A.M. Feofanov

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY OF THE XVIII - BEGINNING OF THE XIX CENTURY (SOCIAL ORIGIN AND LIFE)

UNIVERSITY AND SOCIETY: STUDENTS OF MOSCOW UNIVERSITY IN XVIII -ARLY XIX CENTURY (BACKGROUND AND MODE OF LIFE)

Keywords Keywords: history of Russia in the late 18th - early 19th centuries, Moscow University, social composition of the population, students, social composition of the population of the Russian Empire.

Key words: history of Russia of late XVIII - early XIX century, Moscow University, social membership of population, students, social membership of population of the Russian Empire.

annotation

The article talks about the existence of the Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence, the end of the 18th - the beginning of the 19th century. Such a little-studied issue as the life of students, its social composition, way of life, cultural life, participation in public life is touched upon. The conditions of life and education at Moscow University are compared with the conditions that existed in Western, primarily German, universities.

The article tells about Moscow Imperial University in the first decades of its existence (late XVIII - early XIX century). There is touched upon such an insufficiently known problem as students’ life, its social membership, mode of life, cultural life, participation in public life. The conditions of life and education in Moscow University are compared to those of European ones, first of all of German universities.

The formation and development of Moscow University took place with the direct participation of the state, which needed trained personnel. University graduates joined the ranks of officials, the military, became writers, scientists and courtiers, i.e. constituted the elite of society. But university education did not immediately acquire value in the eyes of society. Namely, the attitude of society to education and determined the number of students. Of course, society's view of the university also changed depending on the policy pursued by the state, and not only in the field of education, but also social policy. The university itself, as a scientific and social center, had a cultural impact on society.

Number and social composition. The social composition reflects the degree of connection with the university of various strata of society. So far, historiography has not received adequate coverage of the issue of the number and social composition of students at Moscow University in the period under review. Everything was limited common phrases about the "raznochinsk character" of Moscow University in the second half of the 18th - the first quarter of the 19th century, in order to emphasize its "democratic" direction.

Several epochs are distinguished in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University. Surges in receipts are associated with an increase in public attention to

university. A surge was (sometimes) followed by a fall. The sharp increase in the number of students is associated with the renovation of the university Muravyov, when there was a tripling of the number of students.

AT initial period, which lasted until the end of the 1770s, the maximum number of students admitted did not exceed 25 people, and the average value was 15 students per year.

Since 1780, in the dynamics of the number of students at Moscow University, the results of the impact of the “Novikov decade” that began in 1779 have been felt. In 1780-1784. The number of students entering the university increased sharply and fluctuated from 17 to 54 people, with an average number of 37 people. A significant number of students in these years were accepted for the maintenance of the Friendly Scientific Society.

Beginning in 1785, student enrollment fell again. Moscow University, as the center of the Masonic circle, caused concern and distrust of the government of Catherine II, Novikov's public initiatives were suppressed, and the university itself could not yet independently provide for itself a wide influx of students.

new period in the dynamics of the number of students opened in 1803, when one of the results of university reforms was to attract public attention to Moscow University. From that moment on, the number of applicants has been steadily growing: in 1803-1809 it was from 28 to 61 people, in 1810-1820 - from 70 to 117 people. All this indicates a qualitative change in the social status of Moscow University after the adoption of the Charter of 1804 and the new role of students in society, when studying at the university began to be considered necessary for further entry into life. The clear boundary between 1809 and 1810 is connected with the same change. under the influence of the decree adopted on August 6, 1809 on examinations for the rank. This decree established a direct link between education and promotion to rank, requiring all those wishing to receive the ranks of the 8th and 5th grades to present a certificate received from the university and indicating that they had passed the exams. After the adoption of the decree, the number of people wishing to become students increased dramatically.

Starting with a modest figure of 30 students and about 15 applicants per year, Moscow University by 1812 reached the milestone of 300 students (students and students), which brought him into a number of the largest universities in Europe.

Moscow University was an all-class educational institution. The low number of students at Moscow University in the second half of the 18th century was explained primarily by the insufficient influx here from the leading Russian service class - the nobility. In the eyes of the Russian nobles of that time, studying at the university was not a value in itself, studying university sciences was considered a luxury that was not necessary for further service, and "the very word student sounded something not noble." The nobles willingly studied at the gymnasium, but instead of continuing their studies at the university, they preferred to enter cadet corps or immediately to military service. Raznochintsy, on the other hand, more often entered religious educational institutions, because they did not have the means to study at the university at their own expense.

