Palatalization- softening of consonants resulting from raising the front or middle part of the back of the tongue to the hard palate (bit -; meet -)

Velarization- additional articulation, as a result of which the back of the back of the tongue moves towards the soft palate (the opposite of palatalization)

Aspiration- acoustic noise (effect) during the pronunciation of a sound that occurs when a jet of air passes in the interval between the explosion of a consonant and the beginning of a subsequent vowel sound

Glottalization- a form of articulation in which sounds are produced mainly by constriction or closure of the glottis

Nasalization– sound acquisition of nasal timbre, voice output through nose and mouth

10. The structure of the speech apparatus

Speech apparatus (in the narrow sense)- these are organs that are directly involved in the process of speech breathing and voice formation; in a broad sense- organs of speech, respiration, central nervous system, organs of hearing and vision (for oral and written speech). The organs of speech, or the speech apparatus in the narrow sense, include:

small uvula (uvula)

epiglottis

nasal cavity

According to the role in the pronunciation of sounds, the organs of speech are divided into active and passive. The active organs of speech produce those or other movements necessary for the formation of sounds, and are thus of particular importance for their formation. The active organs of speech are:

soft sky

• back of the pharynx (pharynx)

  lower jaw

Passive organs do not perform independent work during sound production and perform only an auxiliary role. The passive organs of speech are:

alveoli

solid sky

upper jaw

For the formation of each sound of speech, a complex of works of the organs of speech in a certain sequence is necessary, that is, a well-defined articulation is needed. Articulation called the work of the organs of speech, necessary for the pronunciation of sounds.

respiratory organs These are the lungs, bronchi and windpipe (trachea). The lungs and bronchi are the source and conductor of the air stream, forcing the exhaled air by the tension of the muscles of the diaphragm (abdominal obstruction).

1 - thyroid cartilage; 2 - cricoid cartilage; 3 - windpipe (trachea); 4 - bronchi; 5 - terminal branches of bronchial branches; 6 - tops of the lungs; 7 - bases of the lungs

In a broader sense, DO is:

nasal cavity

• diaphragm

Larynx (larynx)- the upper part of the trachea, consisting of the following three types of cartilage, connected to each other:

cricoid cartilage

thyroid cartilage

paired arytenoid cartilage

OR work:

a) when pronouncing different types of vowel sounds:

The vocal cords oscillate, and a free, unhindered passage through the oral cavity is provided for the air stream. Lips can also: stretch, curl into a tube, rounded, or not be involved at all. The tongue can be in the front of the oral cavity (front vowels [i], [e]). When articulating back vowels ([y], [o]) - in the back. Middle vowels ([ы], [а]) occupy an intermediate position. The lift sign describes the position of the tongue as it moves up or down. High vowels ([i], [s], [y]) are characterized by a high position of the tongue in the oral cavity. The articulation of the low vowel ([a]) is associated with the low position of the tongue. Vowels of the middle rise ([e], [o]) are given a place between the named extreme groups.

b) when pronouncing different types of consonants:

The pronunciation of consonants is necessarily associated with overcoming the obstacle created in the oral cavity on the path of the air stream. This obstacle arises as a result of the convergence of the organs of speech to the boundaries of the gap ([f], [c], [h], [w]) or a complete closure ([p], [m], [d], [k]). Various organs can be close or closed: the lower lip with the upper lip ([p], [m]) or upper teeth ([f], [c]), certain parts of the tongue with hard and soft palate ([h], [d ], [w], [k]). The organs involved in the creation of the barrier are divided into passive and active. The former remain motionless, the latter make certain movements. The air jet overcomes the gap or bow, resulting in a specific noise. The latter is an obligatory component of the consonant sound. In the voiced, the noise is combined with the tone; in the deaf, it turns out to be the only component of the sound. The work of the vocal cords is to close them at the moment of speaking, as a result of which the air pressure increases rapidly, which creates additional tension under the vocal cords.

Consonant classification

Consonants are divided into voiced, voiceless and sonorous.

deaf those sounds are called, in the formation of which noise prevails over the voice. These sounds include: p, t, k, x, f, w, s, u, h, c.

voiced called consonants, in the formation of which the voice takes part. Voiced consonants include: b, e, d, c, g, h.

Sonorant consonants are called, in the formation of which the voice prevails over the noise. Sonorant consonants are sounds m, n, l, r. The consonant belongs to the same group. th .

