part of speech.
It seemed to me (and now it seems) that Pushkin's prose is a precious ..th example on which one should teach (?) Writers of our time ..ni.
Busyness .. materiality brevity and clarity of presentation.
Of course, nowadays there should be (not) blind imitation of Pushkin. For it will receive (?) Xia be.. life.. the second copy is torn off.. from our time.. no. But sometimes it is useful .. to make a copy in order (to) see what secret the great poet gave in his mastery of the region and what colors he used to (would) achieve (?) the greatest power.
In painting, .. in relation to .. copies, this is the case easier. There it is enough to “write off” the picture in order to understand a lot. But the copy in the literature is much more difficult. A simple correspondence will show absolutely nothing. (It is not) necessary to take some (something) equal. ,th plot and using the form of the master to state the topic in his m..nere. (M. Zoshchenko)
15. Divide the text into paragraphs, title it. Write off, inserting missing letters, missing punctuation marks, opening brackets. Determine the main idea of the text, draw up its plan. Specify the type of speech. Justify your answer.
Lomonosov and Derzhavin and Zhukovsky and Batyushkov were approaching the living language. But the whole point is that the others were getting closer. Derzhavin, just like Lomonosov, was too triumphant .. about high in style and style Zhukovsky was too sweet-sounding too thin. Only Pushkin .. took a real .. cue step forward - (to) a meeting with the spoken Russian language (ocean) and entering this ocean, he thereby made it possible for his language (ocean) to easily enter into his work and give new life to a new literary language, a new literature, a new book. And this is (no, no) no exaggeration on my part. Pushkin is the unity .. the world's greatest poet (at) the beginning of whose work lies a fairy tale. Does the poem Ruslan and Lyudmila tell about this? And here is what (on) this occasion Pushkin himself wrote in a letter to his brother ... in the evening I listen to fairy tales - and reward the (in) wealth of my damned upbringing. What a delight these stories are! Each is a poem! And this is noticeable (?) Those are written by one of the educators .. the most beloved
dei Rossi... Pushkin not only, as it were, establishes the equality of genres - fairy tales and poems. He considers it possible for a fairy tale to become a poem, a poem to a fairy tale, to flow between them. Thus, Pushkin can be said (c) the first to zako..oe the right of co-authorship in literature, our great colloquial Russian language. (According to E. Isaev)
§ 3. THE CONCEPT OF THE NORM OF THE LITERARY LANGUAGE. TYPES OF NORMS
The most important feature of the literary language is the presence in it of strictly defined rules - norms; for example, words kilometer, agreement must be pronounced with the stress on the last syllable.
Norms are relatively stable rules for the use of language units, accepted in society as exemplary. Following the norms is mandatory for all educated people.
Standards of the literary language cover different language units; include rules for pronunciation and stress (orthoepic norms), rules for the use of words and stable combinations (lexical norms), rules for the formation of words (word-forming norms), rules for the formation of grammatical forms (for example, forms of gender, number, case) and rules for combining words and combining them into phrases and sentences (grammatical norms), the rules for the use of language means in accordance with the style of speech (speech norms), and finally, the rules for writing words and punctuation marks (spelling and punctuation norms). Thus, the norms operate at all levels of the literary language.
16. Read the definitions of the norm of the literary language, belonging to different scientists. Compare them. What style are they? Name the features of the norm that are emphasized in each of the definitions. Make a plan "Signs of the norm of the literary language."
1. The norm is what was, and partly what is, but by no means what will be ... The norm is an ideal, once and for all achieved, as if cast for all eternity. (A. M. Peshkovsky)
A norm is a set of the most suitable (“correct”, “preferred”) language means for serving society, emerging as a result of the selection of linguistic elements ... from among coexisting ... (SI. Ozhegov)
The norm combines the features of stability, on the one hand, and variability, on the other, it is characterized by the presence of options. (S. A. Vinogradov)
missing punctuation marks. Specify means of communication
zheny in the text. What are the words of the Russian language containing ele
cop ortho-.
The word orthoepy is international; it exists in many languages and denotes the same system of pronunciation rules. Translated from Greek orthos - straight, correct, a epos - speech; orthoepy literally - correct speech. The orthoepic norm is the only possible or preferred version of the correct exemplary pronunciation and the correct placement of stress. The pronunciation norms of the modern Russian language developed in the first half of the 18th century. but initially - as the norms of the Moscow dialect, which only gradually began to acquire the character of national norms. Russian literary pronunciation became entrenched and acquired the character of a national norm in the first half of the 19th century. (According to M. Khrymova)
18. Complete the following table, indicating the names of the norms.
| Rules | Norms |
| pronunciation and stress | |
| use of words and phraseological units | |
| word formation | |
| spelling words | |
| formation and use of grammatical forms, phrases and sentences | |
| use of language | |
| punctuation marks |
18
19. Read. Look for rule violations. What are the norms
Sheny in the above statements? Fix them.
1) Additional funds are needed to repair the school. 2) The youth who will live in the 21st century will be able to solve many problems. 3) The second story is funnier than the first. 4) The patient asked the doctor to pour himself some water. 5) Having read the story of I. S. Turgenev, I was first of all struck by its plot. 6) Lomonosov noticed that the wealth of Russia will grow in Siberia. 7) Pechorin is waiting everywhere new tragedy. 8) Ranevskaya refuses the offer to cut down the garden. 9) We learned a lot of interesting language facts. 10) I will start the answer initially. 11) Katerina - a protest to the "dark kingdom".
20. Read. What does not match in the above sentences?
does it comply with the norms of the modern Russian literary language? Which
property of norms is manifested in this?
1) It used to be that he was still in bed, they carried notes to him. (P.) 2) Running through the letter, his eyes sparkled. (P.) 3) New furniture from Moscow appeared. (T.) 4) He [Epifanov] purposely put on the dirtiest coat. (L. T.) 5) A wanderer in the house spoke a lot about the miracle of the universe. (Fet) 6) The word "film" ... was feminine, they said: "adventure film." (Pan.) 7) God does not give a horn to a vigorous cow. (Eaten.) 8) What are the eyelids, such and people. (I ate.) 9) They said that a mouse jumped out of Nina Feodorovna's shoes. (Ch.)
21. Write off by inserting missing letters and opening brackets.
What caused the need for the norms of the literary language? Do
syntactic analysis of the selected sentence.
The norm implies an evaluative attitude of speakers and writers to the functioning of the language: they say so, but they (not) say so; so right, but so (wrong. This attitude is formed under the influence of literature, science, school.
The norms are caused by the post..I..about the current need for a better mutual understanding. I..o this need encourages people to prefer some options and refuse others - for the sake of achieving the unity of the language system. (B) along with the growing need of society for
unity is strong ..t the language norm, reaching the highest development in the national literary language. The norm serves as a regulator of people's speech behavior. (According to B. Golovin)
22. Read a fragment of the student's essay on the topic “City of Ka
lines in A. N. Ostrovsky's drama "Thunderstorm". What are the norms of the letter
Turkish language is violated in it? Edit this essay.
The theme of the Volga in "The Thunderstorm" brings us to the description of the city of Kalinov. This is the main setting of the drama.
The city is fenced off from the outside world. Gates and fences are the internal border for the city dweller: "Everyone has had gates for a long time ... locked and the dogs let loose."
Power in Kalinov belongs to Wild and Kabanikha. Both of them love to swagger over those who are under their command. The names of these heroes emphasize that they are petty tyrants.
The city of Kalinov stands on the fear experienced by the townspeople. Most of them are ignorant. Only Kuligin is trying to rid the Kalinovites of fear, but his dreams do not come true. Kalinov can be called a "dark kingdom" in which oppression reigns.
23. Read the text, prepare to retell it. Determine
his style affiliation. Write down the definition of ethical-re-
chevy norms. Specify the meanings of words ethics, etiquette. Lead
examples of ethical and speech norms.
Ethical and speech norms - a set of rules of speech communication (behavior), which ensure the harmonization of the interests of those who communicate. The golden rule of communication ethics is "Treat others as you would like to be treated." Ethical and speech norms imply such speech communication, which is based on basic ethical concepts, such as "good", "duty", "conscience", "responsibility".
Ethical norms require that verbal communication be benevolent, sincere, laconic, so that it does not contain slander, gossip, and condemnation of one's neighbor.
The field of speech ethics includes speech etiquette, the rules of which are based on the principle of respect for the interlocutor. (According to A.P. Skovorodnikov)
24. Read. What ethical and speech norms are violated in general
with the heroine of the text? Find sentences with direct speech.
Explain the placement of punctuation marks in them.
I somehow get out of a fixed-route taxi, and immediately a tall man with a suitcase in his hands turns to me: “Mommy, how to get to the Baikal Hotel?” She showed me the way and turned into the yard to the laundry where a little old woman was walking with her dog. Having answered her question, I went about my business, and when I came to the stop, there were a lot of people, and everyone rushed to the trolleybus that appeared in a crowd ... “Move, granny!” - someone said from behind, pushing me up the stairs at the door. Without seeing the newly-born "grandson", I suddenly laughed ... (A. Ivanova)
25. Write by inserting missing letters and opening brackets.
Formulate the communication rules recommended by Russians
words and sayings.
1) (N ..) a good word that the fire is zh..et. 2) Know more, and tell less. 3) Good m..lchanie is better than empty b..lta-niya. 4) (N ..) saying a word - kr .. write, and saying a word - d .. laugh. 5) Arguing, arguing, but scolding (?) Xia is a sin. 6) For a joke (n ..) get angry, but offended (n ..) vd .. get up. 7) From courteous words, the language (n ..) withered ..t. 8) They go to a strange monastery with their charter (n ..).
26. Prepare a short speech, the purpose of which is to kill
to teach listeners that compliance with the rules of speech etiquette is necessary
we walk in fellowship.
VOCABULARY
§ 4. WORD AND ITS LEXICAL MEANING. PRECISION OF SPEECH
The word is the most important unit of language. With the help of words, all the diverse phenomena of the world around us (objects, their signs, actions, states) are called. A word can fulfill this role because it has a certain meaning, a meaning that is called lexical meaning.
In the lexical meaning of the word, people's ideas about the essential aspects of objects, actions, signs are reflected. For example, the word brochure has the lexical meaning "a small book in the form of stitched or stapled sheets, usually without binding"; this meaning reflects our ideas about the essential features of this kind of printed publications. Word calculate has the lexical meaning "to count, calculate something"; this meaning reflects our ideas about the essential features of such an action. Word purple has the lexical meaning "light purple, the color of lilac or violet"; this meaning reflected our ideas about the essential features of this color. The accuracy of word usage consists in observing the lexical norms of the Russian literary language, in the ability to use words in written and oral speech in full accordance with their lexical meanings that have developed and are fixed in the language.
Inaccuracies in the choice of words and speech errors are caused by the use by the writer (speaking) of words, the lexical meaning of which he either does not understand, or does not understand quite correctly. Yes, the word prancing means "the art of riding", for example: On the sides on horseback dashing daredevils prancing(R.) Due to the writer's misunderstanding of the differences in the lexical meaning of words ride, ride(“to move, move on something”) and prancing before-
There is a lexical error in the following sentence: Ionychprancing on a cart with a lazy coachman on a box.“It’s impossible to prance on a britzka”, of course, A.P. Chekhov’s story “Ionych” says that Dr. Startsev “... rides in a troika with bells, and Panteleimon sits on goats."
Often inaccuracy of presentation, lexical errors are associated with the incorrect use of foreign words. Yes, the word galaxy has the lexical meaning "a group of prominent figures in any field in one era", for example: One can only admire the will and skill shown at the beginningXIXglorious centuryPleiades Russian navigators around the world.(T. C.) This word is completely unjustifiably used in such a sentence: ATPleiades images of landowners are especially terrible Plyushkin(instead of the word galaxy one could use here, for example, the word gallery- "a long line of something"),
Mistakes often lead to lack of distinction meaning writer single-root words. Yes, the word capital has the meanings "containing the title", "pointing to actor, whose name a play, opera, film, etc. is named, for example: I was assignedcapital role in a new production- in Don Quixote.(N. Cherkasov) The use of the word violates the lexical norms of the Russian literary language title in the meaning of "main, main, most important", for example: capital the role in the comedy "The Inspector General" undoubtedly belongs to Khlestakov(should have used the word main).
When choosing a word, it is necessary to take into account its compatibility with other words that has developed in the language. Yes, the word lion in the meaning of "the biggest, best" is combined only with the word share, for example: the lion's share technical materials we found on the spot.(V. Azh.) Violation of the lexical compatibility of this word is allowed in the following sentence: The landowners appropriatedthe lion's share peasant income(should have replaced the word lion's use the word big or, better, the word part replace with the word share).
Finally, among the speech defects associated with an inaccurate understanding of the lexical meanings of words is verbosity - the use of extra words that do not add anything.
completing what is already expressed in other words. For example, in a sentence Onegin first met Tatyana at the Larin estate such an extra word is the word first, since the verb познакомиться already means "to make acquaintance". Wed in N. V. Gogol's poem "Dead Souls": Right here[at a "house party"] he met the governor[Chichikov] with the very courteous and courteous landowner Manilov and the clumsy-looking Sobakevich...
In order to use words accurately, one must know their lexical meaning well and regularly refer to reference books, primarily to explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language.
27. I. Read and indicate the lexical meaning of the selected
words. Check yourself with school Russian explanatory dictionaries
language. Tell us what methods compilers use
dictionary to reveal the lexical meaning of words. Write down
those phrases.
Speak with feeling dignity, inspire to labor exploits, to show great courage, to solve a difficult problem, design sports complex, creative labor, useful initiative, fair requirements.
I. Choose one single-root word for each word highlighted in paragraph I, make phrases and write them down.
28. Write off, inserting instead of dots the words you need in meaning and
explaining (verbally) their meaning.
I. 1) Laugh ... with laughter. Transfer ... disease (contagious, contagious). 2) He was a retarded man, ... . Get sick ... with tuberculosis (bone, inert). 3) Have... intentions. Possess ... character (hidden, secretive). 4) ... master. ... silk (artificial, skillful). 5) ... a woman. ... word (hurtful, touchy). 6) Stand in ... pose. Take ... measures against violators of discipline (effective, spectacular).
P. 1) Observe ... the development of the plant. go ahead
di... (process, procession). 2) Fight for technical
Solve problems on ... (progression, progress). 3) To turn out to be an ill-mannered person, .... It is not enough to read, to be ... (non-
wise, ignorant), 4) Take ... over the school. Participate in a masquerade ... (patronage, procession). 5) Say ... in honor of someone. Leave to rest in ... (health resort, toast). 6) The writer Turgenev spoke about the tragic fate of ... Gerasim. Troekurov was cruel... (serf-owner, serf). 7) An experienced person works in the hospital .... The play displays a negative ... (character, staff).
III. 1) It became in the yard .... The lilac began ... (bloom, dawn). 2 children. ... jacket and boots (put on, put on). 3) ... a bad worker. ... different colors (mix, shift). 4) ... to the top of the mountain. ... to the class (enter, ascend).
29. Read. Indicate what mistakes were made in the use of words (inaccurate knowledge of the lexical meaning of the word, confusion of the meaning of words with the same root, violation of the compatibility of the word with other words, etc.). In case of difficulty, refer to the explanatory dictionary. Make the necessary corrections and write off the suggestions.
1) Friends, let's try to look into the future. 2) The plot of patriotism runs through the whole novel. 3) Both plot lines, personal and public, develop in a comedy in parallel, mutually intersecting. 4) At the time of his stay in the south, Pushkin writes romantic works. 5) Very early I realized that biology is a fascinating science. 6) At first, a double impression is formed about Manilov. 7) At first glance, he may even seem like a very beautiful person. 8) The author solves in a new way the question of the place of the poet in life, of the citizenship of poetry. 9) The sudden departure of Khlestakov and the news of the arrival of this auditor lead the officials to a stupor. 10) One cannot treat various Chichikovs, Plyushkins and Nozdrevs without angry indignation. 11) Reading classical Russian literature enriches people's horizons. 12) Dialects are found not only in the language of the heroes of the story, but also in the speech of the author himself.
§ 5. POLYSEMINAL WORDS AND THEIR USE
A word can have more than one meaning. Yes, the word sickle has the following meanings: 1) “a hand-held agricultural tool in the form of a strongly curved, finely serrated
knife for cutting cereals", for example: Ears in the fieldsickles lined up in yellow.(L.); 2) “what has the form of such an object”, for example: The sickle of the moon looks into the gaps of the clouds with a quiet sadness.(Boon.) Word melt has the meanings: 1) "turn into water under the influence of heat", for example: Alreadymelts snow, running streams.(Tyutch.); 2) "lose weight, wither", for example: Kuznetsova girl, Feklusha,melted every day.(Ch.); 3) "disappear, gradually dissipating in the air", for example: In the skyare melting clouds.(Tyutch.); 4) “decrease in quantity, number, volume”, for example: French troops uniformlymelted away in mathematically correct progression.(L.T.) Word gray-haired has the meanings: 1) “white, silvery” (about hair), for example: His short hairgray-haired her hair shone with a dark sheen.(T.); 2) "grayish-white, whitish", for example: Abovegray-haired The wind collects clouds by the plain of the sea.(M. G.); 3) “relating to the distant past”, for example: Pass without a tracegray-haired centuries over a silent country.(Seraph.)
The presence of a word with several interconnected meanings is called ambiguity. It is possible because phenomena usually have one or another general properties, signs, which allows you to use the same word to name similar phenomena.
A polysemantic word has direct and figurative meanings. The direct meaning directly indicates the phenomena of the world around us and is not motivated by other meanings of this word. The figurative meaning is connected with the direct meaning and is motivated by it. Yes, the word cloud has a direct meaning - “a large cloud threatening rain, snow, hail”, for example: The cloud turned whitecloud, which rose heavily, grew and gradually hugged the sky.(P.) The same word also has figurative meanings: 1) “thick, moving mass, a lot of something”, for example: With a whistlecloud arrows went up...(P.); 2) "something threatening, gloomy", for example: Againclouds gathered above me in silence.(P.)
In words sickle, melt, gray-haired the first of the listed meanings are direct, the rest are figurative.
The ambiguity of a word, its ability to be used in figurative meanings is widely used by writers and publicists as a stylistic tool that enhances the figurativeness of speech, allowing to present the described phenomena more vividly and clearly, for example:
1) In the big windows fell to the floorsilver
the light is full
month.(L. T.); 2) Riverspread out.
flowing,sad
lazy and washes the shore.(A.B.)