In Europe, in the same way, the nobles preferred to pave the way to the highest state positions through military career. Representatives of the noble class "had an irresistible aversion to examinations and diplomas, because, unlike commoners, they did not need to document what was due to them by birthright." You can remember M.M. Speransky, who spoke sharply about exams for rank, offering to accept any nobleman into military service as an officer, requiring from them the only knowledge of the beginnings of mathematics and the Russian language.

Since the beginning of the XIX century. a steady trend is formed, according to which the nobles accounted for at least half of the applicants. These conclusions make it possible to significantly correct statements about the “raznochinsk” nature of Moscow University.

In total, for the period from the founding of Moscow University to the beginning of the Patriotic War of 1812, we identified, according to various data (indication of class when enrolling in a university gymnasium, title, biographical data), about 500 nobles and more than 400 commoners, out of a total of about 1,400 people who studied at the Moscow university of that time. From this we can conclude that the number of nobles was more than a third of total number of all students of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries, but hardly more than half. It should also be taken into account that many graduates of the Noble Boarding School, who were noblemen and became visitors to university lectures, remained under the jurisdiction of the boarding authorities, i.e. actually students, were not included in the published lists of students.

Let us now consider the main social groups of students in the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. more. Raznochintsy. This group includes the children of soldiers, philistines, merchants, petty officials (clerks, copyists, clerks), less often children of secretaries (boards, departments and spiritual consistories), doctors (head physicians, healers and assistant doctors), pharmacists, teachers. The main part of the raznochintsy were children of the clergy, mostly rural priests, less often deacons, as well as sextons, psalmists and other clerks.

Sometimes people from the clergy could have a close relationship with other social groups: they were the children of priests, whose ancestors were nobles, but for some reason they took the rank. For example, the father of Fyodor Petrovich Lubyanovsky was from noble family descending from a Polish native, but he himself served as a priest. From a noble family was Anton Antonovich Prokopovich-Antonsky, whose father became a priest in the Chernihiv province.

Peasants practically did not study at Moscow University during this period (although the “Project on the Establishment of Moscow University” of 1755 gave them such an opportunity): only the example of Gavrila Zhuravlev, a former serf, is known.

University Director Prince M.I. Argamakova. Some serfs could study at Moscow University with the permission of their masters, but did not receive freedom and, accordingly, were not students. This is how the serf Nikolai Smirnov, who was a servant of the Golitsyn princes, studied at the university.

Nobles. Among the students of Moscow University in the second half of the XVIII century. the whole spectrum is presented Russian nobility- from the capital to the provincial, from titled persons to small families. The first titled nobles appeared among the students of Moscow University as early as 1760. These are princes Leon Gruzinsky and Timofei Gagarin. We also meet representatives of such families as the Shikhmatovs, the Salagins, the Kasatkin-Rostovskys, and the Diveevs. At the same time, the famous memoirist, poet and playwright, Prince I. M. Dolgorukov studied at Moscow University.

Of course, among the nobles who studied at Moscow University, there were representatives not only of aristocratic families, but also of the broad mass of the service nobility. In 1779, to attract nobles to study, the Noble Boarding School was opened, created on the initiative of M.M. Kheraskov. Soon the boarding house gained a reputation as the leading elite educational institution in Moscow. Pupils of the upper classes received the right to attend university lectures. Thus, for the students of the Noble boarding school, the production of students at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. did not contradict the fact that they continued to be in the boarding house itself: we find such examples in the biographies

brothers Turgenev, Grammatin, Odoevsky. At the same time, the nobles willingly studied at the boarding school, but rarely continued their studies at the university itself.

As a result of the activities of the trustee M.N. Muravyov at Moscow University and government reforms in the field of education at the beginning of the 19th century. not only did the number of students increase sharply, but the social composition of the student body also changed. From 1807 to 1812 titled nobles entered the university every year. The lists of students included the names of not only Russian princes, but also German Baltic barons, such as Engelhard, Ridiger, Bistrom, Budberg, and others.

In Europe, for representatives of the third estate, a university diploma opened the way to state (royal or princely) service1. In response to competition from educated commoners who served in the state apparatus, the need for education also arose among the nobility. In the XVIII century. “the ruling class, in order to maintain its position, was forced to receive a university education”2. The lectures of professors are listened to by the aristocracy, including princes, counts, barons and princes of the royal house. The titled nobility was in the XVIII century. in the universities of Würzburg, Tübingen, Strastburg and Jena about 5%, in Leipzig, Heidelberg and Halle about 7%, and in Göttingen it even reached 13%3

Russian nobles of the second half of the 18th century. considered the university as a stepping stone to start a future service career, and for this they mainly used the gymnasium (where they received the certificates necessary for promotion to the rank, which was not the case in Europe), and students were rarely enrolled. Therefore, initially the students of Moscow University, indeed, had a raznochin character, although the share of nobles in it was about one quarter and was quite tangible. Gradually, the social composition of students changed in favor of an increasing proportion of the nobles, which indicated the strengthening of the public recognition of the university and its role in the education of the service class.