According to the method of formation, consonants are divided into explosive (occlusive), slotted (fricative), fused (affricates), trembling (vibrants),

Explosive or stop consonants are called b-p, d-t, g-k. During their pronunciation, a stream of exhaled air breaks the barrier formed by the organs of speech.

Fricative or fricative consonants v-f, s-a, sh-zh, x, sch. When pronouncing these sounds, a stream of exhaled air passes through the gap formed by the organs of speech.

Affricates: two compound sounds c and h .

Trembling, or vibrants are R and R".

Consonants are divided into hard and soft phonemes. Voice and deafness, hardness and softness are present in the most consonant sound. When pronouncing all soft consonants, the middle part of the back of the tongue rises to the hard palate.

In phonetics, this position is called "palatalization" of consonants.

The principle of working on consonants remains the same as in working on vowels, i.e. complex classes diction, orthoepy, breathing and voice. In the correct pronunciation of consonants, one must systematically train, i.e. follow the articulation of sounds.

Consonant sounds must be pronounced actively, distinctly, clearly. These requirements must be followed especially carefully when pronouncing consonants at the beginning and at the end of words. With fuzzy, indistinct pronunciation of consonants at the beginning and end of words, the meaning of the entire text suffers. Often, for example, instead of the word goes they say “ide”, instead of the word city - “goro”, instead of the word thief - “or”, etc.

It is useful to recall the figurative expression See Volkonsky, to which K.S. Stanislavsky: "The vowels are the river, the consonants are the banks."

First of all, it is necessary to learn how to distinguish consonant sounds well by sonority and deafness, softness and hardness; to learn that sonority and deafness, softness and hardness are inherent in the consonants themselves, and if inaccuracies occur when pronouncing sounds, the cause must be sought in the shortcomings of articulation.

The student should know that the difference between a voiced and a voiceless sound is that at the moment of pronouncing a voiced consonant vocal cords close, tense, vibrate, and during the pronunciation of deaf sounds, the vocal cords are relaxed and noise is heard.

Some students pronounce deaf consonants instead of voiced consonants. Yes, the word bar sounds like "steam" word house- as "volume", etc.

To learn the difference between voiced and deaf sounds, we recommend using the following method: put your palm on the place where the protrusion of the thyroid cartilage (the so-called Adam's apple) is located, and pronounce voiced and deaf sounds in turn: dt (d-t-d-t-d-t ) or some other pair of hard voiced and voiceless consonants that sound correct for you. At the moment of pronouncing a voiced consonant, the palm will feel the vibration of the vocal cords, while when pronouncing a voiceless consonant, the vibration of the vocal cords does not occur. This feeling will help to catch your lack and master correct pronunciation voiced consonants.

Consonants should be pronounced without adding any vowel to them. For better assimilation of sonority and deafness of consonant sounds, pronounce words whose semantic difference is based on the difference between consonant sounds in sonority and deafness, for example: dam-tam, don-ton, itch-court and etc.

It is useful for students in whose speech there is no sonority in any consonant sound to practice pronunciation of a number of words into voiced and deaf consonants. By carefully listening to how you pronounce these words, you will be able to independently identify the wrong sound. Say the words with a consonant that sounds right and match their pronunciation with the pronunciation of words with a consonant that sounds wrong. The matching method will help you find the right sound for the consonant that needs correction.

When working on consonant sounds, great attention should be paid to their qualities such as softness and hardness. Iotated vowels that are written after soft consonants do not affect the softness of the consonant. A good example is foreign words, personal names and appellations in which e is written after consonants, for example: Marseille, Dresden, Othello, Romeo, thermos, awning, and it is necessary to pronounce solid consonants everywhere: Mars [e] l, Dresden, Ot [e] llo, Rom [e] o, t [e] rmos, t [e] nt.

Some students pronounce firmly words such as letter, take, seven, eight, seventy, eighty. This is not so much a spelling as a grammatical error. In these words soft sign in writing indicates the softness of sounds. Therefore, the sounds s, h, m must be pronounced softly.

The hard pronunciation of soft consonants is dialectal. It is necessary to systematically work on its elimination from the first lessons on the technique of speech.

Double consonants are of great importance in Russian literary pronunciation.