For greater expressiveness of speech, authors can also deliberately compare, collide different meanings of words, for example: 1) In the evening I haveevening. Come.(Ch.);
Fromclass school- to workClass. (Gas.);
Only one upsets to tears: the heart- on thesummer, of the year- on thefreezing. (Yu. Drunina)
In some cases, however, not well thought out construction of sentences can create undesirable ambiguity, ambiguity in the use of a polysemantic word, lead to difficulties in understanding the meaning of the statement, for example: In the museum, the tourists were shown ancientcanvases (fabrics or paintings?). Such an insufficiently clear use of ambiguous words is undesirable.
30. Read. Compare the lexical meanings of the highlighted words in each group. Which of the meanings is direct, which is figurative? What common properties of different objects, signs or actions allow us to call them in one word?
1) Steel needle - needle pines. 2) Shore seas- sea flags. 3) Bronze coin - bronze Tan.
4) Howl wolf - howls storm. 5) Iron underwear - iron in
los. 6) Sole shoes - sole the mountains. 7) Light
the audience- attentive the audience. 8) Work on pro
production - hand over work. 9) Read Chekhov- produce
nia Chekhov. 10) Bayonet rifles - a detachment of a thousand shty
cov.
31. Read. Determine the meanings of the highlighted words. What kind
of which are used literally, which ones are used figuratively?
Write off. Explain spelling.
1) G..rit East z..ryu new. 2) It used to be that he was still in the stele: they carried notes to him. What? Invitations? Indeed, three at home called for the evening. 3) Br..nil of Homer, Theo-critus; for (that) read Adam Smith and was a deep economy.
4) The edges of Moscow, native lands, where in the z..re blooming years
careless hours I spent gold,(not) knowing sorrows and
troubles 5) Blaze fireplace, in my desert cell. 6)
All de
jealousy runs to meet him, all his greetings congratulations
ut. 7) He ... won incessantly, and raked in gold
then, and put banknotes in his pocket. 8) But, the triumph of victory
full, still seething viciously waves. 9) Fur coats and raincoats stranded
walk past the stately porter.
(A. Pushkin)
32. Read. Specify the purposes for which they are used
meaningful words. Write off, placing the missing prepi signs
knowledge. Explain their use.
1) I call it [the story] great because it really comes out great, that is, big and long. (Ch.)
With this story, a story happened to us, Stepan Ivanovich Kurochka, who came from Gadyach, told us about it. (G.)
In the sky, the moon is so young that it is risky to release it without satellites. (Lighthouse.) 4) I went to the market and began to show the locals a photograph from Lermontov's drawing. Very soon I achieved significant results: I turned the market into a real market. (I. Andr.)
(do not) charge .. reap. - My poems (not) sea (not) stove and (not) plague.
(L. Kassil)
§ 6. TROPES AS EXPRESSIVE MEANS OF LANGUAGE
Many stylistic devices are based on the use of the word not in a direct, but in a figurative sense, giving brightness and expressiveness to our speech. These methods are called paths(from the Greek tropos - turn, turn of speech).
The trails began to be explored in ancient times. Their main types were already identified in ancient rhetoric. This is a metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, epithet.
Metaphor(from the Greek metaphora - transfer) - rethinking the meaning of a word based on the similarity of phenomena or their features. Wed: bear(name of animal) - bear(clumsy person). Metaphor is close to comparison, but unlike it is more concise. It is no coincidence that it is often referred to as shorthand comparison; compare: hair like a mop- head of hair.
A kind of metaphor is personification. This is a stylistic technique by which inanimate objects, natural phenomena, abstract concepts appear in the image of a person or other living being, for example: The sleepy earth smiled at the sun.(Her.)
Personification can be expressed not only by metaphor, but also by comparison, for example: And the secret pain of separation groaned like a white seagull...(Ahm.); And the sun, like a cat, pulls the ball towards itself.(Her.)
The personification is also an appeal to an inanimate addressee, to whom, as a result, the ability to participate in a dialogue is attributed: Ah, my fields, my dear furrows, you are good in your sorrow!(Her.)
Metonymy(from Greek metonymia - renaming) - rethinking the meaning of a word based on the contiguity of concepts, their connection, for example: And restless Petersburg has already been awakened by a drum(P.) - at the heart of the trail - the connection between the place and the people who are in it; Not on silver- ate on gold(Gr.) - the relationship between the object and the material from which it is made.
Synecdoche (from Greek synekdoche - connotation) is a trope based on the replacement of the name of the whole with the name of any of its parts, or vice versa. This is a rethinking of the meaning of the word on a quantitative basis, for example: And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced.(L.); He was buried in the earth's globe, and he was only a soldier.(S. Orlov)
The epithet occupies a special place among the tropes.
Epithet(from the Greek epitheton - attached, added) - a trope that acts in a sentence as a definition or circumstance of the mode of action. It's figurative
definition that gives expression to speech: Quiet valleys are full of fresh haze.(L.); Lazily and thoughtlessly ... there are sub-cloud oaks.(G.). An epithet can be a metaphor or metonymy, cf.: The whole room is lit up with an amber glow.(P.); Thundering rumbles young(Tyutch.) - a metaphorical epithet; There is a green noise(N.) - metonymic epithet.
Hyperbola(from the Greek hyperbole - exaggeration) - this is a figurative word usage that exaggerates any phenomenon, sign or action in order to enhance the impression, for example: Khlestakov. .. .On the table... watermelon- a watermelon for seven hundred rubles... And at that very moment couriers, couriers, couriers... you can imagine thirty-five thousand couriers alone.(G.)
33. Write by opening brackets and inserting missing letters.
Find trails, indicate their type.
1) Noise, noise, obedient sail, worry under me, gloomy ok..an. (P.) 2) Noise increases; running around is heard on all the stairs. Armenians, sheepskin coats, bonnets, German long-brimmed caftans of merchants, triangular hats and ... overcoats of all kinds ... (G.) 3) Where the path ended, far (at) the bottom near the sandy ..th coast lazily foamed and gently purred (n ..) high waves. (Ch.) 4) The whole kennel yard rose (in) another ... (In) a minute the kennel became hell. (Cr.) 5) The violin was twitching, begging, and suddenly it was playing so (like) childishly. (Lighthouse.) 6) I-.olit Matveyevich ran a brush over short-sharpened aluminum hair. (I. and P.) 7) There was a meta..ic quack and the scream of a motor. (I. and P.) 8) In the lamps, as if (as if) they added light, and (c) each ... both halls danced, and after them the v.. randa danced. (Bulg.) 9) The first ice. This is the first time. The first ice of telephonic phrases. (Ascension) 10) (Black)-eyed white birches are yellow and green river slope. (Juice.) 11) Autumn rain, my gray double, pounded his story into his ears. (A. Tarkovsky)
34. Read N. Rubtsov's poem "The Star of the Fields." Ka
What expressive means of language does the poet use in it? Oprah
share their role in the text. Match expressive language
means in the first and second parts of the poem. How do they differ
hope?
The star of the fields in the icy haze, Stopping, looks into the polynya. Twelve o'clock has already rung, And sleep has enveloped my homeland...
Field star! In moments of turmoil, I remembered how quietly behind the hill She burns over autumn gold, She burns over winter silver ...
The star of the fields burns without fading, For all the anxious inhabitants of the earth, Touching with its friendly beam All the cities that have risen in the distance.
But only here, in the icy haze, She rises brighter and fuller. And I'm happy as long as the star of my fields burns in the white world...
35. Read the text of V. Rozhdestvensky. Determine the type of speech and the topic of the text. Title the text. Continue the series of comparisons with your examples. Outline the first sentence of the text. Determine the type of predicate in the highlighted sentence.
When we notice a similarity between two phenomena or objects, we have a legitimate desire to compare them. Often such a comparison helps us to better understand both phenomena. Poets very often have to deal with such a technique as comparison in order to clarify their thought. And of course, the comparison should be figurative, picturesque. As a rule, little understandable or unusual is compared with more understandable. But of course you can't do it the other way around...
In our classical poetry we find many interesting and artistically striking comparisons. We present here some of them.
Neva tossed about like a sick person In her restless bed.
(A. Pushkin)
The road, like a snake's tail, is full of people, moving.
(A. Pushkin)
And mountains jagged ridges Fanciful, like dreams.
(M. Lermontov)
Like milk doused, Cherry orchards stand.
(N. Nekrasov)
36. Read. Find comparisons. Specify their syntax
role and mode of expression. Name the trait based on
which one phenomenon is compared with others. What comparisons
do you find it especially bright and accurate? Explain from
the absence of a dash in the 2nd and 4th sentences.
1) It's almost noon. The fire is burning. Like a plowman, the battle rests. (P.) 2) Seven years are like seven dazzling days. (Ahm.) 3) The sunset lay like a crimson fire. (Ahm.) 4) The dawn is like a fire in the snow. (Her.) 5) The wind sobbed like a child around the corner of the darkened house. (Rub.) 6) The ice is not strong on the icy river, as if like melting sugar, lies. (N.) 7) The station puffs like a samovar in the kitchen. (Lighthouse.) 8) Leaves are falling like golden rain. (Boon.) 9) And like a flame, scarlet flowers glow. (Boon.) 10) The moon floats like a round shield of a long-slain hero. (Hum.) 11) Lightning struck with a horned spear. (M. Semyonova)
Scholars disagree on the comparison. Some attribute this expressive means of language to tropes, others do not. Express your point of view. Prepare a short text-reasoning on the topic “Can a comparison be considered a trope?”.
Read the text. Determine the style to which it refers and the type of speech. What means of expression does the author use? What paths bring together human life and the life of nature? Write by opening brackets and inserting missing punctuation marks.
(B) in front, slightly protruding to the road, stood (a medium-sized knee-curved (black) piebald birch, all pierced by the sun, quivering from the heat and light, refreshing breath of what is happening in the crown ...
I paused, put my palm to the snares of the trunk and heard a bitter stream of sadness - only a withering tree and (not) hearing (not) sight can smell like that, but I caught (not) some (not) obsolete sense of nature in me an audible movement was noticed with a spark by a luminous birch leaf floating in the air.
Slowly, (not) willingly, and at the same time solemnly, he fell, clinging to the branches, to the weathered skin, to the broken knots, fraternally clinging to the oncoming leaves. (V. Astafiev)
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION
INSTITUTE OF LINGUISTICS
DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS AND TRANSLATION
FINAL QUALIFICATION WORK
EVALUATIVE COMPONENT OF MEANING IN THE SEMANTICS OF SUBSTANTIVE METAPHORS
Completed by a student
scientific adviser
Admitted to defense in the SAC
Head Department ____________________________
Director of the Institute _______________________
“__” ___________ 2004
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. The category of evaluation and its specificity in the semantics of metaphor. 5
1.1. The place of appraisal in the semantic structure of the word. 5
1.2. Ontology of metaphor. Features of the evaluative semantics of metaphor.12
1.3. Conclusions. 16
Chapter 2. Substantive metaphor in the process of communication. 17
2.1. Axiological status of substantive metaphor.
Criteria for evaluating substantive metaphors. 17
2.2. Specifics of metaphorical enantiosemy. 22
2.3. The main structural types of substantive metaphor. 27
Chapter 3. Pragmatic specificity of metaphor in speech. 47
3.1. Specificity of colloquial metaphor. 47
3.2. Evaluation of the status of a person in the semantics of metaphor. 49
3.3. National and cultural specifics of metaphor evaluativeness. 53
3.4. Conclusions. 57
Conclusion. 58
List of used scientific literature. 60
List of used artistic literature. 62
Introduction
In the process of cognizing the surrounding reality, a person determines his attitude to the world, evaluating events, phenomena, facts. In this regard, the problem of evaluation attracts the attention of researchers in the field of philosophy, logic, psychology, and linguistics. Questions of the category of assessment are reflected in the works of linguists E.S. Aznaurova, Yu.D. Apresyan, I.V. Arnold, N.D. Arutyunova, O.S. Akhmanova, E.M. Wolf, N.A. Lukyanova, N.N. Mironova, M.S. Retunskaya, V.N. Telia and others.
The language has various ways of expressing evaluation. Metaphor in the thesaurus of a person is an element of his evaluative activity, since any metaphor has an evaluative meaning. Attempts to create a theory of metaphor were made in antiquity (Aristotle, Quintilian, Cicero, etc.).
Metaphor is a universal way of rethinking the meaning of words and transferring the name from one denotation to another based on the similarity (real or fictional) of two objects.
In modern domestic linguistics, there are a large number of works containing an analysis of metaphor as a multidimensional phenomenon of language and speech (N.D. Arutyunova, V.G. Gak, V.P. Grigoriev, V.N. Teliya, S.M. Mezenin and others .).
The relevance of this qualification work is determined by the significant role that evaluativeness plays in the semantics of metaphor, the need to systematize the evaluation criteria that underlie the evaluation of substantive metaphors.
The object of study of this work is substantive metaphors, which are widely represented in colloquial speech.
The purpose of this work is to determine the evaluative component in the semantics of substantive metaphors. Achieving this goal involves solving the following specific tasks:
· To study the methods and material of research on this issue;
· Determine the specifics of evaluativeness as a component of meaning in the semantics of metaphor;
· Identify the evaluation criteria underlying the evaluation of the metaphor, and describe their features in metaphors expressed by nouns;
Determine the main structural types of substantive metaphor and identify the most numerous of them;
· To analyze the correlation of metaphors with neutral, ameliorative and pejorative appraisal.
Substantive metaphors were chosen by continuous sampling from English literary works.
To classify the metaphors, the techniques of the component analysis method, the distributive method and the contextual method were used.
The structure of this work was determined by its goals and objectives, and consists of an introduction, the first chapter, which is devoted to the category of evaluation, its specificity in the semantics of metaphor, the definition of the lexical meaning of the word, consideration of its aspects, the definition of the concept of metaphor; chapter two, which defines the axiological status of a substantive metaphor, its structural types, reveals the concept of metaphorical enantiosemy; chapter three, reflecting the pragmatic specifics of metaphor in speech; conclusion, bibliography and list of sources of language material.
1.1. The place of appraisal in the semantic structure of the word.
Much attention in linguistics is paid to the semantic structure of the word, the identification of the types of meanings of words and the criteria for their differentiation, the ways of changing and developing the meanings of words.
The lexical meaning of a word reflects and fixes in the mind the idea of an object, property, process, phenomenon. E.G. Belyaevskaya rightly believes that the lexical meaning of a word is a system consisting of elements of varying degrees of complexity that act in an inseparable unity and are determined by the semantics, pragmatics and syntactics of the word (7).
The study of the meanings of words leads to the allocation of direct and figurative meanings of the word. In metaphorical transfer, any image, one way or another associated in the minds of people with the previous meaning of the word, is defined as an internal form (8). The internal form is a "bridge" that allows you to connect the denotative and connotative aspects of meaning (16). Consequently, the internal form as an associative figurative representation is a motive for the implementation of such connotative components as emotiveness, evaluativeness, intensity, and stylistic component.
emotivity reflects the fact of emotional experience by the subject of a certain phenomenon, appraisal- a positive or negative assessment of an object or phenomenon, intensity- the degree of manifestation of an action or sign, stylistic component- belonging of the word to a certain sphere of communication.
Perceiving the phenomena of reality, a person expresses his non-neutral attitude towards him through the assessment: “good” - “bad”, “good” - “bad”. Being expressed by linguistic means, the assessment is realized in the component of the meaning of the word, which is called appraisal.
Following N.A. Lukyanova, we recognize that there are two types of appraisal: rational (intellectual) - assessment of the surrounding reality (subjects, objects, qualities, phenomena) and emotional - passed through the prism of the human psyche.
The emotional appraisal of a metaphor is the result of the actualization of the evaluative semes of the connotative aspect of the word's meaning. Thus, the negative emotional appraisal of the “weed” metaphor “a skinny, lanky person” is the result of the actualization of the connotative semes of the original meaning of the word “weed”.
The rational evaluativeness of a metaphor is the result of the actualization of the evaluative seme-denotative aspect of the meaning of a word. Thus, the rational appraisal of the “pill” metaphor “doctor” is the result of the actualization of the differential denotative semes of the original meaning of the word “pill”.
The question of the relationship between evaluativeness, emotiveness, intensity and stylistic component in the structure of the meaning of a word has been faced by lexicologists for a long time. These meaning components are integrated in the structure of the connotative aspect of the meaning of the word, however, each of them has a qualitative originality.
Evaluation, along with other components of the connotative aspect of the meaning of a word, is a means of achieving expressiveness the words. Expressivity is understood as "a set of semantic and stylistic features of a language unit that ensure its ability to act in a communicative act as a means of subjective expression of the speaker's attitude to the content or to the addressee of speech" (11).
In our opinion, it is appropriate to consider expressiveness in the structure of the meaning of a word as a component of the pragmatic aspect of the meaning of a word, since it arises as a result of the selection and use of words only in the process of communication. Pragmatics includes in its scope both methods of influence that cause emotional reactions in the addressee, which characterizes expressiveness, and all means of influence that are associated with goal-setting linguistic activity. At the same time, it should be recognized that the connotative aspect of the meaning of a word is closely related to the pragmatic aspect, since both of them characterize the communicative situation, the participants in communication and their attitude to the object.
Emotions are mapped to a word meaning structure in a component called emotivity. According to M.S. Retunskaya, emotivity is a linguistic display of emotion by means of different levels of language, including lexical, which is not only associated with the expression of the emotional-evaluative attitude of the sender of the speech, but is also aimed at creating an emotional resonance in the listener (23,10).
M.S. Retunskaya points out that evaluative vocabulary contains in its meaning information about the emotional attitude to the designated object or phenomenon. Emotional-evaluative information is understood as an assessment of the surrounding reality, presented as a positive emotional assessment and its modifications (approval, affection, admiration, etc.) and a negative emotional assessment and its modifications (disapproval, neglect, contempt, rude and mild mockery) ( 23.10).
Appraisal is an essential element of emotivity. A person’s assessment of some object or phenomenon is often based on emotional experiences, however, emotivity is not always an obligatory element of evaluativeness: the same word in different speech situations can express either only emotion or emotion and assessment at the same time.
Metaphor is a universal mechanism in the formation of emotional and evaluative nominations (18,20-32). In the semantic structure of a metaphor, the presence of positive or negative evaluativeness always indicates the presence of emotiveness. A metaphor contains not only a figurative representation and information about an assessment, but also an expression of a certain feeling-attitude, a conscious emotion, for example, contempt, neglect, or, conversely, respect for admiration, etc., as well as stylistic coloring. The integration of evaluation and emotiveness in the semantics of metaphor makes metaphor an expressive means.
Evaluation of a metaphor implements the evaluative relations of the language community to the concept or object correlated with the metaphor according to the “good / bad” type in the scale range from “very good” to “very bad”. In the most general terms, we can say that “good” is that which contributes to the satisfaction of the needs and requirements of the individual, the collective and humanity as a whole, including aesthetic and moral-ethical needs, which is morally and physically favorable, and “bad” is everything that is imperfect, erroneous, harms a person and the team, is in conflict with aesthetic and moral and ethical standards (30.5).