Age of students enrolled in the university. An exact answer is much more difficult due to the imperfection of our source data. In the absence of an archive for the second half of the 18th - the first decade of the 19th century. in our reconstructed lists of students, we can establish the year of their birth only if there is any additional data. These are, firstly, the statements about the successes of students who studied in 1764-1768, preserved in the RGADA, in which, along with other data, the age of students was given. Also, the year of birth is known among those students who became writers, statesmen and public figures, and then student lists can be supplemented with data from biographical dictionaries.

The majority of students entering Moscow University were between 15 and 19 years of age. An absolute record for the second half of the 18th century. recorded in the case of Yevgeny Syreyshchikov (in the future - a teacher at a university gymnasium, who received the title of extraordinary professor of philosophy there): he was promoted to students from the gymnasium at the age of 11 in 1768, when the student body was significantly weakened after the removal of several dozen students for work in the Legislative Commission. AT early XIX in. such cases were somewhat more common: at the age of 11, Alexander Lykoshin entered the students and, apparently, his comrade Griboedov (if we assume the later of the two possible dates of the writer’s birth), and at the age of 13 Griboyedov had already graduated from the verbal department of his university with a degree candidate, and later continued to listen to lectures of the ethical and political department.

In general, in the XVIII century. students were older (16-18 years old) than at the beginning of the 19th century, and even older (as a rule, 19 years old and above) were graduates of seminaries entering the university (as D.N. Sverbeev wrote, they already “shaved their beards” ). In connection with the desire of noble families to accelerate the advancement of their offspring through the ranks at the beginning of the 19th century. there was such a phenomenon as "students-boys".

It was the Charter of 1804, which secured the right to the rank of class 14 for the title of university student, that stimulated noble families to send their children to students as early as possible (a phenomenon akin to how in the 18th century noble children from infancy

were in the regiments). The fact that when enrolling in a university at the beginning of the 19th century. in noble families, the title of a student was valued primarily, and not the opportunity to comprehend science, the diary of S.P. perfectly conveys. Zhikhareva. “My title is not a trifle and will please my

home,” writes Zhikharev, who became a student in 1805 at the age of 16. “I foresee,” he continues, “that it will not be long for me to listen to my good professors. Father, delighted with my 14th grade, hurries the service.

1 Khavanova O.V. Merits of fathers and talents of sons. S. 12.

Paulsen F. German universities. S. 110.

3 A History of the University in Europe. P. 321.

Thus, the "rejuvenation" of the students of Moscow University in the early XIX

in. associated with the influx of students of young nobles.

The main problems of organizing student life are: did students stand out as a separate group, and with the help of what attributes did this happen. According to paragraph 21 of the "Project for the Establishment of Moscow University", the ultimate goal of a student's studies is to receive a certificate. This certificate fulfilled a certain social function(which, as a rule, was not in Western universities) - provided "protection" when entering the service. Noble students in the 18th century sought to obtain a certificate that gave the right to production in the next rank. For raznochintsy, the university had to specifically "petition" for their rank-and-file production.

Initially, the university was considered by the state almost exclusively as an educational institution for the training of officials, who can be taken away without waiting until the end of their period of study. A significant number of students who did not complete the course were assigned to serve in the Senate and others. state institutions were appointed as teachers. So, in 1767, 42 students were taken to the Legislative Commission, which disrupted the normal course of education, since after that only 5 students remained at the “higher” faculties: 4 in law and 1 in medicine.

The normal course of study of many of the students was interrupted Patriotic War 1812, during which many of them dropped out of school, joined the militia or went to provide medical care to the army. Among the reasons for the dismissal of students during this period, there is already a desire to continue education in other educational institutions. For example, Vasily Matveyevich Chernyaev in 1812 moved to the medical faculty of Kharkov University.

The rules of conduct at the university were quite strictly regulated. The first of the intra-university acts regulating the life of students was adopted in 1765. Students were forbidden to quarrel and fight, especially duels and seconds. This project was published in 1765 under the title "Charter, to the observation of which all university students undertake in writing." For admission to students, a certificate of "good manners" was required. Students had to "dress decently, avoiding cynical vileness, as well as excessive panache", "live modestly and in proportion to their incomes, without entering into any debts."