The dialectal pronunciation of many students is characterized by incorrect pronunciation of double consonants. There are many words in Russian, the meaning of which depends on whether they are written with one or two consonants. Therefore, they must be pronounced in accordance with the spelling, for example:

Pabout given-nabout this	ino day-vvone
courtand t-loansand t	watersand t-inputand t
trueu t-screwhave	undere la-poddChristmas tree
undera t-poddand t	giftand t-blowand t [dd]
draggingand t-dragand t [tt]	dressedand t-departmentand t [dd]

labial consonants are consonants formed by closing both lips.

Labiodental consonants- these are consonants formed by the convergence of the lower lip with the upper teeth: [f], [f], [c], [c].

labial consonants- these are consonants formed by complete or incomplete convergence of the lower lip with the upper lip or upper teeth: [p], [p], [b], [b], [f], [f]; [in], [in], [m], [m].

dental consonants (lat. dens- tooth) consonants formed between the tongue and the upper row of teeth, for example: /t/, /d/, /n/. Dental consonants should not be confused with alveolar and postalveolar consonants, which form between the tongue and palate.

Dorsal consonants- these are (from Latin dorsum - back) front-lingual or middle-lingual consonants, during the pronunciation of which the front part of the back of the tongue rises with a hump to the palate.

Trembling consonants (vibrants)- these are consonant sounds, during the formation of which the bow sequentially and periodically opens and closes again, and the active organs of speech tremble (vibrate).

Back language is a phonological feature.

Back lingual consonants(velar [from lat. velaris, from velum - veil], posterior palate) - consonants formed by raising the back of the back of the tongue to the back (soft) palate or to the back of the hard palate.

Voiced consonants- these are consonants formed by noise accompanied by a voice: [b], [b], [c], 1c], [g], [g], [d], [d], [g], [g], [ h], [h], [j].

Voicing is an articulatory feature that distinguishes sounds.

Dental consonants are consonants formed by pressing the tip of the tongue together with the frontmost part against the back of the upper front teeth.

Yot Yot is a medium lingual voiced fricative consonant [j], adjacent to the subsequent vowel, with which it forms an iotated sound. Apple, spruce, district, view [vj + y].

classification of speech sounds

Summing up sounds under the general basis that in all languages ​​of the world there are two types of speech sounds - vowels and consonants.

consonantism- this is (from lat. consoiians, consonantis - consonant sound) a system of consonant sounds of the language, their properties and relationships.

Labialized consonants are the same as labial consonants.

lateral consonant- this (Latin lateralisor latus, lateris - side, side) is the same as the lateral consonant.

Place of education consonant sound - a sign showing where in the oral cavity the air stream meets an obstacle.

When pronouncing soft consonants, the middle back of the tongue is raised to the hard palate.

Softness of consonants- this is the quality of consonants, due to the presence of an additional mid-palatal (iot) articulation, which is connected with the main articulation of consonants, which sharply increases the characteristic tone and noise.

Epiglottal consonants or epiglottis - consonants, the articulation of which is made by scoop-epiglottic folds (see larynx) and epiglottis.

tense (strong) consonants- consonants articulated with a high degree muscle tension.

Unlabialized consonants???????? - not rounded

Weak (relaxed) consonants- consonants, articulated with weak muscle tension

Non-labialized consonants are consonants without palatalization.

Palatalization(from Lat palatum - palate), or softening of consonants.

Palatalized consonants- these are consonant sounds, during the formation of which the main articulation is connected with an additional middle language (iot) articulation.

Palatal is the sound produced by raising the back of the tongue to the hard palate. Palatal consonant [j], for which the middle lingual articulation is the main one.

Anterior lingualism is one of the signs of consonants.

Front lingual consonants are dental and palatine-dental consonants.

Whistling consonants (sibilants)- these are the anterior lingual dental fricative [h], [h`] and [s], [s`].

Bow (shutter)- this is a complete barrier to the air jet leaving the lungs when pronouncing speech sounds (occlusive consonants).

Stop-plosive consonants are the same as explosive consonants.

Closing - laryngeal consonants - consonants, during the formation of which there is an additional compression and rise of the larynx, as a result of which air is ejected with a sharp push, producing the effect of a laryngeal stop.

Stop consonants- these are consonants, during the formation of which there is an obstacle created by the complete closure of the organs of pronunciation, while part of the air passes through the nasal cavity or oral cavity. Nasal [m], [m], [n], [n], lateral [l], [l].