The antonymic nature of evaluation processes is based on the opposition of intuitively perceived positive and negative qualities according to the “good / bad” type. The antonymic nature of the assessment underlies a person's cognition of the surrounding reality, since the assessment determines the value of an object, action or feature in the picture of the world of a given society.
Evaluation signs of the qualification scale are separated by the norm zone. In the positive part of the scale, the presence of some sign in relation to the norm is stated, which is considered good, and in the negative part of the scale, the sign is stated as bad:
- +
The norm assumes the balance of features on the scale and correlates with stereotypical ideas about the average amount of a feature that a given object should have (5,3-11). The norm represents in each specific act of assessment a reflection of the complex interaction of the universal human value system, the value system of the author of the assessment and the value systems of those social groups (regional, age, professional, religious and others) with which the author of the assessment is associated (20). Deviations from the norm imply positive or negative signs of evaluation (32,11).
Evaluation features that determine the meaning of the axiological predicates "good / bad" are included in the semantics of the original word and updated in the semantics of the metaphor (32, 11-16).
Most contemporary European cultures are dominated by words with negative evaluative features (14). The psychological explanation for this asymmetry may be that negative sides Beings are perceived by a person much more sharply than positive factors, which are considered as natural, normal, and therefore less emotional (24,37-41). V.N. Telia notes that human morality tends to stigmatize rather than "lift to heaven." It is possible that it was the biblical culture that contributed to this state of affairs, for it is said: “Do not make an idol for yourself” (26:60).
Estimation in the semantics of a word is distinguished by type and type. As shown above, in terms of appearance, valuation can be zero (neutral), positive (reclamation) and negative (pejorative) (20). By type, appraisal can be rational and emotional. ON THE. Lukyanova points out that "the boundary between them is conditional, just as the boundary between the intellectual and sensual activity of human consciousness is conditional and relative" (18.16). According to E.S. Aznaurova, rational appraisal is based on information about the properties objectively inherent in the object of assessment, about their compliance with certain norms (1.115). Rational appraisal, therefore, belongs to the norm zone and is neutral.
So, metaphors with a rational evaluative component of meaning include metaphors-terms, erased metaphors, some metaphors with a neutral face value that characterize a person's appearance (chestnut, carrot - "red-haired"), his profession (pill - "doctor").
Emotional evaluativeness often captures properties that are not objectively inherent in the given object of evaluation, which indicates its subjectivity (25.80). So, E.N. Merkulova rightly believes that the correlation of an object with the “good / bad” rating scale in this case is based not on general logical criteria, but on the emotions that the object of assessment evokes. So, in her opinion, the metaphor "bastard" can be used in relation to any object that causes negative emotions: emotional evaluation in this case displaces the denotative meaning "illegitimate" (20).
Following E.M. Wolf, we believe that rational evaluativeness is included in the denotative aspect of the meaning of the word, and emotional evaluativeness is included in the connotative aspect of the word meaning (9,276).
The definition of the sign of evaluation in the structure of the act of evaluation is determined by the contextual or situational actualization of the evaluative features of the word, which implies the interaction of the semantics of the word and the semantics of the statement. Evaluation in some cases is included in the semantics of the units that make up the structure of the act of evaluation, and in other cases it can be considered their potential component, which is induced in a certain text. So, if a combination of the type crookedmouth "crooked mouth" carries a negative assessment, then combinations of the type highforehead "high forehead", paleface "pale face" can have a different sign of evaluation in different contexts.
On the other hand, the semantics of a word often determines a fixed evaluation sign: cf. clever "smart", admirable "wonderful", charming "charming", honest "honest", diligent "diligent" (positive mark of evaluation); disgustful "disgusting", dirty "indecent", awful "terrible", false "fake", etc. (negative evaluation sign). These evaluative adjectives play an important role in the act of evaluation, since they allow identifying the sign of evaluation of combined lexical units, in particular metaphors: cf. dirtydog "scoundrel", but cleverdog "clever"; graveowl "a disgruntled person", but solemnowl "a wise man".
The study of the structure of the assessment act involves taking into account the human factor, since the subject of assessment is always a person as a linguistic personality, and the object of assessment is predominantly a person. The designation of attitudes towards a person and his physical and mental properties is more characteristic of human communication than the statement of attitudes towards objects. The peculiarity of the assessment is manifested in the form of anthropometricity, i.e. “in such a comparison of the object of assessment and some standard, in which the properties attributed by a person to this standard come to the fore” (27.40). V.N. Telia defines anthropometricity as “the ability to think of one entity as if it were similar to another, which means to measure them in accordance with the actual human scale of knowledge and ideas, and at the same time with the system of national cultural values and stereotypes”, others In other words, “man's awareness of himself as the measure of all things” (21:40). Thus, the anthropometric approach focuses on a person characterized in social, emotional, pragmatic and other aspects.
A person evaluates himself and the reality around him within the framework of his thesaurus, and the metaphor in this practice is a necessary tool. Therefore, it seems appropriate to consider the ontology of the metaphor and the features of its evaluative semantics.
1.2. Ontology of metaphor. Features of evaluative semantics of metaphor.
The foundations of the theory of metaphor were laid down in ancient times (Aristotle, Quintilian, Cicero, and others). The phenomenon of metaphor was studied by the largest thinkers (J. Rousseau, G. Hegel, M.V. Lomonosov and others). In modern Russian linguistics, there are a large number of works containing an analysis of the metaphorical meaning of the word (N.D. Arutyunova, V.G. Gak, S.M. Mezenin, V.N. Teliya, Yu.N. Karaulov, etc.).
Statements about the semantic duality of metaphor, about the contextual environment of metaphor, about the regularity of metaphor, about certain semantic classes of words capable of developing figurative meanings, about objective signs of metaphor: syntactic and morphological, abstractness, expressiveness, evaluativeness (13,27- 29).
Semantic two-dimensionality as an invariant of all existing theories of metaphor is determined by the fact that the heterogeneity and hypothetical nature of various objects are expressed in the metaphor by the synthesis of two different meanings - "is not" and "is similar" (31,154). The linguistic tradition correlates the realization of the semantic duality of the metaphor with the context, which is the key to understanding the meaning of the metaphor. Therefore, to consider evaluativeness as a component of meaning in the semantics of a metaphor, not only the semantics of a single word is important, but also the semantics of a word in context. When a metaphor becomes linguistic, it can be used as a ready-made "block" and included in more and more new contexts.
Yu.D. Apresyan rightly considers metaphor as a deliberate anomaly (4.51). Metaphor violates the truth principle, but such a violation does not prevent communication. The "falsity" of the direct meaning of the word makes the listener look for a hidden meaning in it and interpret it as containing an assessment by the speaker of some action, state or property.
The metaphor is designed to identify "one's own" through "alien", individual through the general, anomaly through the norm. Metaphor through normative signs gives an assessment of the individual, creating a personal image. In the future, individual characteristics often form the basis for stereotyping. Stereotyping acts as a “way of saving” thinking and bringing together a large amount of information received by a person in the process of mastering reality into some capacious formulas” (13.32). Stereotyping of signs in the semantics of metaphor leads to the existence of "precedent" metaphors as standard typical means for evaluating well-known facts, events, relationships that are included in the fund of mandatory knowledge of each native speaker. The internal form of a metaphor is a quasi-stereotype, since it contains a figurative representation of a stereotype, and not its direct designation.
In linguistics, the concept of metaphor as an interaction, put forward by A. Richards and developed by M. Black, has become widespread (17,297). According to this concept, 4 components are involved in the formation of a metaphor: the main and auxiliary subjects, as well as the properties of each of the subjects. The properties of the main and auxiliary subjects are considered either as psychological categories or as linguistic categories (6,171).
The concept of metaphor as an interaction has made a significant contribution to the development of the theory of metaphor. Nevertheless, we agree with the opinion of V.N. Telia that this concept does not take into account a number of properties of metaphors, for example, the axiological orientation of a metaphor, anthropometricity, the role of a linguistic personality in the functioning of metaphors (21,34).
Evaluation is one of the most important components of human cognitive activity.
Human knowledge is constantly updated and modified, providing cognitive processing of standard situations. Prior knowledge plays an important role in the perception, understanding and memorization of a metaphor. When a metaphor is used in a person's mind, the frame corresponding to the metaphor is always activated - the structure of knowledge stored by human memory (5.34), which determines the ability of native speakers to adequately perceive the meaning of the metaphor (31.67).
In general, all approaches to the study of metaphor can be characterized as either structuralistic or activity-based.
At the heart of structuralist approaches, the most important object of study of metaphor is its structural-semantic organization. The activity approaches are based on the understanding of metaphor as a mechanism of speech communication, while a person appears as the organizing center of this mechanism.
The evaluation of a metaphor has both structural and activity characteristics. On the one hand, evaluativeness is a component of the metaphor's meaning structure. On the other hand, metaphor acts as an axiological mechanism of human speech activity, characterized in pragmatic and socio-cultural aspects.
The metaphorization is based on the semantic duality of the lexical unit (2), i.e. its ability to have lexico-semantic variants expressing its main (first plan) and figurative (second plan) meaning. Therefore, it is advisable to consider the semantic structure of a metaphor at the level of semes - the minimum units of the content plan.
Semes are a hierarchically ordered structure in relation to some lexico-semantic variant. The method of component analysis allows us to divide the content of the metaphor into its constituent components and present their meanings in the form of semes.
In many modern linguistic studies, three types of semes are distinguished in the semantic structure of a word: archiseme - a general seme of generic meaning, a differential seme of specific meaning, and a potential seme that is actualized under certain conditions.
At the seme level of analysis, the actualization of the evaluative seme in the semantics of metaphor occurs as a result of the restructuring of the seme hierarchy (22:60-64). The evaluative seme is hypertrophied, and the archiseme, in turn, is reduced. So, when metaphorizing the word lion "lion", the archiseme "animal" and the differential seme "animal with certain biological characteristics" are reduced and the potential semes "famous, famous" and/or "strength, power" are explicated. Thus, the specificity of the semantics of a metaphor lies in the actualization of the evaluative seme.
1.3. Conclusions.
Consideration of the place and specifics of the category of evaluation in the semantics of metaphor convinces us of the following:
2. Evaluation of a metaphor can be attributed to both the denotative and connotative aspects of the meaning of a metaphor.
3. In the metaphor, the evaluative potential or differential semes of the original meaning of the word are actualized, replacing the archiseme or reducing it.
4. Evaluation of the metaphor implements the evaluative attitude of a person to the object of evaluation according to the “good / bad” type, where the norm zone is in the center. The norm correlates with stereotyped ideas about the average amount of a feature that the object of evaluation should have. The norm assumes neutral appraisal as a "starting point" of appraisal qualification. The semantics of the original meaning of the word and the context affect the evaluation sign of the metaphor.
5. The basis of the evaluative semantics of the metaphor is the anthropometric principle, since a person is an obligatory component of the structure of any act of evaluation. The anthropometric approach to the study of metaphor puts a person in the center of attention, characterized in socio-cultural and pragmatic aspects.
All concepts of metaphor reflect the structural or activity aspects of its study.
6. In the context, the evaluative component of meaning in the semantics of a metaphor may be subject to variation.
Substantive metaphor in the process of communication.
2.1. Axiological status of substantive metaphor
(on the material of the English language).
Criteria for evaluating substantive metaphors.
The noun most often acts as a metaphor as a means of evaluation, we associate it with its high nominative potential. The noun forms the most numerous and most "open" category of words. A noun can significantly expand its basic categorical meaning of objectivity, absorbing the meanings of other lexical and grammatical categories of words and giving all these meanings an objective character (14.91). The noun can act as a source of metaphors for other lexical and grammatical categories. So, a number of verbal metaphors are formed by the method of conversion on behalf of the noun, in the field of adjective metaphors, adjectives formed by the suffixation method on behalf of the noun are widely represented.
Evaluation of any part of speech is based on certain evaluation criteria.
The analysis of substantive metaphors revealed the following evaluation criteria that underlie evaluation:
1. Evaluation of certain qualities - character traits (characterological evaluation criterion) (dominant seme - pleasant / unpleasant). The analysis of substantive metaphors with characterological evaluation allows us to identify different grounds for evaluation:
1) assessment of the moral and ethical qualities of the referent (dominant seme - moral / immoral), for example:
“You know my door is always open”. “Open?” Davidlaughedsarcastically. “If Christ himself came into this studio, those three harpies wouldn’t let him in to see you!” (6.286). (harpy - "harpy", "predator", "robber");
· I got up to the table, and there’s Caruso sitting with these 6 gorillas, see? (36.103). (gorilla - "killer", "bandit").
- Who is that tall bird?
(bastard - "bastard", "mean person").
All I mean is that it's conceivable - just barely - that some nut could have done this job to the girl with an ax and a saw. (3.102). (nut - "crazy", "crazy").
· And in my opinion a wild beast is neither more nor less than what that old devil of a husband of hers is. (9.32). (devil - "devil", "evil person").
That child is a pig and a beast. (38.104). (pig - "pig", "sloppy"; beast - "stubborn").
It appears that the young rip has been taking Julia to night clubs when she ought to have been in bed and asleep. (29.176). (rip - "libertine", "scoundrel").
· I've had'em all - including that pig of a husband of yours. (31.11). (pig - "pig").
· Marsland's rather an old duck… (17.40). (duck - "good-natured", "darling").
2) assessment of the intellectual qualities of the referent (dominant seme - clever / stupid), for example:
Don't be an ass. (9.275). (ass - "donkey", "stupid person");
· “… Wilmer's rather an old goose…” (17,40). (goose - “fool”, “simple”).
You fool, Roger, d'you think Cleopatra would have liked what that silly old donkey said of her? (29.188). (donkey - "donkey", "fool").
I was rather a muff at the letter. (40.87). (muff - "stupid person", "hat").
Rickards isn't a brute. (25.385). (brute - "cattle", "stupid person").
Pompous old ass. (23.81). (ass - "donkey", "stupid").
3) assessment of the emotional and psychological qualities of the referent, his temperament (dominant seme - spirited, excitable / easy-tempered, calm), for example:
Stand still, man. You aren't a jumping bean. (44.205). (jumping bean - "fidget").
I'll be a babbling baboon. (20.77). (baboon - "baboon");
· Luckily the Lord has tempered the wind to his shorn lamb. (25.309). (lamb - “lamb”, “humble person”).
· …and it's not reasonable to give up business for that freckled cat. (40,358). (cat - "grumpy woman").
· He had no real evidence that Oliphant was a bully. (25.172). (bully - "bully", "bouncer").
4) evaluation of the activity of the referent (dominant seme - goodactivities / badactivities), for example:
· Though I knew that he was not informidable, I knew also that he was a bit of a humbug and a bit of a clown. (37.36). (clown - "clown").
· This is a hungry, vicious, ungrateful little monster with large ambitions. (14.138). (monster - "monster").
Monkey! Stop making faces. (19.23). (monkey - "monkey").
You bloody rats! You're nothing more. (1.341). (rat - "rat", "traitor").
2. Evaluation of appearance (external criterion) (dominant seme - beautiful / ugly).
The object of assessment is most often the physical structure of a person; within the framework of the dominant seme “beautiful / ugly”, the contextual meaning “neat, having a taste / untidy, having no taste” can be distinguished, for example:
He was a bean-pole of 6 feet, 3 inches. (40.158). (bean-pole - "lanky man").
· When they asked him to have a luncheon with them which was cooked and served by a scarecrow of a woman whom they called Evie. (29.92). (scarecrow - "scarecrow, scarecrow").
· Anthony Martson, a young bull with no nerves and precious little brain. (9.210). (bull - “bull”, “healthy guy”).
I have life in my body, this dead tree. (43,304). (deadtree - "dry tree", "withered, old body").
What a bloodless ghost of a woman! (9.169). (ghost - “ghost”, “very pale person”).
· He should have looked the arrogant bastard in the face and spoken the truth, even if it had cost him his stripes. (25,280). (bastard - "bastard").
· He was grateful when the door opened and Nora Gurney, the firm's cookery editor, came briskly in, reminding him as always did of an intelligent insect. (25.14). (insect - "insect").
· Charles had visited his father last summer, a golden-bronzed, hefty-legged, sun-bleached giant. (25.138). (giant - "giant", "giant").
3. Assessment of social status, level of education, professional affiliation (sociocultural criterion) (dominant seme - sociallygood / sociallybad), for example:
Wonderful how they know the weather, these old salts. (16.224). (oldsalt - "experienced sailor", "sea wolf").
That pill is coming to stay here. (18.93). (pill - "doctor").
· Why should we have the disgrace of harboring such wretches?… Oh, I hate poor. At least, I hate those dirty, drunken, disreputable … pigs. (35.86). (pigs - "pigs", "dirty, low creatures").
· Dolly's folks in Blue Mountain are nothing at all but the poorest white trash… (43,245). (trash - "garbage", "poor from the white population southern states»).
She is grand like royalty. I married a princess. (15.22). (princess - "princess").
4. Evaluation of gender and age (demographic criterion) (dominant semes - male / female, old / young), for example:
· You rotten old eunuch, what do you know about love? (29.50). (eunuch - "eunuch" (male).
· She looked so deliciously yielding, a ripe peach waiting to be picked, that it seemed inevitable that he should kiss her. (29,240). (peach - "beauty" (female).
· She had to ride with the two old wrinklies. (25.5). (wrinkly - "old woman" (old age).
· It had been a fairly commonplace murder, a henpecked husband at the end of his tether who had taken a hatchet to his virago of a wife. (25.34). (virago - "grumpy woman" (female).
· … he was rather desperately keeping his attention on that slut Yvonne. (25.70). (slut - "slut" (female).
The witch's voice was cool. (25.135). (witch - "witch", "evil woman" (female).
You should see the mother. She's a right bitch, that one… (25,168). (bitch - rude. "bitch" (female).
You're a young panther, a lion cub. (25.123). (youngpanther - "young leopard", lioncub - "young lion" (young age, male).
There was a peach from West Oakland. (26.371). (peach - "beauty" (female).
She was the flower of the family. (5.98). (flower - “flower”, “beauty” (female).
Oh, she was a daisy. (2.174). (daisy - “flower”, “charm” (female).
· Her assistant, Shirley Coles, … a pretty 18-year-old… She was a pleasant child, anxious to please and responsive to friendliness. (25.245). (child - "child", "teenager" (young age).
Control your tongue, poult. (40.35). (poult - "chick", "youth" (young age).
Trot along, chicks, and have your tea. (16.245). (chick - "chicken", "child" (young age).
You shut up your trap, you old cow, said Julia. (29.83). (oldcow - "old cow" (old age, female).