Uniform was the corporate sign of the university. “The university had its own uniform, similar to the uniform of the Moscow province,” crimson with a blue velvet collar and white buttons. The first mention of the introduction of a uniform at the university dates back to 1782 and is associated with the celebration of the 20th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Empress Catherine II. The uniform of the Moscow province, which both professors and students had to wear, then consisted of a red cloth camisole, knee-length pantaloons, stockings, shoes and a black triangular hat.

But not all students wore such a uniform. The only exceptions were the days of university-wide celebrations. From the notes of Timkovsky it is known that “the students did not have any specific uniform in their attire”, even “not everyone had a university uniform. Everyone, even those on a salary, was dressed as he could and as he wanted. Ilya Fedorovich himself wore a "Novgorod blue and black" uniform.

“Forms,” recalled Poludensky, who studied at the university in the 1790s, “as now, self-styled students did not have, as for the state students, they had

coats and uniforms. There was a difference in uniforms between the raznochintsy and the nobles, and, as was said before, they lived separately. “At first, the raznochintsy had a blue uniform with red cuffs, and the nobles had a red one with blue cuffs.” In fact, the difference in uniforms between raznochintsy and nobles was only among high school students. “When raznochintsy gymnasiums were promoted to students,” P.I. Strakhov, - they exchanged a crimson dress for a green noble one.

On October 14, 1800, Moscow University's own uniform was officially approved, different from the uniforms of other departments - a dark green caftan, "the collar and cuffs on the caftan are crimson, the buttons are white, in one half with the coat of arms of the Empire, and in the other with the attributes of learning." On April 9, 1804, a new student uniform was approved by the decree “On uniforms for Moscow University and subordinate schools”: “a single-breasted caftan of dark blue cloth, with a standing collar and crimson cuffs”, decorated with gold embroidery. But even during the reign of Alexander I, students, especially those of their own kind, continued to wear their own dress. According to the memoirs, "students, both state-owned and private, went in particular dresses, of course, almost all in frock coats and rare in tailcoats." And even in the 1820s, according to Pirogov's memoirs, "uniforms did not yet exist."

The situation changed only in the reign of Nicholas I. When examining the university, it was noticed that the students "do not have a uniform and defined uniform in all respects." On May 22, 1826, a decree was issued “On allowing state students of Moscow University to have shoulder straps on their uniforms” “to distinguish them from their own”, and on September 6, 1826, a decree “On uniforms for students of Moscow University and for pupils of a noble boarding school and gymnasium” . According to him, a blue single-breasted student uniform was adopted. The uniform was needed so that "students, having a uniform dress, accustomed to order and to their future appointment for public service."

No less, and even more important sign of a student than a uniform, was a sword. In § 23 of the Draft on the Establishment of Moscow University, it was indicated that the sword was given to students "for encouragement", "as is the case in other places." The sword was a symbol of personal dignity; it was worn by the nobles. Thus, non-nobles, receiving the title of students, were, as it were, equal in rights with the noble class. In addition, in accordance with the Charter of 1804, a university student entering the service was immediately enrolled in the 14th grade, which gave the rights of personal nobility. Therefore, after 1804, the handing over of the sword already had not only a symbolic, but also a real meaning of the change by the former raznochinets of his social status. THEM. Snegirev recalled how, after graduation in 1807 as a student, “with childish admiration he put on a student uniform, a three-cornered hat and hung a sword, which he put with him on the bed ... It seemed to me that not only relatives and neighbors, but also counter and the transverse ones looked at my sword, and what flattered my childish vanity most of all, the guards and soldiers saluted me.

Here we see a clear resemblance to German universities. Paulsen notes that if in the Middle Ages “university statutes forced the scholastic to wear spiritual dress, from the middle of the 17th century the student, both in dress and manners, considers himself a model of a nobleman. And along with the sword, this necessary accessory of a noble costume, the duel also penetrated into the university world. It is characteristic that at the same time fencing teachers appeared at the universities (in the Middle Ages, students were forbidden to carry weapons). So “the forms of life of the nobility acquire the value of an ideal; the place of the medieval scholar, the cleric-seminarian, is occupied by an academic student of the 17th century, who plays the role of a cavalier.

According to § 24 of the "Project for the Establishment of Moscow University", a university court was established. The appearance of such a university court confirmed

corporate nature of the first Russian university: after all, for any

of the European University, such a court was an inalienable property and exercised the right of "academic freedom" of the members of the corporation, according to which none of them (a professor, a student or even an employee of the university) was under the jurisdiction of the city authorities, but could be tried only by the same members as him. corporations, and only in accordance with the laws issued by his university. True, at Moscow University this norm did not take root well and acted without fail only in relation to students, while gymnasium teachers in the second half of the 1750s. had several clashes with the Moscow magistrate, trying to prove that they did not have the right to arrest them for misconduct (in particular, for debts). The University Charter of 1804 confirmed the corporate law of the university court.

