. Comparative analysis of German and Russian phraseology. - M.: graduate School, 1980. - 143 p.

3. Shevchenko V.D. Basics of the theory of English language: Tutorial. - Samara: SamGAPS, 2004. - 72p.

4. Abbyy Lingvo: online dictionary [Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.lingvo-online.ru/ru (date of access: 15.02.2016)

5. Duden online: dictionary German language[Electronic resource] - Access mode: http://www.duden.de/ (date of access: 15.02.2016)

© Mineeva O.A. , Pirogova A.A. , 2016

Morozova Nadezhda Mikhailovna

dr. phil. Sciences, Professor VI Ministry of Internal Affairs of Russia

Voronezh, RF E-mail: [email protected]

LINGUISTIC EXPERIMENT OF A. M. PESHKOVSKY AS A METHOD OF STUDYING THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE

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The article discusses the views of A. M. Peshkovsky regarding the use of a linguistic experiment in the practice of teaching the Russian language. In addition, specific examples of the application of the linguistic experiment by the scientists themselves in the works devoted to the study of the Russian language are analyzed. The scientist considered the linguistic experiment as effective method formation of students' speech and stylistic skills.

Keywords

Method of linguistic experiment, practice of teaching the Russian language, observation of the language, types of linguistic experiment.

Modern competence approach in the system higher education requires increased attention to the practical mastery of students' skills of oral and written communication in Russian in the course of studying such disciplines as "Russian language and culture of speech", "Russian language in business documentation". Today, special attention is paid to those teaching methods that contribute to the formation of an exemplary linguistic personality of a specialist, whose speech corresponds to the norms of the Russian literary language, high level spelling, punctuation and stylistic literacy. Such methods include the method of a linguistic experiment, which was written about in the 1930s by the well-known Russian linguist, Professor A. M. Peshkovsky.

Of great interest to teachers are the works of A. M. Peshkovsky “Russian Syntax in Scientific Coverage”, “Our Language”, “How to Conduct Classes in Syntax and Style” even today. In them, the scientist constantly emphasizes that observations on the language are closely related to the experiment. It is with the help of a linguistic experiment that “a deliberate change is made in the actual phenomenon of speech for the purposes of learning”.

Using simple and striking examples, the scientist shows how this method can be used to detect the distinctive features of grammatical concepts and phenomena.

A classic example of the use of a linguistic experiment in scientific purposes can serve, for example, to identify the essence separate members sentences by substitution of possible synonymous variants of the construction in question: I am surprised that you, with your kindness, do not feel this; I am surprised that you, so kind, do not feel this; I wonder that you, being so

INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC JOURNAL "SYMBOL OF SCIENCE" №11-4/2016 ISSN 2410-700Х_

kind, don't feel it; I am surprised that you, who are so kind, do not feel it; I am surprised that you, although you are so kind, do not feel it. Compare: I'm surprised you and your wife don't feel this way. The experiment performed allowed the scientist to conclude that “the intonational modifications discovered in the first of these examples are not outwardly, not random, but create really special form phrases". The combination with your kindness is intoned as a separate sentence, as if inserted into the sentence that you do not feel it. Such minor member A. M. Peshkovsky called it isolated.

With the help of a linguistic experiment, A. M. Peshkovsky also shows the differences between composition and subordination in complex sentences. For this, the relations expressed by unions in complex sentences were studied from the point of view of their reversibility and irreversibility. The linguistic experiment was carried out with the following sentences:

He didn't go to school and he has a headache.

He didn't go to school because he had a headache.

He has a headache and he didn't go to school

He has a headache because he didn't go to school.

The meaning of the permutation is to try to tear off the sentence that begins with the union and put it in front, and attach another sentence to the union. As a result of the experiment, it turned out that the union withstood such a gap, but the union did not. Therefore, the union because is more closely related to the sentence that it begins with itself.

The different "behavior" of conjunctions in the considered sentences determines the nature of the semantic relations between the parts of a complex whole. In the first phrase, the rearrangement of sentences did not change the relationship between them, but in the second, the relationship changed: what was the cause became the effect, and what was the effect became the cause. Consequently, the union because forms with that sentence one semantic whole, which it begins with itself. It can move from place to place without any change in meaning for the whole complex whole (except purely stylistic). And there is nothing like that in the union.

“Thus,” concludes Peshkovsky, “therefore, in one case, the indicator of the relationship stands between the correlatives, and in the other - with one of them, that is, in one case we have what is called a composition, and in the other - something what is called submission.

Experiments of this kind help to reveal various features of the grammatical phenomena under consideration.

List of used literature

1. Peshkovsky A. M. Selected Works. - M.: Education, 1959. - S. 223.

2. Peshkovsky A. M. Russian syntax in scientific coverage. - M.: Enlightenment, 1956. - p.415-416, p. 463-464.

© Morozova N. M., 2016

Nazarkina Valentina Vladimirovna

undergraduate gr. M-22, KSU, Abakan, RF E-mail: [email protected]

ASSOCIATIVE EXPERIMENT IN THE FORMATION OF INTERCULTURAL

COMPETENCES

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The article reflects the problem of studying intercultural communication, the solution of which is successfully