· Kitten, it sure does, and that I go for. (39.30). (kitten - "kitten" (young age).
5. Evaluation of the emotional and mental state (conditional criterion) (dominant seme - spirited, excitable / easy-tempered, calm), for example:
· Their love imprisons me. I am trapped hare. (27.144). (trapped hare - "driven hare").
· His conduct after that is the conduct of a hunted animal. (9.148). (hunted animal - “hunted beast”).
Not that Mrs. Ascher had been afraid of him - a real tartar she could be when roused. (9.31). (tartar - "vixen", "fury").
2.2. Specifics of metaphorical enantiosemy.
The main meaning predetermines the appearance of a metaphorical meaning, serves as the basis for the evaluative semantics of a metaphor. However, the motivation of some metaphorical meanings, the rationale for their evaluative specificity, should be sought in the context. In context, evaluativeness in the semantics of a metaphor can not only be accompanied by intensification, but also be subject to variation. The context can neutralize the pejorative and ameliorative assessment, and vice versa, the neutral assessment can be transformed into a pejorative or meliorative assessment in the context. The source of the modification of the evaluative meaning is the restructuring of the meaning of the metaphor in the context. In such cases, the word denoting some object of reality undergoes a two-tier semantic change: the emotional-evaluative component of the meaning is actualized and the sign of this component is replaced by the opposite or neutral one, for example:
bitter-ender 1. persistent, principled person (+), 2. stubborn (-).
The main types of modification of the evaluative seme of a metaphor are occasional reclamation of pejoratives and pejoration of meliorations, which in modern linguistics is called enantiosemy (from the Greek En - "in", anti - "against", sema - "sign"). The polyassociativity of perception has led to the possibility of considering any property both in a positive and negative sense.
Enantiosemy is a very special axiological mechanism of communication: it reflects the unity of opposite, but interconnected assessments, their mutual transition, the ability to replace each other. In cases of enantiosemy, one or another sign of evaluation under the influence of the context changes to the opposite, i.e. the change of the estimated sign occurs both in the direction of peioration and melioration.
A significant role in the occurrence of enantiosemy is played by ironic word usage, for example:
dabster 1. connoisseur, specialist (+),
2. inept worker, "shoemaker", incompetent (-);
book-learned 1. well-read person (+),
2. detached from life (-).
The leading role of emotions and associations in the evaluative reorientation of metaphor should be recognized. In the metaphor there is a semantic shift associated with the transformation of emotional evaluation. The motivation for changing the evaluative sign of the metaphor comes to the fore - the emotional attitude of the speaker to the object of evaluation. The specificity of the evaluative component of the meaning of an enantiosemic metaphor is that the modification of the evaluative sign serves the purpose of intensifying the evaluative component of the meaning in the semantics of the metaphor. Thus, the word "dabster", used by the speaker as high praise, in an ironic sense acquires an intensified pejorative appraisal.
The essence of metaphorical enantiosemy lies in the deviation from axiological standards through various linguistic devices, for example, the ironic or sarcastic use of metaphors that create the expression of the entire evaluative statement. The modification of the evaluative sign is based on the "conflict" of the evaluative component of the metaphor with the evaluative meaning of the context expressing irony, sarcasm, admiration. Appeal to the communicative situation allows us to correctly interpret the evaluative nature of the statement in general and the evaluative sign of the metaphor in particular.
In colloquial speech, to express a positive emotional reaction of the subject of evaluation, along with evaluative nouns and adjectives, affectionate words, etc. widely used pejorative metaphors.
· She covered my face with kisses… You beautiful brute, she said. (4.28). (beautifulbrute - "beautiful monster").
She was really a good-natured old haversack. (42.67). (good-natured old haversack - “good-natured old wallet”).
· Vesey looked around when Duke waved and said happily, “Hi, you oldgoat!” grabbed his ear, pulled him down and whispered. (20.376). (goat - "goat", "fool").
· It might be their last time together. Already he had half decided hat it had to be. He would free himself from this sweet enslavement. (25.118). (sweetenslavement - "sweet slavery").
No, Bill, I shall not parachute into Wembley Stadium holding the book in one hand and a microphone in the other. Nor shall I compete with the station announcer by bawling my verses at the Waterloo commuters. The poor devils are only trying to catch their trains. (25.12). (poor devil - "poor fellow").
· But he's left the evidence. It's all there, all laid out for us. Neat little devil, wasn't he? (25.165). (neat little devil - "neat little devil").
Enantiosemy in the form of peioration of amelioratives is also found in speech.
“A little bird”, he said archly. (29.176). (little bird - "small fry").
· Poor lamb … he’s such a hell of a gentleman he doesn’t know what to do about it. (29.93). (hell of a gentleman - “damn gentleman”).
“I just want to thank you for being such a goddamn prince, that’s all,” I said it in this very sincere voice. (33.83). (goddamn prince - "damn prince").
In oral speech, the modification of the evaluative sign is achieved by a special intonation - intonation of admiration or intonation of sarcasm (12.238). Metaphorical enantiosemy is widely represented in the colloquial sphere. In the conditions of informal informal communication, almost any word of the language can become enantiosemic when used appropriately, i.e. acquire the opposite value.
2.3. The main structural types of substantive metaphor.
CM. Mezenin distinguishes 3 structural types of substantive metaphor: metaphor-sentence, metaphor-phrase and isolated metaphor (metaphor-address).
Metaphor-suggestion.
AT metaphor sentences the metaphorizing function is performed by all the components of the statement, which makes the whole situation unreal.
Smet. – Vmet. – Omet. or (S - V - O) met.
Metaphors of a neutral assessment.
1. Stand still, man. You aren't jumping bean. (44.205).
2. Her reputation was a prison that she had built round herself. (29.185).
3. The idea is blowing through this state like a storm wind. (24.425).
4. She had acquired a reputation of a perfectly virtuous woman, whom the tongue of scandal couldn't touch. (29.185).
5. - You didn't try to find out what was wrong with the car?
There was no time to fuss about under the bonnet. (25.288).
6. - I still feel at home here…
- …It's a stony soil in which to put down roots. (25.408). “I still feel at home here.” … "But there is rocky ground here to take root."
1.Amadman! Gotabeeinhisbonnet. (9.204).
Metaphor-phrase.
Metaphor-phrase unites both multi-functional (verb and noun, adjective and noun) and single-functional units (applications, quasi-identities, nominal attributive groups), where both components are expressed by nouns. Based on the function performed, when considering the compatibility of the predicate, several types are distinguished:
1. Subjective metaphor S met. - V – ( O ):
Metaphors of a neutral assessment.
1. That pill is coming to stay here. (18.93).
2. Anthony Martson, a young bull with no nerves and precious little brain. (9.210).
3. There was a surge of sound and the cat's-eyes momentarily gleamed before, in a rush of wind, the car passed. (25.6). She heard a noise, headlights flashed, a car sped past.
4. This time the door was open and a swathe of sunlight lay across the red-tiled floor. (25.22).
5. He had supposed ... that the façade she presented to the power station of dedicated, humorless efficiency had been carefully constructed to conceal ... more complex personality. (25.47).
6. … every spring a bright ribbon of daffodils strained and tossed in the March wind. (25.55).
7. She was … staring with him as the pool of light from torch shone down on that grotesque and mutilated face. (25.108).
8. And then, as the flaming ball rose from the sea, the gears of time slipped, went into reverse. (25.112). - As soon as the fireball rose from the sea, the wheel of time started and spun in the opposite direction.
9. The small bush of hair had been pushed under the upper lip, exposing the teeth, and giving the impression of a snarling rabbit. (25.147).
10. The pool of light from his torch shone on the … carpet of pine needles dusted with sand … (25,150).
11. With each gust the tongues of flame roared and hissed… (25,254).
12. She was heavily made up. Two moons of bright rouge adorned each cheek. (25,220).
Metaphors of negative evaluation (pejorative metaphors).
1. “You know my door is always open.” “Open?” David laughed sarcastically. “If Christ himself came into this studio, those three harpies wouldn’t let him in to see you!” (6.286).
2. All I mean is that it's conceivable - just barely - that some nut could have done this job to the girl with an ax and a saw. (3.102).
3. You fool, Roger, d'you think Cleopatra would have liked what that silly old donkey said of her? (29.188).
4. It appears that the young rip has been taking Julia to night clubs when she ought to have been in bed and asleep. (29.176).
5. … sometimes it seemed that every crack-brain in north-east Norfolk read the PANUP newsletter but that no one else did. (25.35). - ... sometimes it seemed that the leaflets of the society opposing nuclear power plants were read only by those who were crazy about it, and no one else.
6. “We’re trying to win over the locals, not antagonize them. Let it go before someone starts a fund to pay for his defense. One martyr on Larksoken headland is enough.” (25.50).
7. Of all murders serial killings were the most frustrating, the most difficult and the chanciest to solve, the investigation carried on under the strain of vociferous public demand that the terrifying unknown devil be caught and exorcized for ever. (25.62).
8. But the twins began quarrelling and she had to hurry upstairs to tell them it wouldn't be long now, that they mustn't come out until the witch had gone. (25.135). “But the twins began to quarrel and she had to run upstairs to say that they didn’t have long to sit in the room, that this witch would soon leave.
9. The bastards had nearly got him in the end, but he had lived life on his own terms… (25,139).
10. There's a hell of a lot we don't know, but at least we know that. (25.163).
11. A clutch of chief constables would have been less formidable. (25.196). “The vices of the chiefs of police are not so terrible.
2. Object metaphor ( S ) – V – O meth(object can be either direct or indirect):
Metaphors of a neutral assessment.
1. You hunt the fox here. (9.134). “You're stalking a fox here.
2. She… concluded to cling her soft little claws to Carrie. (13.405).
3. His conduct after that is the conduct of a hunted animal. (9.148).
4. Well, I'll tell you what I said to the little bird. (29.176).
5. … sky already flushed with the first gold of dawn… (25,111).
6. … a different, more insidious anxiety took over and she felt the first prickings of fear. (25.5.)
7. The door was already closing when he heard running footsteps, a cheerful shout and Manny Cummings leapt in, just avoiding the bite of steal. (25.9).
8. Here a right turn took him off the coastal road on what was little more than a smoothly macadamed track bordered by water-filled ditches and fringed by a golden haze of reeds, their lumbered heads straining in the wind. (25.17).
9. … and steam from the almost constantly boiling kettle made the caravan a damp mist. (25.31).
10. She had a snub nose with a splatter of freckles. (25.32).
11. The wave retreated to leave its tenuous lip of foam. (25.37).
12. Why didn't you at least try to resuscitate her, give her the kiss of life? (25.80).
13. He had lain in bed night after night drifting into sleep on a tide of euphoria. (25,110).
14. The door to the … room … where the twins was slept open and she passed through and stood for a moment looking down at the small humps closely curved together under the bedclothes … (25,128).
15. In the frail sunlight the surrounding trees were flushed with the first gold of autumn. (25.143).
16. The small bush of hair had been pushed under the upper lip, exposing the teeth, and giving the impression of a snarling rabbit. (25.147).
17. …and plastic sheeting laid over the path now lit by a string of over-head lights. (25.170). - ... and a plastic barrier lay on the path, lit from above by a string of lanterns.
18. His mouth opened and she plugged in the teat of the bottle… (25,178).
19. Alex Mair, for all his assurance, … was only a man and if he had killed Hilary Robarts he would end up, as better men that he had done, looking at the sky through iron bars and watching the changing face of the sea only in his dreams. (25.195).
20. The ground with its mat of pine needles on the sand was unlikely to yield footprints… (25,148).
21. … watching the great ball of the sun rise out of the sea to stain the horizon and spread over the eastern sky the veins and arteries of the new day. (25.118).
22. I cannot work, to run I am ashamed. Luckily the Lord has tempered the wind to his shorn lamb. (25.309). – I can’t work, I’m ashamed to beg. Fortunately, the Almighty softened towards his poor lamb.
23. He stood over six feet tall and, with his pail freckled face and thatch of red hair… (25,360).
24. I pictured him desperately working on her, giving her the kiss of life, saw her eyes slowly open. (25.392).
25. She felt a prick of doubt. (25.133).
Metaphors of negative evaluation (pejorative metaphors).
1. …and it’s not reasonable for anybody to give up business for that freckledcat. (40,358).
2. They are a bunch of grubby little animals always mooning after you. (34.244).
3. I got up to the table, and there's Caruso sitting with these 6 gorillas, see? (36.103).
4. Not that Mrs. Ascher had been afraid of him - a real tartar she could be when roused. (9.31).
5. How often I called him a silly copy-cat. (18.78).
6. Why should we have the disgrace of harboring such wretches?… Oh, I hate poor. At least, I hate those dirty, drunken, disreputable … pigs. (35.86).
7. When the girls named him an undeserving stigma was cast upon the noble family of swine. (22.180).
8. Dolly's folks in Blue Mountain are nothing at all but the poorest white trash… (43,245). - Dolly's relatives in Blue Mountain are none other than the very last poor whites ... (from the white population).
9. She had to ride with the two old wrinklies. (25.5).
10. He greeted his newest candidate for media fame with a mixture of dogged optimism and slight apprehension, as if knowing that he was faced with a hard nut to crack. (25.12).
11. As an exschoolmistress I should have thought she'd had her fill of children. (25.28). - Having worked as a school principal, I would have thought that she was fed up with children.
12. Human beings need to find someone to blame both for their misery and for their guilt. Hilary Robarts makes a convenient scapegoat. (25.29).
Just a home, before the baby was born.”
How long were you there?
two weeks. Two weeks too bloody many. Then I ran away and found a squat. (25.36).
14. … he was rather desperately keeping his attention on that slut Yvonne. (44.70).
15. I've married a tailor's dummy. (29.60).
16. Soon he would smell the first sour tang of winter. (25.115).
17. You … made her life a bloody misery… (25,134).
18. The witch's voice was cool. (25.135).
19. We're going to be dealing with intelligent suspects. I don't want a balls-up at the beginning of the case. (25.171).
20. It was the best thing I've ever done in my life and that bitch destroyed it. (25.191).
21. But would she have told him a lie which could be detected merely by consulting the telephone directory? Only if she were so confident of her dominance, of his enslavement to her. (25.251).
22. After the pathologist had left he had turned to the nearest PC and said: “For God’s sake, can’t we get this thing out of there?” (25,280). – After the pathologist left, he turned to the nearest policeman and said: “For God's sake, can't you get this (body) out of here?”
23. He could still react physically to the memory of it, feel the tightening of the stomach muscles, the hot serge of anger. … He should have looked the arrogant bastard in the face and spoken the truth, even if it had cost him his stripes. (25,280).
24. You're obviously grubbling about for all the dirt you can find. I'd rather you had facts from me than rumours from other people. (25.296). “Looks like you're digging up all the dirt you can find. I'd rather you get information from me than human speculation.
25. - Did she ever speak about the encounter, to you or to anyone else you know? …
I think she regarded it as too valuable a piece of information to cast before the swine. (25.298).
26. With luck you can take a dozen or so poor sods with you, people who can cope with living, who don’t want to die. (25.366).
27. Rickards isn't a brute. (25.385).
28. She could see Miss Mortimer's mouth moving… She saw again those restless blobs of flesh… (25,395).
29. We're calling her Stella Louise. Louise is after Susie's mother. We may as well make the old trout happy. (25.397). We'll call her Stella Louise. Louise - in honor of Susie's mother. At the same time, let's make the old nag happy
1. Tom Hartigan sat down awkwardly and looked with some awe at what he called in his own mind “One of the big wigs”. (9.117). Tom Hartigan sat awkwardly and looked in awe at the man he called to himself "the big wig."
2. There was something of the panther about him altogether. A beast of prey - pleasant to the eye. (9.173).
3. Hurstwood could not keep his eyes from Carrie. She seemed the one ray of sunshine. (13.277).
4. She renewed me, she made me a flower. (24.64).
5. As usual the American buyers got the plums of the collection. (5.98).
6. She is grand like royalty. I married a princess. (15.22).
7. As she drew nearer with quickening step she could see the swathe of long blond hair under a tight-fitting beret. (25, 6).
8. He was grateful when the door opened and Nora Gurney, the firm's cookery editor, came briskly in, reminding him as always did of an intelligent insect. (25.14).
9. He had seen her a bright exotic flower. (25.32).
10. The stark overhead lights threw deep shadows under the deep-set eyes and the sweat glistened on the wide, rather knobbly forehead with its swathe of fair undisciplined hair. (25.45).
11. She … had a mane of fair hair beneath a tight-fitting beret. (25.72).
12. She slept always with her window open and would drift into sleep soothed by that distant murmur (of the sea). (25.107).
13. But lying there beside her, listening to the susurration of the tide and looking up at the sky through a haze of grasses he was filled… with an agreeable languor… (25,113).
14. “You’d think so, wouldn’t you? I'd like it, she'd like it, but there's a little problem of Sue's ma. She doesn't want her ewe-lamb mixed up with any unpleasantness, particularly murder, and particularly just now. (25.257).
15. After tonight the kitchen might never be home to her again. (25,380).
3. Adverbial metaphor S – V – ( O ) – A meth:
Metaphors of a neutral assessment.
1. That hundred guineas was just Mr. Owen's little bit of cheese to get me into the trap along with the rest of you. (9.223).
2. To the west his eyes could travel along the narrow road between the reed beds and the dykes. (25.58).
3. … I’ve always been able to believe that at the heart of the Universe there is love. (25.106).
4. … the moon glimpsed fitfully, sailing in a majestic splendour above the high spires of the trees… (25,140).
5. … the cloud moved from the face of the moon… (25,147).
6. The pool of light from his torch shone on the … carpet of pine needles dusted with sand… (25,150).
7. Theresa wrenched her mind through clogging layers of sleep to the familiar morning sounds… (25,177).
8. But when she picked up the pan of milk her hands were shaking so violently that she knew she wouldn't be able to pour it into the narrow neck of the bottle. (25.178).
9. She saw every detail with a keener eye; the motes of dust dancing in the swathe of sunlight which fell across the stone floor… (25,123).
10. She was short and very thin with strait red-gold hair, …falling in a gleaming helmet to her shoulders. (25.323). “She was short and very thin, with shoulder-length straight golden-red hair that shone like a helmet.
11. She was short and very thin with strait red-gold hair, …falling in a gleaming helmet to her shoulders. (25.323). “She was short and very thin, with shoulder-length straight golden-red hair that shone like a helmet.
12. She saw in imagination her pale and lifeless body plummeting through the miles of wet darkness to the sea bed, to the … ribs of ancient ships. (25.342).
13. The baby clothes fell in a brightly colored shower… (25,353).
14. Her hair and clothes were alight and she lay there staring upwards, bathed in tongues of fire. (25,400).
Metaphors of negative evaluation (pejorative metaphors).