On the conduct of cases in the university court in the XVIII century. give a presentation of excerpts from the minutes of the University Conference. The court was carried out by the director of the university together with other members of the Conference. The punishments for students who violated discipline (mainly due to fights) were deprivation of the sword, imprisonment for several days in a punishment cell, dismissal from state scholarships, and finally, expulsion from the university.

A special kind of violation of university regulations were cases of student marriage. Although there was no direct prohibition of a student from marrying in any university laws, however, the curator Adodurov wrote: “I was informed that student Yudin married among those who were on state support ... And as it does not happen in any Academy and university, and students not only is it indecent, but it also creates a great obstacle in teaching the sciences. Student Yudin was deprived of his scholarship.

Some students have fled the university. In the order of the curator Adodurov about the "runaway student" Ivan Popov dated October 30, 1768, just such a case is described. For his act, student Popov was expelled from the university and sent to the office of the Synod, since he came from a clergy class. Thus, the expelled student was deprived of the increase in social status he had achieved, returning back to his class.

Students in the 18th century begins to realize his own identity, to realize himself as a kind of community, different from other inhabitants of the city. This manifested itself, in particular, in clashes between representatives of the university and city dwellers. Such skirmishes begin from the very first years of its existence. Already in 1757

in the city, a fight between high school students and “titular junkers” (students of colleges) was recorded. Its instigator Pyotr Argamakov, the son of the university director, along with other participants was arrested and punished with rods.

“The city police,” recalled Pirogov, who studied at Moscow University in 1824-1828, “did not have the right to dispose of students and the guilty had to be delivered to the university.” This privilege was abolished by decree of Nicholas I dated

September 4, 1827 "On the assignment of students of Moscow University, living outside the university, to the supervision of the city police."

Students who were unable to study on their own allowance were admitted to the state kosht on the basis of a petition, subject to good academic performance, good behavior and presentation of a certificate of poverty, signed by several persons of noble birth. The first state students received 40 rubles a year. In 1799, their salary, which was paid out in thirds, was already 100 rubles. in year. If the number of state students exceeded the established number, they could be paid a student stipend, i.e. the same as received by state-owned high school students. Since 1804, the state kosht was 200 rubles a year, and in the medical department - 350 rubles. First of all, those students whom the government was preparing to serve as doctors or teachers were admitted to state-owned hospitals. After graduating from university, they were to

as compensation to the state for education, serve at least 6 years under the Ministry of Public Education.

Some students lived in apartments with friends or relatives. M.A. Dmitriev lived with his uncle. By kinship with Professor Barsov, Poludensky lived in his apartment. Without the help of acquaintances or relatives, it would be quite difficult for self-sufficient students to support themselves.

A favorite place for student meetings was the tavern "Great Britain", where comradely drinking parties were sometimes held. In general, students often visited taverns. “It happened very often,” recalled Dmitriev, “that, returning at one in the afternoon from lectures, I had to go on foot back either to Tverskaya or Kuznetskaya Most to dine with a restaurateur.”

In a letter from Göttingen to his brother, A.I. Turgenev, Nikolai, responding to the reproach of A.F. Merzlyakova, who “was hurt to see his friend’s brother often in the coffee shop and with Chebotarev,” writes: “I went there not for pranks, not to drink and fool around there, but for pleasure, completely allowed. There I often found acquaintances, friends, talked with them, drank tea, coffee, read newspapers and nothing more.

“According to the formidable saying of Sandunov at that time: “The samovar is a tavern tool and is not suitable for school”, this tool was vetoed, and therefore some had copper teapots and thus consoled themselves with tea drinking. Others fled for this business to the taverns Tsaregradsky (in Okhotny Ryad) and Znamensky (not far from the present Treasury Chamber). In these bright establishments (now there are no traces of them), some of the students were regular patrons. In taverns, students drank not only tea, but also stronger drinks. “It happened like this: the sex served tea, after a few seconds the spoon knocks, the sex rushes in. They say to him: “Give more hot water”, he grabs a kettle, in which there is still a lot of water (and no water is needed) and brings the same kettle, as if with water, but it contains aqua vitae. It can be seen that at that time the conditions of tavern establishments did not allow trading in precious moisture, and the owners were afraid of spies, who no doubt were everywhere. State-owned students managed to visit the tavern even in the morning before lectures.