Stop-fricative consonants(from lat. frico"true") (also fricative consonants, spirants, fricatives) - consonants, during the articulation of which the articulators come close to each other, but do not close completely, as a result of which turbulent air vibrations occur in the oral cavity, creating a noticeable noise. Or affricates (stop-fricatives), when the bow itself opens for the passage of a stream of air into the gap and the air passes through this gap with friction, but unlike fricatives, it does not last long, but instantly; it is [pf], [c], [dz], [h], [j];

Stop consonants(occlusives) - consonants sounds, during the articulation of which the organs of speech are in such a position that the flow of air from the lungs is completely blocked with the help of a bow created in the oral cavity or in the larynx.

Consonants- these are speech sounds, consisting either of one noise, or of a voice and noise that is formed in the oral cavity, where a stream of air exhaled from the lungs meets various obstacles.

Sonorant consonants- see consonant sounds. Sonorant-L, M, N, R. These sounds can be soft and hard R *, L *, M *, N * in terms of softness and hardness, but they are not deaf, they are only VOICED.

sonorous consonants are sounds produced without the participation of turbulent airflow in the vocal tract (such as /m/ and /l/). Also sonorants include approximants, nasal consonants, single-stressed and trembling

Spirant

(lat. Spirans = "breathing" from spiro = I breathe) - in modern phonetics, consonants are called so, which are formed as a result of friction of the air leaving the lungs against the edges of the gap or narrowing formed by certain speech organs.

The method of formation is defined as the nature of the passage for a jet of air during the formation of a speech sound (free, narrowed, closed).

Mid-palatal consonants - consonants formed by raising the middle part of the back of the tongue to the anterior (hard) palate.

Middle language consonant is a voiced fricative consonant [j].

Consonant hardness- this is a lower, compared with soft consonants, voice timbre, due to the lack of palatalization (See softness of consonants).

Hard consonants are consonants that are not soft. Soft consonants are consonants formed when the middle part of the back of the tongue approaches the hard palate and the entire mass of the tongue moves forward.

fricative consonants- this (from lat. fricatio - friction) is the same as fricative consonants. fricative consonants- these are (long, flow, spirants, fricative, flint) noisy consonants formed by the friction of exhaled air against the walls of the gap with incomplete convergence of the active and passive organs of speech: [c], [c], [f], [f], [s ], [s|, [s], [s], [g], |g], [w], [w], [j], [x], [x].

Vowel sounds

Sound a. The lower jaw is lowered so that the distance between the teeth is about two fingers; the tongue lies flat, the tip of the tongue at the lower front teeth; lips form an even oval, the palatine curtain is raised; vocal cords vibrate.

The sound of The jaw is lowered less than when pronouncing the sound a (one and a half fingers); the lips are somewhat extended forward and rounded; the tip of the tongue is lowered and pulled away from the lower front teeth; the back of the tongue is slightly raised to the soft palate.

The sound at The jaw is lowered to a distance equal to one little finger; lips pushed far forward and rounded more than when pronouncing the sound o; the tip of the tongue is moved away from the lower front teeth to a distance greater than when pronouncing the sound o, its back part is raised high to the palate; the palatine curtain is raised; vocal cords vibrate.

Sound s. The distance between the teeth is somewhat less than when pronouncing the sound y; teeth slightly exposed; the tip of the tongue touches the lower front teeth, its middle part approaches the palate; the palatine curtain is raised; vocal cords vibrate.

Sound e. The lower jaw is lowered to the distance of one and a half fingers; teeth slightly exposed; the tongue with its tip touches the lower front teeth, and its middle part is raised to the palate; the palatine curtain is raised; ligaments vibrate.

Sound and. The tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth; the back of the tongue is tense and raised to the front of the hard palate; vocal cords vibrate, lips slightly stretched and pressed against bared teeth; the palatine curtain is raised.

diphthongs

Most of the letters of the Russian alphabet are signs of one sound. The letters e, i, e, u denote two sounds: the consonant th and the vowel. For example: d+e=e; d+a=i; d+o=e; y+y=y.

For the correct sounding of these vowels, you need to know what position speech apparatus when pronouncing the sound th and each of the vowels e, a, o, u.