1. And after his death it seemed to her that she had walked in darkness like an automaton through a deep and narrow canyon of grief. (25.103).
2. She was a good cook but worked in a perpetual lather of bad temper. (25,120).
3. …hand lying, fingers curved on the sheet and fixed now in its blackening carapace of dried blood… (25,165).
4. When Tobby was happy, no one was more joyous. When he was miserable he went down into his private hell. (25.298).
5. We're not going back because we can't. When I recruited you from that London squat I didn't tell you the truth. (25.335). We won't go back because we can't. When I picked you up from that hangout in London, I lied to you.
Metaphors of a positive assessment (reclamation metaphors).
1. I think there are some in Michael's den. (29.13). “I think there are a few in Michael's office.
4. Predicative metaphor is widespread in speech in an identifying structure N + bundle + N meth. This form of structural organization of metaphor is quasi-identity .
Metaphors of a neutral assessment.
1. Their love imprisons me. I am trapped hare. (27.144).
2. That hundred guineas was just Mr. Owen's little bit of cheese to get me into the trap along with the rest of you. (9.223).
3. They (compliments) were food and drink to him. (29.82).
4. Once again the theater was her only refuge. (29.219).
5. I noticed that the pupils of her eyes were pinpoints. (9.90).
6. Who is your date? (32.52). – Who are you dating?
7. Who is that tall bird?
I tell you he's just a radical bastard. (21.166).
8. As always she had left it until the last minute to leave the disco and the floor was still a packed, gyrating mass of bodies. (25.1).
9. That's been done. It's old hat. (25.12). - It happened before. This is an old trick.
10. That visit could have been the last straw. (25.261).
Negative evaluation metaphors. (pejorative metaphors).
1. Don't be an ass. (9.275).
2. I'll be a babbling baboon. (20.77).
3. Though I knew that he was not informidable, I knew also that he was a bit of a humbug and a bit of a clown. (37.36).
4. The place is a pig-sty. (29.49).
5. But man was a ridiculous animal anyway. (9.31).
6. “…Wilmer’s rather an old goose…” (17,40).
7. Go outside, all of you, or you'll be a lot of sweeps. (40.25).
8. You are a pure evil. (41,163).
9. This is a hungry, vicious, ungrateful little monster with large ambitions. (14.138).
10. You're just a jelly-fish. (18.281).
11. That child is a pig and a beast. (38.104).
12. I'm a beast, I'm a slut, I'm just a bloody bitch. I'm rotten through and through. (29.223).
13. The public are a lot of jackasses. (29.221).
14. I was rather a muff at the letter. (40.87).
15. - You know, I'm not a squealer, Harry.
You are a rummy. But no matter how rum dumb you get. (9.54).
16. He told himself. “Man, you just a big black bugger.” He kept referring to himself as black, which, of course, he was, Lou thought, but it was not the thing to say. (38,139).
17. What do you want to go and hamper yourself with a man who'll always be a millstone round your neck? (29.51).
18. Who is that tall bird?
I tell you he's just a radical bastard. (21.166).
19. His face was a picture of red ferocity. (25.26).
20. … a superfluous man however unattractive or stupid was acceptable; a superfluous woman, however witty and well-informed, a social embarrassment.” (25.53).
21. They're the devil, these serial murders. (25.63).
22. Horror and death were his trade… (25.82).
23. She'd be a disaster. (25.98).
24. But Father can be remarkably obstinate when he thinks he knows what he wants and Mother is a putty in his hands. (25.102).
25. That caravan is in direct line of my bedroom windows. It's an eyesore. (25.116).
26. She moved up under the highest arch of all where the great eastern window had once shone in an imagined miracle of colored glass. Now it was an empty eye. (25,130).
27. My God, you're evil, aren't you? (25.135).
28. You should see the Mother. She's a right bitch, that one…” (25,168).
29. Then we discover that they're monsters and decide … to classify them as mad. (25.168).
30. - When did we last get rain? Late on Saturday night, wasn't it?
about eleven. It was over by midnight but it was a heavy shower. (25.171).
31. He had no real evidence that Oliphant was a bully. (25.172).
32. Murdered and mutilated bodies are your trade, of course. (25.211).
33. The last thing he said was: “She was an evil bitch and I’m glad she’s dead.” (25,260).
34. A man who cannot feed himself on nearly three pounds a day must either be lacking in initiative or be the slave of inordinate desires. (25.308).
35. Most tramps are pitiful because they are the slaves of their own passions, usually drink. (25.308).
36. In contrast to the skin's unpainted fragility her mouth was a thin gash of garish crimson. (25.323).
37. Amy said angrily: “Who is he? Who is that creep?” (25.334).
Metaphors of a positive assessment (reclamation metaphors).
1. Then Jenny had been the projection of his love, a flower, a sweetness, the very breath of spring. (10.143).
2. Embedded in the mud, glistening green and gold and black, was a butterfly, very beautiful, and very dead. (33.78).
3. You're a young panther, a lion cub. (26.123).
4. His wife is a jewel. (8.13).
5. There was a peach from west Oakland. (26.371).
7. All I want is my little bird. (3.78).
8. Best woman in the world. Absolutely - Caesar's wife! (9.186).
9. She was the flower of the family. (5.98).
10. He is a little treasure, isn't he? (11.254).
11. She is a pure gold. (5.145).
12. “It was only that I thought you looked really ill, in a state of collapse. The shock … It’s quite amazing. You are quite a frail.” These words gave her courage. She was ready to be seen as a frail. (12.37).
13. She is an angel, is she not? (9.88).
14. Oh, she was a daisy. (2.174).
15. The caravan had been a stroke of luck. (25, 34).
16. … and the dark eyes, which when he was animated took on a fierce, almost manic gleam, in repose were pools of puzzled endurance. (25.60).
17. It was as if all the petty preoccupations of the flesh were washed away and she was a disembodied spirit floating free. (25.141).
18. Her assistant, Shirley Coles, was a newly appointed junior, a pretty 18-year-old who lived in the village… She was a pleasant child, anxious to please and responsive to friendliness. (25.245).
19. He had reached that time of life when he would occasionally indulge in an idealized picture of a wife waiting at home, …a child who would be his stake in the future, someone to work for. (25.273). - He was already at the age when they begin to dream about a wife who would be waiting at home, ... about a child, on whom he will place all his hopes, for whom he will work.
5. Substantive derivative N met. of N or N ’ s N
Metaphors of a neutral assessment.
1. He was a bean-pole of 6 feet, 3 inches. (40.158).
2. … watching the great ball of the sun rise out of the sea to stain the horizon and spread over the eastern sky the veins and arteries of the new day. (25.118).
Metaphors of negative evaluation (pejorative metaphors).
1. And in my opinion a wild beast is neither more nor less than what that old devil of a husband of hers is. (9.32).
2. When they asked him to have a luncheon with them which was cooked and served by a scarecrow of a woman whom they called Evie. (29.92).
3. What a white bloodless ghost of a woman! (9.169).
4. I've had'em all - including that pig of a husband of yours. (31.11.)
5. It had been a fairly commonplace murder, a henpecked husband at the end of his tether who had taken a hatchet to his virago of a wife. (25.34).
6. Prepositive and postpositive metaphor-applications
Metaphors of a neutral assessment.
1. And it wasn't only the absence of Susie, the heavily pregnant ghost in the opposite chair. (25.347). “And it's not just the absence of Susie, the "deeply" pregnant ghost in the next chair.
Metaphors of negative evaluation (pejorative metaphors).
1. I have life in my body, this dead tree. (43,304).
2. In recent weeks he had been visited by the nagging guilt of a duty unfulfilled, almost a spirit unpropitiated. (25.142).
3. I couldn't make myself touch him. But I didn't need to. I knew that he was dead. He looked very small, disjointed, a rag doll. (25.270).
4. And that poor devil, the Norfolk Whistler, he's not poetic either presumably. (25.270).
Metaphors of a positive assessment (reclamation metaphors).
1. Wonderful hoe they know weather, these old salts. (9.224).
2. Perhaps Alex Mair should take her as a patron of his power station, a quasi-saint of rationality. (25.88). “Perhaps Alex Mair should have taken her in charge of his power plant, that half-goddess of rationality.
3. Charles had visited his father last summer, a golden-bronzed, hefty-legged, sun-bleached giant. (25.138).
Structurally isolated metaphor widely presented in speech in the form of an address or a nominative sentence. N meth .
The appeal performs a number of functions: invocative (appellative), identifying and evaluating. Thus, the metaphor in the form of an appeal expresses not only a call to the addressee and his identification, but also his assessment by the subject of the assessment.
Metaphors of a neutral assessment.
1. She noticed at once they were not of very good quality, poor lamb, he had not been able to bring himself to spring to that. (29.33).
2. Poor lamb… he’s such a hell of a gentleman he doesn’t know what to do about it. (29.93).
3. Control your tongue, poult. (40.35).
4. Trot along, chicks, and have your tea. (16.245). - Come on, children, drink tea.
5. Now it was late afternoon and the headland lay enriched by the mellow afternoon light, the sea, a wide expansion of wrinkled blue with a painter’s stroke of purple, laid on the horizon. (25.58).
6. And then, on the verge of sleep, she was crashing with him through the bushes of that dreadful wood. (25.108).
7. He said: “This is Hilary Robarts's personnel file. …it merely gives the background information; age, places of education, degrees, career… The dry bones of a life. (25.196).
8. It came out when were talking to one of the junior staff, a local girl who works at the establishment department. Chatty little thing. (25.258).
9. Pascoe, …was working like a demented demon, his eyes white saucers in his blackened face, his arms and naked chest glistening with sweat. (25.353).
Metaphors of negative evaluation (pejorative metaphors).
1. I stood there and listened and out side the window there was another laugh. The city. The monster. (39.85).
2. You shut up your trap, you old cow, said Julia, who could be very vulgar when she chose. (29.83).
3. You rotten old eunuch, what do you know about love? (29.50).
4. You old cow. How dare you interfere with my private concerns? (29.176).
5. Pompous old ass. (23.81).
6. You filthy pig. (29.189).
7. You smug hypocritical swine! (4.117).
8. You damn crock. Damn crock. goddamn crock. (21.51).
9. They killed a lady and tried to frame me for it. They are figuring us all for suckers and don't give a hand who gets hurt. The slobs. The miserable slobs. (39.29).
10. The pink white rat! I'm looking for him. (22.178).
11. You devil, you swine, you filthy low-down cad. (29.48).
12 Monkey! Stop making faces. (19.23).
13. You men! You filthy dirty pigs. You're all the same, all of you. pigs! pigs! (28.83).
14. You bloody rats! You're nothing more. (1.341).
15. Silly old cow, she thought. (25.1).
16. He's a man, not a force of nature. (25.151).
17. Rickards said: “Neville Potter, aged 36. Scrawny little sod. (25.165).
18. He stood for a moment appalled: “But we weren’t! you're asking me to lie. This is a murder investigation. It's terribly dangerous to lie to the police, they always find out.” He knew what he must sound like, a frightened child, petulant, reluctant to take part in a dangerous game. (25.183).
19. He heard again his mother-in-law’s voice: “Yes, a bit of a rough diamond, I’m afraid, but he’s really very able… (25,275).
twenty. . She had been lying naked among the bottles, the pills, the half-eaten food, an obscene putrefying lump of flesh… (25,279).
21. Bloody cheek! complained Oliphant. (25.291). - "Here's an insolent one!" - with annoyance said Oliphant.
22. Cold fish, wasn't he? (25.206).
23. Rickards said: “Arrogant bastard, isn't he? … No point in trying to explain anything to the police.” (25,300).
24. You bloody bitch! (25.339).
25. Dirty-minded little devil. (25,350).
Metaphors of a positive assessment (reclamation metaphors).
1. Kitten, it sure does, and that I go for. (39.30).
2. That's a new twist for you, rosebud.(39,33).
3. She looked so deliciously yielding, a ripe peach waiting to be picked, that it seemed inevitable that he should kiss her. (29,240).
4. Wonderful animal, the good servant. (9.219).
5. Sweet peg … my honey, my bunny, my duck, my dear! (1.40).
6. You know your ammunition, angel. (7.264).
7. Now sit down, duckie, and I'll give you a drop of Scotch to pull you together. (29.49).
8. Oh, my little duck! Stop crying. (30.59).
9. He remembered that secluded place…, at the bottom of the shrubbery, the green tunnel of leaves… (25,160).
10. He never thrives in kennels, do you, my treasure? (25.327).
2.4. Conclusions.
The study of the axiological status of metaphor leads us to the following conclusions:
1. In the semantics of metaphors subjected to analysis, characterological, conditional, external, sociocultural and demographic assessment criteria are presented, with the first three being the most widely represented.
2. In the context, the evaluative component of meaning in the semantics of a metaphor may be subject to variation. The main types of modification of the evaluative seme of the metaphor are occasional melioration of pejoratives and peioration of melioratives. Metaphorical enantiosemy is widely represented primarily in the colloquial sphere, mainly in an ironic or sarcastic context.
3. When analyzing the main structural types of substantive metaphor, it turned out that most of the metaphors are represented by metaphors-phrases. In all structural types, pejorative evaluativeness dominates.
Pragmatic specificity of metaphor in speech.
3.1. Specificity of colloquial metaphor.
The study of evaluation only as a property of the evaluation operator, taken out of context, outside the pragmatic situation and the personality of the speakers, is one-sided, not revealing the pragmatic nature of the evaluation and its belonging to the subject of evaluation, outside of which it simply does not exist. Therefore, when studying evaluative metaphor, it is quite natural to turn to the pragmatic and sociolinguistic factors of metaphor.
Colloquial metaphors occupy an important place in the composition of emotional and evaluative metaphors. In the colloquial sphere, there are various forms of emotional evaluation, determined by the specifics of this sublanguage. The specificity of the colloquial sphere is determined by the spontaneity of the speech act, its stereotyping, emotional saturation, familiarity, everyday topics, and the direct participation of speakers in evaluative activities. In evaluative statements, an important role belongs to extralinguistic factors, including non-verbal means.
The arbitrariness of colloquial metaphor is not unlimited. The occasional subjective image that is born in the mind of the subject of assessment is based on the same association mechanism that underlies the usual fund of metaphors. The use of occasional metaphors in speech requires the subject to assess a certain intellectual effort necessary for the original, unexpected transfer of the name. Therefore, the subject of evaluation can achieve the desired effect only if the volume of the thesaurus of his interlocutor is large enough.
Colloquial metaphors are characterized by stylistic reduction. The main layer of stylistically reduced metaphors is pejorative.
The pink white rat! I'm looking for him. (22.178)
You devil, you swine, you filthy low-down cad. (29.48).
· “You shut up your trap, you old cow”, said Julia. (29.83).
You are a pure evil. (41,163).
You smug hypocritical swine! (4.117).
· Rickards said: “Arrogant bastard, isn't he?” (25,300).
The metaphors “rat”, “devil”, “swine”, “cow”, “evil”, “bastard” in these examples have an intensified pejorative seme “scoundrel, scoundrel”. The pragmatic task of such colloquial metaphors is to express a sharply negative attitude of the subject of assessment to the object of assessment. The archisemes of the original meanings of words are completely eliminated.
The high style is less characteristic of the colloquial sphere.
She renewed me, she made me a flower. (24.64).
He is a little treasure, isn't he? (11.254).
She is a pure gold. (11.145).
· His wife is a jewel. (8.13).
She is an angel, is she not? (9.88).
The metaphors “flower”, “treasure”, “gold”, “jewel”, “angel” in these examples have an intensified ameliorative seme “perfection”. The pragmatic task of such colloquial metaphors is to express the admiration of the subject of evaluation by the object of evaluation.
The specificity of colloquial metaphors, unlike normative ones, lies in the fact that they have an intensified emotional-evaluative component of meaning in their semantics. Colloquial metaphor, representing emotional and evaluative meaning, causes a strong emotional effect in communicants due to the combination of incompatible systems of representations, which determines the metaphor as a strong pragmatic tool.
3.2. Evaluation of the status of a person in the semantics of metaphor.
The study of the reflection of extralinguistic factors in the semantics of a metaphor allows one to get a more complete picture of the pragmatic nature of a metaphor and to reveal in its semantics a status appraisal that characterizes the demographic and sociocultural characteristics of the subject and object of evaluation.
There are some peculiarities in the choice of metaphors for men and women as subjects of evaluation. An analysis of metaphors indicates that social norms more strictly regulate the behavior of women. Women are more conservative in their use of metaphors. Metaphors are more common in the speech of men.
I have life in my body, this dead tree, my body has burst in flower! You've given me life, you can go! (43,304).
“You know my door is always open.” “Open?” David laughed sarcastically. “If Christ himself came into this studio, those three harpies wouldn’t let him in to see you!” (6.286).
The subject of occasional metaphors "deadtree" and "harpies" is a man.
The existence of a "male" and "female" metaphor is conditional due to the predominance of the social factor over the demographic factor, the equalization of the social status of men and women in public life. Thus, in the communicative situation of affect in women's speech, there are also metaphors with an intensified pejorative assessment.
“What do you mean?” he cried. "What d'you mean?" She gathered herself together. No one could describe the scorn of her impression or the contemptuous hatred she put in her answer. “You men! You filthy, dirty pigs. You're all the same, all of you. pigs! Pigs!” Mr. Macphail gasped. Heunderstood. (28.83).
The object of evaluation of the “pig” metaphor is the missionary Davidson, who mercilessly ruined the natives for violating moral standards, but at the same time could not avoid the embrace of the prostitute Sadie, whose soul he undertook to save. Sadie uses an intensified pejorative appraisal metaphor to express her sharply negative attitude towards Davidson and, through him, towards all men.
· “…he was rather desperately keeping his attention on that slut Yvonne”. (25.70).
The object of evaluation of the “slut” metaphor is a pretty girl Yvonne, to whom the subject of evaluation, Christine, is jealous of her husband. Therefore, she uses a metaphor with intensified pejorative appraisal.
Women, despite being conservative in their use of swearing metaphors, are able to respond to an insult when derogatory metaphors are used against them.
There now, you old bitch. Take your foul mouth somewhere else…
And your lousy body, you're not hawking yourself in here.
You bloody rats! You're nothing more. (1.341).
The identification of the gender of the object of evaluation, in contrast to the gender of the subject of evaluation, is marked by the semantic features of the metaphor.
Oh, she was a daisy. (2.174).
“She was an evil bitch and I’m glad she’s dead.” (25,260).
The semantic features of the "daisy" and "bitch" metaphors imply the feminine gender of the object of evaluation.
· Anthony Marston, a young bull with no nerves and precious little brains. (9.210).