Zhikharev preferred dinners and balls to other entertainment, he often attended opera and ballet. Pupils of the university with less demanding requests had fun in a different way: they participated in fistfights on Neglinnaya, where, according to the memoirs of I.M. Snegirev, “bursaks of the theological academy and students of the university converged, wall to wall: the little ones started, the big ones ended. The Neglin patchworkers helped the university students.”

Many students love holidays walk in Maryina Grove or Sokolniki. Lyalikov recalls that the students “did not miss the so-called monastic festivities on their temple holidays. Once, I remember, the three of us hired a boat at the Moskvoretsky Bridge (Aug. 6) and sailed to the Novospassky Monastery. They also swam to the Sparrow Hills, ate milk and raspberries in Maryina Roshcha and Ostankino.

The students also visited the theatre. The University Theater was one of the first in Russia. Students and high school students took part in the preparation of the performances. The theater had an educational mission, bringing the university closer to Russian society. In addition to theatrical performances, masquerades were also given at Christmas time or Shrovetide, and "on Sundays and holidays, evening dances or concerts sometimes took place."

Since 1760, the student troupe has become professional and is called the Russian Theatre. Such Russian actors as Troepolskaya, Lapin, Mikhailova and others began their activities in the university theater. In 1776, the entrepreneur Medox created the first permanent public professional theater in Moscow, for which in 1780 Medox built a large building on Petrovka Street - Petrovsky theatre. It was in it that in 1783 the comedy "Undergrowth" by Fonvizin was shown for the first time in Moscow. The troupe included outstanding actors, among them - Peter

Alekseevich Plavilshchikov, who graduated from Moscow University in 1779. In 1825, a new building was built on the site of the Petrovsky Theater (now the Bolshoi Theatre).

Students spent the money saved from tuition fees, as well as earned by translating books and private lessons, to visit the theater and buy books.

An important role during the stay of students at the university was assigned to their church life. When the university was located in the building of the Apothecary House, students went to services in the Kazan Cathedral. After the university acquired Repnin’s house, “next to this place, standing nearby along Nikitskaya Street, was the parish stone church of the Assumption of the Mother of God, or St. Dionysius the Areopagite, was renamed university and attached to it. On April 5, 1791, she was consecrated in the left wing of the university building under construction at Mokhovaya Church in the name of St. martyr Tatiana. In September 1817, the church of St. George on Krasnaya Gorka, and in 1820 a chapel was consecrated in honor of St. martyr Tatiana.

According to the memoirs of Poludensky, at the end of the XVIII century. At that time, there was no special church at the university, and students were taken in turn to different parish churches.

As Lyalikov recalled, students “usually fasted during the first week of Great Lent. Vespers were listened to in the large dining room in the constant presence of Sandunov and both sub-inspectors. The choir was one of their own." “We communed the Holy Mysteries,” he recalled, “in St. George’s Church on Mokhovaya. Imagine (even now it surprises me): during the entire time, quite a long time, the communion of students (there were 40 of us, and three times as many medical students) Sandunov and Mudrov were holding a veil in front of those approaching the chalice, like inspectors. Students visited not only the university church, but also other Moscow churches. “In general, we were often told to go to services in our parish (George on Krasnaya Gorka) church; but everyone constantly went to the neighboring Nikitsky Monastery or in groups somewhere far away, for example, to Donskoy, Novodevichy. The reasons for choosing this or that church were both beautiful singing and a good sermon in this temple. Zhikharev was a lover of church singing. After mass, however, he can go to see an art gallery (of the late Prince Golitsyn) or horse races.

Students also showed themselves as part of the literary space of Moscow. In the XVIII century. The university included a whole complex of institutions. It operated a library, a printing house and a bookstore. It was in the university printing house that the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti began to be printed, around which lovers of literature united. Gymnasium students and students of Moscow University were involved in the work on the issue of this newspaper. “Literary and typographical activity at the university,” Shevyrev writes, “every year revived more and more. The newspapers aroused the attentive participation of the public. In 1760 it was impossible to find a complete copy of the previous year's newspapers in a bookshop.

In the early 1760s, a new group of periodicals appeared at Moscow University - literary magazines. University publications were conceived as a plan to educate society through cultural impact on it.

The first four magazines ("Useful Entertainment", " Free hours”, edited by Kheraskov, “Innocent Exercise” (published by I.F. Bogdanovich), “Good Intention”), published at Moscow University in the early 1760s, were literary publications. They were attended famous writers- Sumarokov, Kheraskov, Trediakovsky and an extensive group of young people who began to try their hand at creativity.