Sound i. When pronouncing a sound, the tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth, and the back of the tongue is tense and raised to the front of the hard palate, the vocal cords vibrate; the soft palate is raised. The y sound is pronounced simultaneously with the vowel sounds.

It is recommended to alternately pronounce vowels in the following pairs: a-z; o-yo; wow; uh. At the same time, you will feel how, during the transition to ioted sounds, the back of the tongue tenses and rises to the front of the hard palate; the lips, lower jaw and tip of the tongue follow the movements of the articulatory apparatus when pronouncing a, o, u, e.

Consonants

Sounds b, p. Lips tightly closed; the tongue lies freely, the tip is at the lower incisors; when pronouncing the sounds l and b, the palatine curtain is raised; a jet of exhaled air directed into the mouth breaks closed lips, which causes beat sounds; at the sound b, the vocal cords vibrate.

Sounds in, f. The lower lip with its inner edge slightly touches the upper teeth; the palatine curtain is raised, the tongue lies freely - the tip is at the lower front teeth; the air blown between the teeth and the lip and forms the sounds v and f; at a sound in a sheaf vibrate.

Sounds d, t, n. The tongue is slightly raised to the palate and its front part is pressed tightly against the upper front teeth; at the sound of d and n, the ligaments vibrate; at the sound d and then the palatine curtain is raised; at the sound of n, the palatine curtain is lowered.

Sounds k, g, x. The arched back of the tongue touches the hard palate; the palatine curtain is raised; the exhaled stream of air breaks between the back of the tongue and the palate - this produces explosive sounds k and g; if there is a gap between the palate and the back of the tongue, then it turns out long sound X; the palatine curtain during the formation of sounds k, g, x is raised; the vocal cords vibrate at the sound g.

Sounds p, p". The formation of sounds p and p" is caused by frequent vibrations of the tip of the tongue under the action of an exhaled stream of air; at the sound p, vibration occurs in the alveoli of the upper front teeth; when pronouncing r" the tip of the tongue oscillates at the front upper teeth; the vocal cords vibrate.

Sound m. The lips are slightly closed, the tongue lies freely, as when pronouncing the sound a; exhaled air passes through the nose.

Sounds l, l". When pronouncing the sound l, the tip of the tongue touches the upper front teeth; the root of the tongue is raised; the palatine curtain is raised, the vocal cords vibrate; when pronouncing the sound, the tip of the tongue touches the upper alveoli; the whole tongue is more tense than when pronouncing the sound l.

Sounds h, p. The wide tip of the tongue touches the lower teeth and partly the lower gums, and the front part of the back of the tongue with a small longitudinal groove on it rises to the upper gums and forms a narrow gap with them; the lateral edges of the tongue are tightly pressed against the upper molars; The blown air passes through the groove of the tongue between the teeth and forms the sounds z and s; mouth ajar (by 3 mm); the palatine curtain is raised; at the sound of the vocal cords vibrate; when pronouncing z "and s" the middle part of the back of the tongue is closer to the hard palate (in sounding this softness is expressed in a slight increase in tone).

Sounds w, w. The wide tip of the tongue is raised almost to the edge of the upper alveoli, but does not touch the hard palate; a gap is formed between the tongue and the hard palate; the lateral edges of the tongue are tightly pressed against the upper molars; the back of the back of the tongue is also raised and forms a second constriction with the hard palate. A cavity is formed in the tongue (otherwise it is called a ladle or a cup); teeth slightly set apart, lips slightly pushed forward; when a sound is made, the ligaments vibrate.

Compound consonants

The sound ts consists of the sounds t and s, and they are pronounced without an explosion and smoothly turn into the sound s.

The sound h consists of the sounds t "and sh" which are pronounced without a noticeable explosion.

The sound u is elongated soft sound sh "-sh". The tip of the tongue when pronouncing u is somewhat more advanced towards the front teeth than when w.

Soft consonants

All consonants can sound hard and soft, with the exception of w, w, and z, which never soften, and ch-sh, which are always pronounced soft.

The softness of consonants always causes significant changes in the position of parts of the speech apparatus. With the formation of soft d, t and n, the position of the parts of the speech apparatus will be somewhat different than when pronouncing hard d, t and n.

With the sounds t", d" and n", the tip of the tongue is at the lower teeth, and the front of the back of the tongue tightly touches the alveoli and the front of the palate. With d" and n "the cords vibrate; with t" the vocal cords are calm.