· It appears that the young rip has been taken Julia to night clubs when she ought to have been in bed and asleep. (29.176).
The semantic features of the metaphors "bull" and "rip" imply the masculine gender of the object of evaluation.
In addition to gender, a metaphor can characterize a sign of the age of the object of evaluation.
That's a new twist for you, rosebud. (39.33).
In the rosebud metaphor, the "teenage girl" is labeled with both gender and age of the target.
You're a young panther, a lion cub. (25.123).
In the lioncub metaphor "young lion" both the sex and age of the object of evaluation are also marked.
Evaluation of a metaphor is able to mark the following semantic features:
1) elderly, adult, for example: wrinkly, old coon, sea dog, bluebottle, jail bird;
· She had to ride with the two old wrinklies. (25.5).
You shut up your trap, you old cow, said Julia. (29.83).
2) young, child, for example: cub, chick, sprat, fry, poult, moppet.
Trot along, chicks, and have your tea. (16.245).
Control your tongue, poult. (40.35).
In these examples, it is obvious that the objects of evaluation of the metaphors "chicks" and "poult" are children.
The pragmatic aspect of the metaphor takes into account the social heterogeneity of the participants in communication. The sociocultural status of the subject and object of evaluation is determined by analyzing the semantics of the metaphor and its functional and stylistic specifics. Sociocultural assessment includes such parameters as the level of education, social status in society and professional affiliation.
Identification of the status of the subject of assessment is conditional, since the influence of the sociocultural factor can be neutralized in informal communication. Basically, the status of the subject of assessment is revealed by the oppositional method. When a metaphor contains pejorative socio-cultural features of the object of evaluation, the social position of the subject of evaluation is usually higher than that of the object of evaluation.
· Why should we have the disgrace of harboring such wretches?… Oh, I hate poor. At least, I hate those dirty, drunken, disreputable…pigs. (35.86).
In this example, the pejorative appraisal of the “pigs” metaphor is intensified by the adjectives dirty, drunken, disreputable, which imply the socio-cultural sign of the object of assessment - belonging to the social lower classes of society.
· Dolly's folks in Blue Mountain are nothing at all but the poorest white trash… (43,245).
Here the pejorative appraisal of the “whitetrash” metaphor is intensified by the adjective poorest and the negation of nothingatallbut.
Some metaphors clearly identify the socio-cultural status of the object of evaluation. In these metaphors, sociocultural evaluative semes of the original meaning are actualized. Information about the similarity of a person with some other object, implied in the semantics of a metaphor through a semantic feature that reflects the function of an object, is at the same time a means of expressing an assessment of a person’s activity or his social role, for example:
weathercock neg. "an unstable, unprincipled person"; windbag neglected "Chatterbox, empty talker"; tool contempt. "a tool (of a person), a puppet."
Sociocultural appraisal of metaphors contains 3 main semantic features:
1) belonging to a certain profession, for example:
bluecoat, copper, bluebottle "cop"; sleuth, bogy "detective"; pill, pill-bag "doctor"; cow-leech "veterinarian; sky-pilot "priest; scribe "writer"; shoulder, clapper "court officer"; grunt "foot soldier"; snip "tailor"; carhop, nippy "waiter"; scout "servant"; tipper, cloth-cap "worker"; rolls "baker"; cabby "driver"; snob "shoemaker"; oldsalt "experienced sailor";
That pill is coming to stay here. (18.93).
Wonderful how they know the weather, these old salts. (16.224).
2) social position in society, for example:
stick-out, face, page-one "celebrity"; pumpkin, bag, bigwig "important person"; money-bag "rich man"; cap, higher-up "a person of high social status"; peanut "insignificant person"; pan, handler, drifter, gully "a person without a specific occupation"; jail-bird "prisoner"; skipper "chief"; carpet-bagger, swallow-tail "politician";
· Tom Hartigan sat down awkwardly and looked with some awe at what he called in his own mind “One of the big wigs”. (9.117).
3) the level of education, for example:
booky, boffin, latiner "a person doing science"; soph, roomier "learning person"; brain, upper "intelligent, gifted person"; old-timer, pull-back "retarded person".
· Perhaps Alex Mair should take her as a patron of his power station, a quasi-saint of rationality. (25.88).
· Poor lamb … he's such a hell of agentleman he doesn't know what to do about it. (29.93).
Sociocultural evaluation of metaphors indicates the presence of a certain system of norms and ideas about the social significance of the object of evaluation.
Thus, the evaluativeness of a metaphor is capable of expressing sociocultural and demographic features that mark the status of the subject of evaluation and the object of evaluation. Identification of the status of the object of assessment is clearly observed in metaphors containing socio-cultural and demographic features directly in their semantics.
3.3. National and cultural specifics of metaphor evaluativeness.
In each national language, there is a certain number of concepts of the material and spiritual culture of native speakers, which are fixed in words. The picture of the world is reflected in the thesaurus of each carrier of a certain national-cultural stereotype.
A different interpretation of the same reality in different cultures causes a discrepancy in the pictures of the world and, thus, a difference in the metaphorical rethinking of a number of meanings. For example, different languages find in animals and plants excellent properties and qualities that are assigned to them and transferred to a person for his figurative assessment. everyday-everyday representation of native speakers of a certain language and culture is created.
The analysis of the material testifies to the national and cultural specificity of the composition of evaluative metaphors of the English language when compared with the Russian language:
1. metaphors typical for both English and Russian: wolf wolf, ram ram, viper viper, dog-fish shark, goat goat, monkey monkey, peacock peacock, cock rooster, sheep sheep, magpie magpie, tiger tiger, lamb lamb, chicken chicken, etc.
2. metaphors that are more characteristic of the Russian language: otter, seal, hippopotamus, elephant, crocodile, louse, gopher, etc.
3. metaphors more characteristic of the English language: velvet velvet, profit; starch starch, stiffness; frost frost, failure; gull seagull, fool; rake rake, thin person; beaver; butterfly; coon raccoon; stoat ermine; whale; canary, etc.
In the metaphors common to both languages (group 1), we find similarities and differences in the basis of evaluation, for example:
metaphors similar in evaluative semantics:
monkey - monkey, person mimicking someone, joker, prankster, swine - pig, impudent, cow - cow, clumsy person, ass - donkey, stupid person, paw - paw, hand, cock - rooster, bully, eel - eel , slippery type, rabbit - hare, coward, fox - fox, sly, etc.
Monkey! Stop making faces. (19.23). - Monkey, stop grimacing.
Don't be an ass. (9.275). - Don't be an ass.
You old cow. How dare you interfere with my private concerns? (29.176). - An old cow. How dare you interfere in my personal affairs?
You bloody rats! You're nothing more. (1.341). "Damn rats!" That's who you are.
The evaluation bases of the monkey, ass, cow, and rats metaphors correspond to the evaluation bases of the monkey, donkey, cow, and rat metaphors.
metaphors that have differences in evaluative semantics:
English Russian language language
bug - crazy idea, bug - small fry, shket
important, pompous person
ballast - balance, ballast - excessive
stability thing, burden
duck - darling, guy, duck - stand,
bankrupt provocation
bear - rude, ill-mannered bear -
clumsy person
goose - a stupid person goose - an arrogant person
“Marsland’s rather an old duck, … Wilmer’s rather an old goose…” (17,40). “Marsland is more of a good old man… Wilmer is more of an old fool…”
In this example, the translation of the duck and goose metaphors by the words "duck" and "goose" would be inadequate, because the connotative features of these metaphors in Russian and English do not coincide.
The evaluative component of the metaphor is capable of expressing the peculiarities of national and local culture.
Both of those women are as common as dirt.
Dolly's folks in Blue Mountain are nothing at all but the poorest kind of white trash… (43,245).
The appraisal of the whitetrash metaphor “poor people from the white population of the southern states” is motivated by the historical and cultural specifics of the development of the United States. The subject of assessment belongs to the prosperous class of the white population of the southern states, the object of assessment belongs to the poor.
Some metaphors clearly identify the nationality of the object of assessment, since national and cultural characteristics dominate in their evaluative components of meaning, for example: pig-tail "Chinese", bean-eater "Boston resident", frog-eater "Frenchman".
Thus, the evaluative semantics of the English-language metaphor has a national and cultural specificity, which is determined by the special lexical composition of metaphors, the nature of the basis for their evaluativeness. The evaluative component of the metaphor may reflect the national and cultural characteristics of the object of evaluation. someone else's metaphor marks mainly the national and cultural characteristics of the subject of evaluation.
3.4. Conclusions.
The study of pragmatic and sociolinguistic factors in the evaluative semantics of metaphor leads us to the following conclusions:
1. The main layer of colloquial metaphors is characterized by stylistic reduction and pejorative appraisal. A significant number of colloquial metaphors have an intensified emotional-evaluative component of meaning in their semantics.
2. The study of the reflection of extralinguistic factors in the semantics of the metaphor allows us to identify demographic and sociocultural appraisal characterizing the status features of the subject and object of evaluation. We refer to the demographic appraisal signs of gender and age. Sociocultural appraisal mainly reflects 3 features: 1) level of education, 2) social position in society, 3) professional affiliation.
3. Different interpretation of some realities in different cultures determines the national and cultural specificity of the evaluative semantics of metaphors. The national and cultural specificity of the evaluation of English-language metaphors is confirmed by the special composition of metaphors for evaluating realities. In the English language there are metaphors with a basis of evaluation specific to the English-speaking linguocultural society.
Conclusion
The purpose of this qualifying work was to study the evaluative component of meaning in the semantics of substantive metaphors in English fiction. The formation of the evaluativeness of a metaphor is based on the transposition or transformation of the potential or differential evaluative seme of the original meaning.
Evaluativeness can refer to both the denotative and connotative aspects of meaning.
The study of appraisal activity involves taking into account the human factor of the subject and object of appraisal as mandatory components of the structure of the appraisal act.
The semantics of the original meaning of the word affects the evaluative sign of the metaphor. However, the context makes it possible to reveal the variation of evaluativeness in the semantics of the metaphor.
In the semantics of substantive metaphors, characterological, conditional and external assessments are most widely represented. Metaphors with sociocultural and demographic evaluation criteria are less numerous.
A substantive metaphor has 3 main structural types: a metaphor-sentence, a metaphor-phrase and a separate metaphor.
The research material included 252 metaphors, of which 48 are nouns of ameliorative assessment, 117 are nouns of pejorative assessment, 79 are nouns of neutral assessment, and 8 cases of enantiosemy. Pejorative evaluation prevails in substantive metaphors, from which we can conclude that society tends to express disapproval more often than approve anything.
The most numerous within the framework of the studied material is the metaphor-phrase. It is formed by 193 nouns, that is, more than half of all selected examples, including 69 object metaphors, 66 predicative metaphors, 23 subjective metaphors, 20 adverbial metaphors, 8 application metaphors and 7 substantive derivatives. Also, 44 isolated metaphors and 7 metaphor-sentences were identified.
The analysis once again confirms the position that metaphor is one of the main means by which imagery, expressiveness, and evaluativeness are created, and on the basis of this, the author's individual evaluative attitude to the subject of thought is revealed.
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29. Theory of metaphor: Collection: Per. From English, French, German, Spanish, Polish. lang. / Common ed. N.D. Arutyunova and M.A. Zhurinskaya. – M.: Progress, 1990. – 512p.
30. Frenkel E.I. Paradigmatics of evaluative semes in modern English: Abstract of the thesis. dis. …cand. philol. Sciences. - Odessa, 1982. - 22 p.
31. Human factor in language: Language mechanisms of expressiveness. – M.: Nauka, 1991. – 214 p.
32. Language and modeling of social interaction / Otv. ed. V.V. Petrov. - M.: Progress, 1987. - 464 p.
List of used artistic literature.
1. AdamsR. WatershipDown. - London: PenguinBooks, 1979. - 480p.
2. Archer J. Shall We Tell the President? - London: Coronet Books, 1982. - 286p.
3. Benchley P. Jaws. - London: Pan Books, 1974. - 285p.
4. Brain J. Room at the Top. - London: Penguin Books, 1961. - 235p.
5. Burns Sh. Theater Sister in Love. - London: Sphere Books, 1966. - 160p.
6. Canning V. Queen's Pawn. - London, 1975. - 238p.
7. Chandler R. Farewell, My Lovely. - Moscow: Raduga Publishers, 1983. - 367p.
8. Christie A. Hickory-Dickory-Dock. - London: The Book Club Collins, 1956. - 192p.
9. Christie A. Selected Detective Prose. - M.: Raduga Publishers, 1989. - 400p.
10. Cronin A.G. The Stars Look Down. - New English Library, 1983. - 604p.
11. Dickens M. Thursday Afternoons. - London: Penguin Books, 1977. - 320p.
12. Drabble M. The Garrick Year. - Penguin Books Ltd, Harmondsworth, Middlesex, England, 1972. - 172p.
13. Dreiser Th. Sister Carrie. – Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House. - 1958.
14. Fish R. Always Kill a Stranger. - 1968. - 138p.
15. Fowels J. The French Lieutenant's Woman. - London: Panter Books, 1985. - 399p.
16. Galsworthy J. The Forsyte Saga. To let. Book three. - M.: Progress Publishers, 1975. - 256p.
17. Galsworthy J. The White Monkey. - Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1980. - 248p.
18. Hailey A. The Final Diagnosis. - London: Pan Books, 1975. - 500p.
19. Hailey A. The Moneychangers. - N.Y., London, Toronto: Bantam Books, 1975. - 500p.
20. Heinlein K. Stranger in a Stranger Land. - London, 1965. - 400p.
21. Hemingway E. To Have and Have Not. - London: Penguin Books, 1963. - 206p.
22. Henry O'. Unfinished Story // The Four Million. - N.Y.: Page and Company, 1975. - p. 174-185.
23. Huxley A. Antic Hay. - London, Toronto, Sydney, New York: Atriad Panter Books, 1977. - 250p.
24. Jakes J. North and South. - N.Y.: Dell Publishing Co., 1983. - 812p.
25. James P.D. Devices and Desires. - London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1989. - 408p.
26. London J. Martin Eden. – Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House. - 1954.
28. Maugham W.S. Rain // Rain and Other Short Stories. - M.: Progress Publishers, 1977. - p.25-83.
30. Mortimer P. The Pumpkin Eater. - London: Penguin Books, 1964. - 160p.
31.Parker G. The Darkness of the Morning. - M.: Progress Publishers, 1978. - 238p.
32 Salinger J.D. The Catcher in the Rye. - M.: Progress Publishers, 1972. - 247p.
33 Salinger J.D. Nine Stories. Franny and Zooly // Nine Stories. Franny and Zooly. Raise M.: Progress Publishers, 1982. - p.27-302.
34. Sann P. Dead Heart: Love and Money. - N.Y., 1974. - 189p.
35. Shaw B. The Widowers' Houses // Plays Unpleasant. - London: Penguin Books, 1977. - p.29-96.
36. Sheldon S. A Stranger in the Mirror. - N.Y.: Warner Books, 1977. - 168p.
37.Snow C.P. new men. - London: Penguin Books, 1962. - 236p.
38. Spark M. The Public Image Stories. - M.: Progress Publishers, 1976. - 292p.
39. Spillane M. Kiss Me, Deadly. - London: Transworld Publishers, 1963. - 160p.
40. Spring H. All the Day Long. - London: Fontana Books, 1963. - 576p.
41. Vonnegut K. Mother Night. – Panter Books Ltd, Frogmore, St. Albans, Herts, 1976. - 176p.
42. Wain J. The Contenders. - London: Penguin Books, 1962. - 285p.
43. Williams T. Orpheus Descending // Three American Plays. - Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1972. - p.221-307.
44Wodehouse P.J. stories. - London: Penguin Books, 1978. - 256p.
Delog A.S. (Kharkiv)
The purpose of this article is to explore the scientific developments of leading linguists on the culture of speech and, on the basis of this, determine what a language culture and a language norm are. Despite a long study of the problems of speech culture and language norms, this issue does not lose its relevance and importance.
The concept of Ukrainian studies is broad and multifaceted. It includes history, culture, politics, education, art, etc. An equally important part of the general term of Ukrainian studies is the language, or rather, the culture of the Ukrainian language. A person’s speech better reflects the inner culture of a person, his social status, his worldview, beliefs, attitude towards his homeland and his people. A person who does not speak (or speaks poorly) his native language falls out of the history and modernity of his people. It is impossible to understand a nation, to understand its attitude, mentality, customs, without knowing its language. That is why humanity is trying to comprehend the means of speech communication.
Awareness of the need and possibility of improving the language as a means of communication of human society reaches back to ancient times and was finally formed in Europe during the Enlightenment, when normative grammars and dictionaries of individual European languages appear in almost all countries, the suitability of these for fiction, science and public administration is discussed. . The public nature of the language, as well as its importance as one of the main features of the nation, inevitably directed the attention of both linguists and the general public to questions of linguistic culture. The old question - how to, and how not to speak or write - does not lose its relevance. The problems of the culture of speech are of great social importance.
Many studies of the world's leading linguists are devoted to the problems of speech culture. Works by V. Humboldt, A. Potebnya, L. Scherbe, G. Vinokur, V. V. Vinogradov, B. Gavranek, N. Koseriu, S. Ozhegov, B. Golovin, O. Akhmanovoi, Yu. Belchikov, scientists of the Prague Linguistic circle and other researchers more fully represented the totality of phenomena, denoted by the term culture of speech (or linguistic culture).
In Ukrainian linguistics, the works of V. Simovych, Kurilo, O. Sinyavsky, M. GLADKY, M. Sulima, M. Nakonechny, I. Bilodid, A. Koval, M. Zhovtobryukh, V. Rusanivsky are devoted to the problems of speech culture.
The purpose of this article is to explore the scientific developments of leading linguists on the culture of speech and, on the basis of this, determine what a language culture and a language norm are.
The culture of speech as a separate scientific discipline was formed in the twentieth century. However, the main prerequisites for the emergence of such a branch in Ukrainian linguistics were laid back in the 19th century. by Elena Pchelka,
I. Bilodid noted that the culture of speech is a broad theoretical and practical discipline, associated primarily with stylistics, and with extralinguistic disciplines - with psychology and sociology. V. Vinogradov also wrote about the culture of speech as a separate scientific discipline: "The science of the culture of speech or the culture of speech is a theoretical and practical discipline (or field of research) adjacent to the stylistics of the language and the stylistics of speech, which generalizes their positions and conclusions with the aim of live, operational impact on the subsequent stages of language development ".
The culture of speech correlates with the language system. It deals with specific linguistic facts (elements and relations) that are essential to mother tongue, reflect the main and characteristic features, without which understanding is generally impossible. If the system cannot be directly seen or heard, then these facts (elements, relationships) are amenable to direct perception.