In 1771, on the initiative of curator Melissino, Moscow University formed its first official scientific society - the Free “Russian” Assembly. It was founded "to correct and enrich the Russian language, through the publication of useful, and especially for the instruction of the youth of need, writings and translations,

verse and prose." Melissino himself was the chairman of the meeting, he was replaced by the director of the university

M.V. Priklonsky. The members of the society included many "noble persons", such as Princess Dashkova, historian M.M. Shcherbatov, Sumarokov and Prince Potemkin himself. The meetings of the Assembly were held very solemnly and magnificently. According to the descriptions of contemporaries, Potemkin sat at the table, "exhibiting the diamond buckles of his shoes, flaunting them in front of the students who, in uniforms, standing around, were present at these meetings." The Free Russian Assembly attracted the Russian elite to the cause of education, which made it possible to exert a significant influence on society and generate many supporters, including Novikov and M.N. Muraviev.

Societies of a somewhat different nature appeared at Moscow University in the 1780s. Their appearance is associated with the activities of Freemasons, primarily Novikov and Schwartz. Novikov himself was a pupil of the Moscow University; Kheraskov attracted him to work at the university. On May 1, 1779, the university concluded a contract with Novikov, according to which the university printing house was leased to him for ten years. the main objective Novikov was to spread enlightenment, "which he understood only as based on religious and moral principles, mainly in a mystical spirit." To translate foreign books, he attracted students, thereby providing them with substantial material support. Since 1779, he has been publishing the Morning Light magazine in Moscow.

In 1779 Novikov met Schwartz, a professor German language at the university. Their common goals were "the training of teachers in the spirit of Masonic ethics, the introduction of new rules of education." Thanks to their labors, in 1779 the Teacher's (Pedagogical) Seminary was opened, and in 1782 - the Translation (Philological) Seminary. The first of them was intended to prepare students for teaching, and the second - for translation into Russian foreign compositions. On March 13, 1781, at the university, on the initiative of Schwartz, the first student society was opened under the name "Assembly of University Pupils". The goal of the society was to "improve the Russian language and literature" through writings and translations. Many students were active participants in the meeting. M.I. Antonovsky “composed a charter for this society, the rules of which, considering the rules, the members of this society were so well educated that, after they left the university and entered the civil service, they then turned out to be the most capable people to it, so that a rare one of them now serves without distinction (except for those persecuted by envy and malice), less than the 4th class.

In 1782, on a Masonic basis, a Friendly Scientific Society was formed around the university. It brought together more than 50 people. More than 20 students studied under his supervision, including the future metropolitans Seraphim (Glagolevsky) and Mikhail (Desnitsky), professors P.A. Sokhatsky, A.A. Prokopovich-Antonsky and P.I. Strakhov. It was the circle of Novikov's comrades in the Friendly Scientific Society that produced literary publications at the university in the 1780s.

In 1781, Novikov published the "Moscow Monthly Edition", in 1782 the journal "Evening Dawn" began to be published, and from 1784 - "The Rest of the Worker". The content of these magazines mainly consisted of poems or "discourses" written by students on moral and philosophical topics. "The Rest of the Worker" had a pronounced occult-mystical orientation, as evidenced by the fact that articles such as "On the Science Called Cabal" were placed there, and the well-known mystic Swedenborg was also given a positive assessment.

Such an obvious propaganda of mysticism could not fail to attract the attention of the authorities. In a decree dated December 23, 1785, Catherine II wrote that “many strange books” were being printed in Novikov’s printing house, and Archbishop Platon was ordered to examine them and test Novikov in the law of God. As a result, Novikov's circle was persecuted:

in 1786 the Philological Seminary and the Friendly Learned Society were closed. As a result, student literary activity froze for several years.

Students of Moscow University took an active part in the social and literary life of Russia. Many of them were talented writers, poets; some of them became publishers. Thanks to the translation activities of students, Moscow and all of Russia got acquainted with Western literature. The process of education and upbringing continued outside the walls of university classrooms, in private apartments. Student circles formed new views, laid down a system of values, thus, the process of the student's entry into public life took place. This is how the “cultural colonization” of urban space by the university took place.

Thus, the transfer of European university realities to Russia took place, although the local soil created certain specifics. Moscow University, like European ones, was a corporation, the signs of which were relative autonomy, its own court, uniform and some other privileges.

The everyday life of students at Moscow University still bore the imprint of the estates they came from, and the formation of a single "corporate" denominator in the period under review is out of the question. At the same time, communication brought young men from different social groups together, formed single space ideas. Ultimately, the initial history of the students of Moscow University at that time testifies to the ongoing process of the formation of a student corporation, awareness of common interests and life tasks, which in many ways became characteristic of students mid-nineteenth in.