The term culture of speech itself is interpreted by different linguists in different ways. B. Golovin says that the concept of speech culture has two semantic aspects:
1) the culture of speech is a combination and system of communicative qualities of speech
2) the culture of speech is the doctrine of the totality and system of communicative qualities of speech.
M. Ilyash believes that the culture of speech is, firstly, the possession of literary terms at all language levels, in oral and writing speech - the ability to use linguistic and stylistic means and techniques, taking into account the conditions and goals of communication, secondly, it is an ordered set of normative speech means, developed by the practice of human communication, optimally expressing the content of speech and satisfy the conditions and goals of communication, thirdly, it is an independent linguistic discipline.
In the "Handbook of Linguistic Terms" by D. Rosenthal and M. Telenkovoy, it is written about the term:
"1. A branch of philological science that studies the linguistic life of society in a certain era and establishes on a scientific basis the rules for using language as the main means of communication between people, an instrument for the formation and implementation of thought.
2. Normativity of speech, its compliance with the requirements facing the language in a given language community in a certain historical period, compliance with the norms of pronunciation, stress, word usage, form formation, construction of phrases and sentences. The normativity of speech includes such qualities as accuracy, clarity, purity.
Nadezhda Babich notes: "Knowledge of different functional styles, that is, the ability to use language tools that are optimal for a particular speech situation, constitutes the culture of speech." "Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary", edited by V. Yartsev, defines: "Culture of speech - 1) possession of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, stress, word usage, grammar, style), as well as the ability to use the expressive means of the language in various communication conditions in accordance with the goals and content of speech, 2) a section of linguistics that studies the problems of normalization in order to improve the language and as an instrument of culture ".
So, the concept of speech culture has both theoretical and practical aspects. The last - practical - aspect cannot be exhausted, since it manifests itself each time for each speaker in a unique way and cannot foresee all possible situations for the functioning of individual broadcasting.
However, the culture of speech cannot be reduced only to correctness and normativity. A high culture of speech is the ability to do it right. to accurately and expressively convey their thoughts by means of language. Correct speech is the one in which the norms of the modern literary language are stored. But a high culture of speech lies not only in observing the norms of the language. It also lies in the ability to find not only the exact means for expressing one's thoughts, but also the most accessible (i.e., the most expressive) and most appropriate (i.e., what is most suitable in this case and, thus, stylistically justified). ). That is why today there is a tendency to distinguish between the concepts of the correctness of speech and the culture of speech, and they should be spoken of as two degrees of mastery of the literary language and two ways of mastering it. The first, lower, degree is the correctness of speech. We talk about correctness when mastering the literary language and its norms. Evaluation of options at the level of speech correctness: correct - incorrect. The second, higher, degree of assimilation of the literary language is the culture of speech. One can speak about the culture of speech in terms of mastering literary broadcasting, in terms of correctness, that is, in terms of mastering literary norms. Estimates of options at the level of speech culture are different: wrong-wrong, but better-worse (or more precisely, better, etc.).
One of the most important theoretical prerequisites for understanding the culture of speech is the solution of the problem of the language norm. In most studies on the culture of speech, the central place is occupied by the correctness of speech, which is always associated with the norm of the literary language. The language is correct. if it does not violate the language norm, the language is incorrect if it violates this norm. L. Skvortsov calls the language norm the central concept of the culture of speech and at the same time one of the most complex problems, "the diversity of which is determined by historical, cultural, sociological and proper linguistic facts."
Thus, for the culture of speech, the theory of the norm is, in fact, its main theoretical base. No matter how the issue of speech culture is considered - in the applied, educational, pedagogical, educational aspect or in connection with thinking and psychological factors - they all necessarily revolve around the concept of the norm.
The linguistic norm has a dual character: on the one hand, the linguistic norm is a language phenomenon, and on the other hand, it also acts as a social phenomenon. The social character of the norm turns out to be even stronger than the social character of language in general. After all, the norm is inextricably linked precisely with the social and communicative function of the language. The norm, although it is a certain abstraction in comparison with individual speech, at the same time constitutes a concrete, accepted in a certain human collective language implementation.
As noted above, the concept of speech culture is very relevant in linguistics. Various linguists addressed and address him. But if we compare the definitions of the language norm in various scientific works, then significant differences in the definitions of this concept become noticeable. Of course, such differences are not the result of an erroneous understanding of the linguistic norm by individual linguists, but depend on a different approach to the problem of normativity: from the point of view of general theory language, from the point of view of the theory of the culture of speech, for general reasons of the practical struggle for linguistic culture. So, the concept of a language norm is often ambiguous. In the "Dictionary of Linguistic Terms" O. Akhmanova, the norm is defined as "the use of language means in speech, a set of rules (regulations) that streamline the use of linguistic means in the speech of an individual" .
Yu.Belchikov notes: "The norm of literary speech is the only possibility or the best option for the correct, exemplary use of a word, phraseological unit, form, construction, have a relatively stable character within a certain period of the literary language" .
S. Ozhegov gives the following definition of this concept: "A norm is a set of the most suitable (correct, best) for the service of a society of other means of language, it is formed as a result of the selection of linguistic elements ... from existing ones, formed again or extracted from the passive stock of the past in the process of social, in a broad sense, evaluation of these elements ". B. Golovin considers the concept of a language norm as "a set of the most stable, traditional implementations of the elements of the language structure, selected and fixed by public language practice" .
So, norms, as a category of language, cannot be identified with rules, it is a category of linguistics. Rules are a very important and active factor, but they do not always correspond to the language norm and are less stable, more dependent on many, sometimes random factors. A norm is a much broader and more complex concept than a rule or regulation, even when they generally correctly reflect it. The language norm is the linguistic variants fixed in the practice of exemplary use (in the field of pronunciation, word usage, grammatical and other linguistic means), which perform a social role better and more fully from among the coexisting ones.
J. Maruso gives the definition of the norm approximately the same as S. Ozhegov, i.e. considers the language norm as "a set of features that determine the language of a given linguistic community". So, in their formulations, S. Ozhegov and J. Maruso consider the norm as a collective concept. S. Ozhegov speaks of the most appropriate, correct, best language means; Zh "Maruso also mentions a pattern to be followed. Obviously, these means are opposed by less correct or suitable ones. In other words, the norm in this respect is possible only if there is a certain choice.
So, the question arises: can we talk about the norm when we are talking about the only possible option, when there are no other linguistic means? The vast majority of linguists tend to think that in this case the concept of the norm loses its meaning. The norm or deviation from it turns out to be in one or another use (choice, selection) of unambiguous elements coexisting in the language system. Where there is no choice, there is no norm problem. The question of the norm is associated with the existence in the language of not one, but several unambiguous or synonymous elements that are in opposition to other homogeneous elements of its system. The variability of the norm allows each speaker to select exactly those means by which he can better express his thoughts and feelings.
The norm is a set of the most stable, traditional implementations of the elements of the language structure, selected and fixed by public language practice. The norm regulates the choice of one of the variants of the paradigm. Usually such a choice occurs if these options coexist in a certain period: the language community prefers only one of them. The norm presupposes a certain evaluative attitude of speakers to the functioning of the language. This attitude is formed under the influence of literature (its authoritative figures for society) and science (description and codification of the norm). That is why in modern Ukraine attention should be paid not only to the issues of the language norm as a linguistic category, but also to the linguistic norm in a broad, general sense. Fiction, newspapers and magazines, radio and television, scientific and public speeches must be impeccable in terms of linguistic culture, since they form such a culture among the broad masses of Ukrainian. Not every ordinary citizen, non-specialist, will pick up a dictionary or textbook to improve his broadcasting. Most likely, he will simply take as a model the language that he hears on the radio or from TV screens, in which articles are written in a newspaper or magazine, he regularly reads, the language that he hears even in commercials.
A norm is a property of the functioning structure of a language, created by the community that uses the given language, thanks to a constant need. It is this need that makes people prefer some options and reject others. Along with the growing need of society for mutual unity, the language norm is growing stronger, reaching the highest development in the national language. The norm is the historically accepted choice of one of the functional paradigmatic and syntagmatic variants of a linguistic sign in a given language community. The norm becomes a regulator of people's speech behavior. The norm is "ordered" by the very system and structure of the language, it is objective and obligatory for those who use the given language. A norm is a pattern to be followed. The presence of a sample implies the presence of variants of the norm and a certain mobility of the language. The norm is the concept of language, but as a model it is already evaluated by the group of speakers in the process of everyday communication. This assessment, due to many socio-historical factors, is to a certain extent one of the driving forces behind the development of the language. At the same time, the norm is a fairly homogeneous category, i.e. the norm is characterized by a certain conservatism, relative constancy. So, the linguistic norm is a complex concept that dialectically combines two contradictory tendencies - towards change and towards constancy. This dual nature of the norm manifests itself in different ways at different language levels, in different areas of linguistic activity.
Thus, the above material quite convincingly testifies to the objective existence and allocation of linguistics to a special branch called the culture of speech. And the culture of the Ukrainian language is inextricably linked and is integral part general Ukrainian studies.
The culture of speech is closely connected with the norms of the literary language, is based on them, but is not identified with them. We are given a convincing statement by those authors who note a somewhat higher, compared to the normative, degree of language proficiency when we talk about the culture of speech.
An important theoretical issue of the culture of the Ukrainian language is the definition, generalization of the very subject of the culture of speech - language irregularities, their categorization. Practical work on highlighting irregularities and deviations is carried out both in the form of recommendations, explanations, and in the form of dictionaries. Among the examples of such literature, we can name the "Dictionary of the difficulties of the Ukrainian language" edited by
S. Ermolenko, "Antisurzhik: Learning to behave politely and speak correctly" edited by O. Serbenskoi, "As we say" by B. Antonenko-Davidovich, etc. Such literature is the limit of what is necessary, since it gives practical recommendations and is designed not only and not so much for Ukrainians, but for the general public. This literature is understandable to all lovers of the Ukrainian language, people who are not indifferent to the fate of their native language. However, in our opinion, concern for the culture of the Ukrainian language should be at the state level. Not only classical or modern Ukrainian Literature, but the media must also correspond to the best examples of the culture of the native language. Despite the fact that at the scientific level attention has been paid to the culture of the Ukrainian language for more than one hundred and fifty years, this topic is relevant today. It will remain relevant as long as Ukrainian speech itself exists. After all, the subject of speech culture is not only the interpretation of deviations, but also study and correct historical assessment of linguistic tastes, the attitude of the speakers themselves to linguistic phenomena. At the same time, this requires taking into account numerous factors of a linguistic and extralinguistic nature and deserves further consideration.
Belchikov Yu. On the norms of literary speech // Questions of the culture of speech. - M., 1965. - Issue 3. 6. - S. 6.
Ozhegov Next questions of the culture of speech // Questions of the culture of speech. - M., 1955.
Issue. 1. - S. 15.
Golovin B.N. Fundamentals of speech culture. - M.: Higher school, 1980. - S. 19.
Maruso J. Dictionary of linguistic terms / Per. from French - M.: Izd-vo inostr. lit., 1960. - S. 179.
Introduction
Definition of speech culture
Normative aspect of speech culture
The communicative aspect of speech culture
The ethical aspect of the culture of speech and oratory
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
The culture of speech cannot be reduced to one broadly broadly and vaguely understood correctness. This was also seen by S.I. Ozhegov, many of whose statements make it possible to think that the correctness of speech was almost identified by scientists with its culture. Nevertheless, S.I. Ozhegov wrote in one of his last works: “A high culture of speech is the ability to correctly, accurately and expressively convey one’s thoughts by means of language. Correct speech is one in which the norms of the modern literary language are observed ... But a high culture of speech consists not only in following the norms of the language. It also lies in the ability to find not only the exact means for expressing one’s thoughts, but also the most intelligible (i.e., the most expressive) and most appropriate (i.e., the most suitable for a given case and, therefore, stylistically justified).”
In most works on the culture of speech, the central place is occupied by the correctness of speech, always associated with the norm of the literary language. Speech is correct if it does not violate the language norm; speech is wrong if it violates this norm. A complex dialectical interaction of personal and social, individual and general arises and is realized in the construction of speech, and it is not always possible for authors to clearly express the personal meanings of their text using the general semantics of words and their associations. This important circumstance is directly related to the understanding of the conditions on which the speech culture of people depends.
Definition of speech culture
The concept of culture of speech is closely connected with the literary language. The ability to express one’s thoughts clearly and clearly, to speak competently, the ability not only to attract attention with one’s speech, but also to influence listeners, possession of a culture of speech is a kind of professional suitability characteristic for people of various professions: diplomats, lawyers, politicians, teachers of schools and universities, radio and television workers, managers, journalists.
It is important to master the culture of speech for everyone who, by the nature of their activities, is connected with people, organizes and directs their work, conducts business negotiations, educates, takes care of health, and provides various services to people. “Under the culture of speech is understood the possession of the norms of the literary language in its oral and written form, in which the choice and organization of language means are carried out, which allow, in a certain situation of communication and while observing the ethics of communication, to provide the necessary effect in achieving the goals of communication.”
The culture of speech contains three components: normative, communicative; ethical. The concept of "culture of speech" is associated with the laws and features of the functioning of the language, as well as with speech activity in all its diversity. It also includes the possibility provided by the language system to find a new language form to express specific content in each real situation of speech communication. The culture of speech is understood as a set of such qualities that have the best impact on the addressee, taking into account the specific situation and in accordance with the task. These include: the richness (variety) of speech, its purity, expressiveness, clarity and intelligibility, accuracy and correctness. Speech culture is not limited only to the concept of the correctness of speech and cannot be reduced, according to V.G. Kostomarov, to the list of prohibitions and the dogmatic definition of "right - wrong". The concept of "culture of speech" is closely related to the patterns and features of the development and functioning of the language, as well as to speech activity in all its diversity.
To build an objective theory of speech culture that is alien to taste assessments, they write in the article “The Theory of Speech Activity and the Culture of Speech” by V.G. Kostomarov, A.A. Leontiev and B.S. Schwarzkopf, - it is necessary to turn to psycholinguistics or, more broadly, to the theory of speech activity. The central concept of "correctness" of speech - the literary and linguistic norm - cannot be determined based only on the internal systemic factors of the language and requires the study, in particular, of the psychological laws governing speech activity. Along with sociological factors, these latter largely determine the "norm" and, more broadly, the "culturedness" of literary expression. Therefore, anyone who wants to improve their speech culture should understand: what is the national Russian language, in what forms does it exist, what written language differs from oral, in what varieties are characteristic of oral speech, and what functional styles are, and why there are phonetic, lexical, grammatical variants in the language, and what is their difference.
The culture of speech is interested in how a person uses speech for the purposes of communication. The correctness and communicative expediency of speech are considered to be two stages - the lowest and the highest - mastering the literary language. “The correctness of speech is an indispensable, but elementary criterion of speech culture. The true height of speech culture is determined by the variety of ways of expressing the same meaning, which are under consideration, the speaker, the accuracy and expediency of their choice according to the communicative task. The correctness of speech implies the observance by the speaker of the norms of the literary language. The norms of the literary language correlate with the levels of the language system.
The second stage of speech culture can be defined as the motivated use of language tools for the purposes of communication, as the optimal use of the language in specific communication conditions. This stage presupposes a high level of development of speech culture, which, in relation to school practice, is conveniently designated using the simple and understandable term good speech.
Proper pronunciation and stress is essential for the success of communication and understanding of speech. Errors related to incorrect pronunciation of words are the most obvious. After all, we first hear the word, and then pay attention to its spelling.
Normative aspect of speech culture
The basis of the culture of speech is the literary language. It constitutes the highest form of the national language. In the scientific linguistic literature, the main features of the literary language are highlighted. These include: processing; sustainability (stability); mandatory for all native speakers; normalization. The main distinguishing quality of the literary language is its normativity. Each sphere of the literary language has its own system of norms, which is obligatory for all its speakers (for example, lexical, morphological norms). In Russian linguistics, for a long time, the norm was understood as an exemplary rule, fixed by literary works, protected by science and the state, regulating pronunciation, stress, the formation of words and their forms, the construction of sentences and their intonation. This "rule" must be understood, first of all, as an objective regularity of the very structure and system of the language, and then as its description, formulation in grammars and dictionaries. In this case, the norm is now called codification.
For a more complete and deeper understanding of the norm, perhaps one should always take a functioning structure and take into account paradigmatics and syntagmatics as two forms of "behavior" of language signs in the process of its functioning. When speech is deployed, firstly, the choice of one member of a particular paradigm occurs, and secondly, the choice of one of the syntagmatic possibilities of a word (or another linguistic sign). The norm just prescribes what choice should be made by the author of the speech. The norm regulates the choice of one of the variants of the paradigm - in those cases, of course, when these options are in the structure of the language and when only one of them is preferred by the language community.
The problem of social preference for the paradigmatic and syntagmatic possibilities of the language becomes very acute during the formation of the national language. Fixation in the literature helped to form the national language norm, and the national language norm ensured the unity of the national language, as it eliminated the existing numerous and sharp fluctuations in the paradigmatic and syntagmatic choice associated with the interaction of dialects and interlingual influences.
The norm presupposes a certain evaluative attitude of speakers and writers to the functioning of the language in speech: this is possible, but this is not; they say so, but they don't say so; so right and so wrong. This attitude is formed under the influence of literature (its authoritative figures for society), science (it begins to describe, “codify” norms), schools, etc. The norm is a property of the functioning structure of the language, created by the team using it due to the constantly operating need mutual understanding. It is this need that prompts people to prefer some options and reject others - in order to achieve the unity of the language system. Along with the growing need of society for such unity, the linguistic norm grows stronger, reaching its highest development in the national literary language.
A norm is a historically accepted (preferred) choice of one of the functional paradigmatic and syntagmatic variants of a linguistic sign in a given language community. Therefore, fluctuations in the norm are inevitable, the coexistence in separate "nodes" of the old and new norms or norms coming from different subsystems. common system the language of the people.
The norm becomes a regulator of people's speech behavior, but this is a necessary but insufficient regulator, because compliance with the requirements of the norm alone is not enough for oral or written speech to be quite good, that is, to have the necessary finish and culture for communication. This is explained by the fact that the norm regulates, so to speak, the purely structural, symbolic, linguistic side of speech, without affecting the relations of speech to reality, society, consciousness, and people's behavior that are most important in communication. Speech can be quite correct, i.e., not violating the language norm, and inaccessible for easy understanding. It may be logically inaccurate and contradictory, but correct. It may be correct and in certain cases completely inappropriate. In addition to the norm, there are other regulators of human speech behavior, which, without dividing, can be denoted by the word "expediency". The feeling of speakers and writers, their understanding of the expediency of this or that word, this or that intonation, this or that syntactic construction and their complex linkage within integral segments of the text and the entire text - this is the powerful force that forges exemplary speech and allows us to speak about the highest degree of speech culture. Only a reasonable and lasting union of the norm and expediency ensures the culture of speech of society and the individual.
The norm acts quite rigidly, it is "given" by the system itself and the structure of the functioning language, it is objective and obligatory for those who speak and write. Expediency is “set” by the consciousness of speaking and writing people, who subjectively understand and evaluate the objective necessity of each (in addition to correctness) from the communicative qualities of good speech. The norm is the same for all members of the language community, expediency has a wide range of differences and fluctuations caused by both the variants of the functioning language (styles), and the social differences of human groups within a single society (professional, age and others), and the variety of changing communicative tasks and conditions. Expediency is objective as a necessity that necessarily arises in the process of communication, but it is also subjective as the awareness and implementation of this need by individuals.
The language norm (literary norm) is the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, i.e. the rules for pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means adopted in social and linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).
The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms: orthoepic, spelling, word-formation, lexical morphological, syntactic, intonation, punctuation.
The communicative aspect of speech culture
The culture of speech develops the skills of selecting and using language means in the process of speech communication, helps to form a conscious attitude to their use in speech practice in accordance with communicative tasks. The choice of language means necessary for this purpose is the basis of the communicative aspect of speech culture. A well-known philologist, a major specialist in the culture of speech G.O. Vinokur wrote: "There are means for every end, this should be the slogan of a linguistically cultural society."
Communicative expediency is considered one of the main categories of the theory of speech culture, therefore it is important to know the basic communicative qualities of speech and take them into account in the process of speech interaction. In accordance with the requirements of the communicative aspect of the culture of speech, native speakers must be able to functional varieties language, as well as focus on the pragmatic conditions of communication, which significantly affect the optimal choice and organization of speech means for this case.
The literary language serves various spheres of human activity: politics, science, verbal art, education, legislation, official business communication, informal communication of native speakers (everyday communication), international communication, print, radio, television. Depending on the goals and objectives that are set in the process of communication, there is a selection of various language means. As a result, peculiar varieties of a single literary language are created, called functional styles.
The term functional style emphasizes that the varieties of the literary language are distinguished on the basis of the function (role) that the language performs in each specific case. Usually, the following functional styles are distinguished: scientific, official-business, newspaper-journalistic, colloquial-everyday. The styles of the literary language are most often compared on the basis of an analysis of their lexical composition, since it is in the lexicon that the difference between them is most noticeable. The attachment of words to a certain style of speech is explained by the fact that the lexical meaning of many words, in addition to the subject-logical content, also includes emotional and stylistic coloring. In addition to the concept and stylistic coloring, the word is able to express feelings, as well as an assessment of various phenomena of reality. There are two groups of emotionally expressive vocabulary: words with a positive and negative assessment. Depending on what kind of emotional-expressive assessment is expressed in a word, it is used in various styles of speech. Emotionally expressive vocabulary is most fully represented in colloquial and everyday speech, which is distinguished by liveliness and accuracy of presentation. Expressively colored words are also typical for journalistic style. However, in scientific and official business styles of speech, emotionally colored words are usually inappropriate.
In everyday everyday dialogue, characteristic of oral speech, mostly colloquial vocabulary is used. It does not violate the generally accepted norms of literary speech, but it is characterized by a certain freedom. For example, if instead of the expressions blotting paper, reading room, dryer, we use the words blotter, reader, dryer, then, quite acceptable in colloquial speech, they are inappropriate in official, business communication. In addition to the words that make up the specifics conversational style in the entire scope of their meaning and not found in other styles, there are also words that are colloquial in only one of the figurative meanings. communicative ethical norm speech One of the meanings of the word communication is “the communication of information by one person to another or to a number of persons; communication". Since the addresser (creator of information) and the addressee/addressees (perceiving information) take part in the act of communication, it is important to determine what communicative qualities the speaker’s speech should have in order for the addressee to correctly decode it, adequately perceive it and be interested in receiving information. The communicative qualities of speech that have the best impact on the addressee, taking into account the specific situation and in accordance with the goals and objectives set, include: accuracy, intelligibility, richness and variety of speech, its purity, expressiveness .
Accuracy is determined by the ability to think clearly and clearly, knowledge of the subject of conversation and the laws of the Russian language. What causes speech to be inaccurate? Let's name the most common: the use of words in an unusual meaning; ambiguity not eliminated by the context, generating ambiguity; mixture of paronyms, homonyms. The intelligibility of speech is related to its effectiveness, efficiency and depends on the nature of the words used. In order for speech to be understandable, it is necessary to limit the use of words that are on the periphery of the vocabulary of the language and do not have the quality of communicative validity. These include: highly specialized terms; foreign words not widely used; professionalisms, that is, words and expressions used by people of the same profession. When using a scientific term, a foreign word, dialectism, one must be sure that they are understandable to listeners. Otherwise, it is necessary to give appropriate explanations of the meanings of the words used. The richness of speech testifies to the erudition of the speaker, his high intelligence. The richness of an individual language makes it possible to diversify speech, give it accuracy and clarity, and avoid repetitions, both lexical and syntactic. The richness of any language lies in the richness of the vocabulary. Some researchers believe that the active vocabulary of a modern person does not exceed 7-8 thousand different words, according to others, it reaches 11-13 thousand words. expressiveness speech enhances the effectiveness of the speech: a vivid speech arouses interest among listeners, maintains attention to the subject of conversation, has an impact on the mind, feelings, and imagination of listeners. Special artistic techniques, figurative and expressive means of language, traditionally called tropes (comparison, metaphor, metonymy, hyperbole, etc.) and figures (antithesis, inversion, repetition, etc.), as well as proverbs, sayings, help the speaker to make speech figurative, emotional. , phraseological expressions, winged words. So, the correctness of our speech, the accuracy of the language, the clarity of the wording, the skillful use of terms, foreign words, the successful use of visual and expressive means of the language, proverbs and sayings, winged words, phraseological expressions, the richness of the individual dictionary increase the effectiveness of communication, enhance the effectiveness of the spoken word. Communicative expediency is the most important category of speech culture. The ethical aspect of the culture of speech and oratory
The ethical aspect of the culture of speech prescribes the knowledge and application of the rules of linguistic behavior in specific situations. Ethical norms of communication are understood as speech etiquette (speech formulas of greeting, request, question, gratitude, congratulations, etc.; appeal to "you" and "you"; choice of a full or abbreviated name, etc. The use of speech etiquette is greatly influenced by extralinguistic factors: the age of the participants in the speech act (purposeful speech action), their social status, the nature of the relationship between them (official, informal, friendly, intimate), time and place of speech interaction, etc. The ethical component of the culture of speech imposes a strict ban on foul language in the process of communication, condemns the conversation in "raised tones". The expression oratory has several meanings. Oratory is primarily understood as a high degree of skill in public speaking, a qualitative characteristic of oratory, skillful possession of a living persuasive word. It is the art of constructing and delivering a public speech in order to have the desired impact on the audience. It should also be borne in mind that oratory has always served and serves the interests of certain social classes, groups, and individuals. It can equally serve both truth and falsehood, be used not only for moral, but also for immoral purposes. To whom and how does oratory serve - this is the main question that has been resolved throughout the history of oratory, starting from Ancient Greece. Therefore, in oratory, the moral position of the speaker, his moral responsibility for the content of the speech, is very important. Oratory is a historical phenomenon, that is, it changes. Each era makes its demands on the speaker, imposes certain duties on him, has his own rhetorical ideal. When evaluating the performance of a particular speaker, one should take into account the historical era, which gave birth to this speaker, the spokesman of the public interests of which he was. Each speaker has his own individual characteristics that affect the style of speech, appear in the manner of speaking. Therefore, the theorists of oratory have long distinguished different types of speakers. So, Cicero in his work "On the Orator" called three types. To the first he attributed speakers "magnificent, with sublime power of thought and solemnity of expressions." According to him, these speakers are "decisive, diverse, inexhaustible, powerful, fully armed, ready to touch and convert hearts." The second type, according to the classification of the Roman theorist, belongs to speakers "restrained and insightful, teaching everything, explaining everything, and not exalting, honed in their transparent, so to speak, and concise speech." The third type of orators Cicero characterized as follows: "... an average and, as it were, moderate kind, not using either the subtle foresight of the latter, or the stormy onslaught of the former ..." In modern literature on oratory, different types of speakers are also distinguished: speakers, for whom the main means of oratory is the logic of reasoning, and speakers who influence listeners with their emotionality. Of course, the division of speakers into types is somewhat arbitrary, but it has a scientific basis. Academician I.P. Pavlov, in his writings, substantiated the presence in humans of two extreme types of higher nervous activity - artistic and mental. Depending on what type of higher nervous activity a person belongs to, he pronounces speech and perceives it differently. When talking about different types of speakers, they take into account which side of a person’s speech prevails - emotional or logical. It should be borne in mind that each speech should be both logical and emotional. Therefore, one cannot be only an emotional orator and not care about the logic of reasoning. If the speaker speaks enthusiastically, with great pathos, but his speech is empty, then such a speaker irritates the listeners, causes protest and censure. Those speakers who speak dispassionately, unemotionally also lose. It is very important that the person speaking from the podium be a highly moral person, because his word can influence the fate of people, help them make one or another decision. The speeches of the speaker should be aimed at achieving moral goals, evoke good feelings and intentions in the audience. The speaker must be an erudite person, that is, well-read, knowledgeable in the field of science and technology, literature and art, understand politics and economics, be able to analyze events taking place in the country and abroad, etc. He must know the subject well of his speech. Only if the speaker understands the topic of the speech, if he can tell the audience a lot of interesting things and bring new facts unknown to the audience, if he manages to answer the questions that arise, can he count on the attention and respect of the audience. To speak in public, a speaker must have a number of special skills and abilities. According to psychologists, a skill is the ability to perform this or that operation in the best possible way. The main skills of a public speaker include the following: From the acquired skills, the skills of the speaker are added. He must be able to: If the speaker lacks any skills and abilities, then his communication with the audience may turn out to be ineffective. For example, a speaker writes well the text of a speech, but does not know how to simply and clearly state it in an audience; the speaker enthusiastically tells, but has not learned to fit into the time allotted for the speech and does not have time to express the main points of the speech, etc. Thus, becoming a good speaker is not easy. The skill of the speaker depends on his individual characteristics, it consists of many knowledge, skills and abilities. To acquire them, you need to work hard on yourself, study the experience of famous speakers of the past and present, learn from the best examples oratory and try to speak as often as possible. Conclusion
I chose the topic "Culture of speech and public speaking” due to the fact that now there is a decrease in the culture of speech everywhere, not only at the level of everyday communication, but also in the speeches of politicians and officials, articles, literary works. It is practically impossible to listen to the correspondents of local TV channels - the mistakes they make “cut” the ear and create emotional discomfort. I am aware that knowing how to pronounce or stress correctly is a necessary requirement of modern times. But due to the extreme complexity of the Russian language, as well as the laziness and illiteracy of the population, language norms remain alive only on the pages of specialized publications. If you believe the studied literature on the culture of speech, language norms change due to objective historical language processes and are a concept that is constantly evolving and changing, it becomes scary from what today's disregard for the native language can lead to. The study of the chosen topic further strengthened my awareness of the need to turn to dictionaries in case of difficulties, as the main carriers of the Russian literary language today.
First of all, it is useful to find out whether we mean exactly speech, as opposed to language, when we talk about the culture of speech. This is all the more necessary because attempts are being made to distinguish between the culture of language and the culture of speech, and these attempts are not groundless.
It is well known that the problem of the unity and difference of language and speech is one of the most difficult theoretical problems, and it should be comprehended in its entirety in the course " General linguistics” and in special theoretical works.
The terms and concepts of "language" and "speech" are closely related and interact with the terms and concepts of "speech activity", "text", "content (meaning) of the text".
Therefore, it is desirable to take language and speech not only in relation to each other, but also in relation to speech activity, text and the meaning of the text.
Language is a sign communication mechanism; the totality and system of sign units of communication, in contrast to the variety of specific statements of individuals.
Speech activity is a set of psychophysiological works of the human body necessary for the construction of speech.
Text is a verbal, oral or written work, which is a unity of some more or less complete content (meaning) and speech that forms and expresses this content.
The meaning of the text is specific information expressed by speech and formed in the mind of a person.
The culture of speech is a combination and system of its communicative qualities, and the perfection of each of them will depend on different conditions, which will include the culture of the language, the ease of speech activity, and the semantic tasks and possibilities of the text.
The richer the language system, the more opportunities to vary speech structures, providing the best conditions for communicative speech impact. The more extensive and freer the speech skills of a person, the better, ceteris paribus, he “finishes” his speech, its communicative qualities - correctness, accuracy, expressiveness and others. The richer and more complex the semantic tasks of the text, the greater the requirements it imposes on speech, and, responding to these requirements, speech acquires greater complexity, flexibility and diversity.
This or that text, especially a literary one, is filled with personal meanings: it is needed to express the vision and understanding of some phenomena of reality, by a separate individual - even when this individual expresses not his own, but generally accepted views.
The second theoretical prerequisite for understanding and describing the culture of speech is the solution to the problem of the language norm. In most works on the culture of speech, the central place is occupied by the correctness of speech, always associated with the norm of the literary language. Speech is correct if it does not violate the language norm.
However, upon careful consideration of the use of the term "language norm" in modern linguistic texts, some vagueness of its semantic boundaries and even ambiguity of its understanding become apparent. L.G. Skvortsov writes: “The norm of the language” is the central understanding of the culture of speech. At the same time, this is one of the most difficult problems, the multidimensionality of which is determined by historical, cultural, sociological and linguistic facts. Its lack of study is reflected primarily in the instability of terminology, in the vagueness and diversity of the definition of "language norm".
The set of rules governing the use of words, pronunciation, spelling, the formation of words and their grammatical forms, the combination of words and the construction of sentences is called the literary norm.
V.A. Itskovich in the book "Linguistic Norm" writes: "The term "norm" in linguistics is most often used in two different meanings. Firstly, the generally accepted, fixed in the language usage is called the norm. Secondly, the norm is the use recommended by grammar, dictionary, reference book, supported by the authority of a famous writer, poet, and so on. Finally, some authors do not differentiate these differences, but unite them, defining the norms as "generally accepted and legalized use." V.A. Itskovich gives with reference to the work of Yu.S. Stepanov "Fundamentals of Linguistics", the following definition of the norm: "The norm is the meanings of words that objectively exist at a given time in a given language community, their phonetic structure, models of word formation and inflection and their real content, models of syntactic units - the word combination of sentences - and their real content ".
The norm presupposes a certain evaluative attitude of speakers and writers to the functioning of the language in speech: this is possible, but this is not; they say so, but they don't say so; so right and so wrong. This attitude is formed under the influence of literature, science, school and so on.
Norm is a property of the functioning structure of the language, created by the collective using it due to the constantly operating need for better mutual understanding. It is this need that prompts people to prefer some options and reject others - in order to achieve the unity of the language system. Along with the growth of society's need for such unity, the linguistic norm is growing stronger, reaching its highest development in the national literary language.
A norm is a choice of one of the functional paradekmatic and syntagmatic variants of a linguistic sign, historically accepted in a given language community. Therefore, fluctuations in the norm, coexistence in separate "nodes" of the old and new norms or norms coming from different subsystems of the general system of the language of the people are inevitable.
The norm becomes a regulator of people's speech behavior, but this is a necessary but insufficient regulator, because compliance with the requirements of the norm alone is not enough for oral or written speech to turn out to be quite good, that is, to have the finish and culture necessary for communication. This can be explained by the fact that the norm regulates, so to speak, the purely structural, symbolic, linguistic side of speech, without affecting, without capturing the most important communication relations of speech to reality, society, consciousness, and people's behavior. Speech can be quite correct, that is, not violating the language norm, and inaccessible for easy understanding. It may be logically inaccurate and contradictory, but correct. It can be correct and in certain cases completely inappropriate. That is why Pushkin, and Belinsky, and L. Tolstoy, and Gorky understood perfectly well that speaking and writing correctly does not mean speaking and writing well.
Apparently, in addition to the norm, there are other regulators of human speech behavior, which, without dividing it, can be denoted by the word "expediency". The feeling of the speaker and the writer, their understanding of the expediency of this or that word, this or that intonation, this or that syntactic construction and their complex linkage within integral segments of the text and the entire text - this is the powerful force that forges exemplary speech and allows you to talk about the highest degree of speech culture. Only a reasonable and lasting union of norms and expediency ensures the culture of speech of society and the individual.
The norm acts quite rigidly, it is "given" by the system itself and the structure of the functioning language, it is objective and obligatory for those who speak and write. Expediency is not "set" by the very structure of the language, it is "set" by the consciousness of speaking and writing people, who subjectively understand and evaluate the objective necessity of each of the communicative qualities of good speech. The norm is the same for all members of the language community, the expediency has a wide band of differences and fluctuations caused by both the variants and the functioning language, and the social differences of human groups within a single society, and the variety of changing communicative tasks and conditions.
Expediency is objective as a necessity that necessarily arises in the process of communication, but it is also subjective as the awareness and implementation of this need by individuals.
The third theoretical premise of the doctrine of speech culture is the understanding of language styles and their impact on speech culture. It can be assumed that the communicative qualities of speech have unequal strength and distinctness of detection in different language and speech styles. Therefore, first of all, there is a need to somehow understand, to define what is hidden behind these terms.
Let us agree to call language styles the types of its functioning, its structural and functional variants that serve different types of human activity and differ from each other in sets and systems of features sufficient for intuitive recognition of these variants in speech communication.
Specialists have few styles of language. It is usually customary to talk about artistic, scientific, business, journalistic, colloquial and everyday and industrial and technical styles.
Language styles should be taken into account when constructing a theory of speech culture, not only because they have an impact on the communicative qualities of speech, but also because speech communication is carried out, in essence speaking, not in the language as a whole, but in one or another from his functional styles, and therefore the understanding of the communicative qualities of the language should change somewhat - depending on which of the language styles is meant as functioning in the process of communication.
Language styles are actually embodied in numerous and many-sided styles of speech, each of which represents its typical organization and structure, quite stable and correlated with the styles of the language, goals and objectives of communication, genres of literature, situations of communication and the personality of the author. The influences between speech styles and its culture require close attention and study.
Among the most important in the theory of speech culture, one should also include such a premise, such a theoretical condition as understanding the typical systemic connections of the structure of speech with non-speech structures. This can be called, if you like, a systematic approach to the study of the culture of speech, and it is this approach that promises a fairly convincing, fairly broad and fairly updated understanding of the communicative qualities of speech, which have been noticed and named a long time ago, but have not yet come into the field of close attention. linguists.