The university brought together representatives of different classes by organizing common forms of life. Although raznochintsy prevailed among students and professors at the university for a long time, it was closely associated with the culture of the nobility.

Introduction
1. Overview of the largest universities in Russia in the second half of the 19th century
2 Reforms in the field of university education
2.1 University charters
2.2 Legal status of students
3 Russian students in the second half of the 19th century
3.1 Social composition and outlook
3.2 Life and entertainment
3.3 Student communities
Conclusion
Bibliography

Introduction

The reform of education, which has been permanently taking place in Russia since 1996 to the present, raises a huge number of questions, an order of magnitude more than they are able to solve with its help. One way or another, the reform is aimed at modernizing our domestic education, which used to be considered the best in the world, on the model of Western European education. From a historical point of view, this is a return to the origins, since higher education in Russia appeared much later than in most European countries and was created according to the Western European model and mainly by the “hands” of Western European (German) scientists. However, those reforms that were carried out later left European scholasticism far behind, and now the educational reformers have decided to “catch up” with Europe again. Whether the reform being carried out in today's Russia will really be able to return Russian higher education to its rightful place in the world is another question. And the fact that many traditions, and far from the worst ones, were thrown overboard during modernization is a fact.
In this regard, the relevance of research into the history of the formation of modern Russian higher education, the historical experience of its reformation in the era of the "Great Reforms" of Alexander II, when Russia was "turned over" once again, and with it the system of higher education, is increasing.
At the same time, at the beginning of the XXI century. tendencies to change the value priorities that determine community development. Humanity is moving from industrial society with a pronounced technocracy of thinking towards post-industrial, informational, which implies a reassessment of the role of intelligence and human qualifications. The uniqueness of these processes in modern Russia due to the formation on its territory new system public relations associated with the change of socio-political and economic paradigms. The scale and pace of these transformations are forcing society to rely more and more on knowledge, so present stage development of Russia, education, in its inseparable connection with science, is becoming more and more powerful driving force economic growth, increasing the efficiency and competitiveness of the national economy, which makes it one of the most important factors national security.
The object of the study is the higher schools (universities) of post-reform Russia, considered in an organic relationship with the situation of Russian students in the second half of the 19th century.
The subject of the study is the historical process of reforming the Russian high school(universities) in the period of 60 - 90s. XIX century through university charters, as well as the Russian students of that era.
The study is based on the analysis of normative sources, journalism and memoirs of the period of the second half of the 19th century.

List of sources used

1. General Rules of the Imperial Universities. June 18, 1863 // Political History of Russia: Reader / Comp. IN AND. Kovalenko, A.N. Medushevsky, E.N. Moshchelkov. M.: Aspect Press, 1996. 624 p.
2. History of university education in pre-revolutionary Russia / Ed. ed. AND I. Saveliev. M.: Publishing house of NII VSh, 1993. 55 p.
3. Eymontova R.G. Russian universities on the verge of two centuries. From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M.: Nauka, 1985. 350 p.
4. Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755–1917.: collection / Comp. Yu.N. Emelyanov. M.: Sovremennik, 1989. 735 p.
5. Pushkarev S.G. Russia 1801–1917: power and society. M.: Posev, 2001. 672 p.
6. Russia. Encyclopedic Dictionary. L.: Lenizdat, 1991. 922 p.
7. Badaev M.I. Science and culture of Russia in the 19th century. – M.: Thought, 1978, 327 p.
8. Herzen A.I. Works. T.5. – M.: Fiction, 1982, 604 p.
9. complete collection laws Russian Empire. Meeting 2nd. T. 1-55. from 12 Dec. 1825 to March 1, 1881. St. Petersburg, 1830-1884.
10. Complete collection of laws of the Russian Empire. Meeting 3rd. T. 1-33. SPb., 1884-Pg. 1916.
11. General charter and provisional staff of the imperial Russian universities. SPb., 1884., 38 p.
12. Russian universities in their statutes and memoirs of contemporaries / Comp. THEM. Solovyov. SPb., 1914. Issue. 1. 572 p.
13. Universities and secondary educational institutions for men and women in 50 provinces of European Russia. SPb., 1888.
14. Georgievsky A.I. Brief historical outline of government measures against student unrest. SPb., 1890.

Overall volume: 43 pages

Year: 2011

Introduction

Chapter I

University education and students in Russia in 1850 - early 1860s

Chapter II

Legal status of Russian students

Chapter III

The material and everyday aspect of the situation of students in the second half of the XIX century

Conclusion

Introduction (excerpt)

Russian universities have always been islands of secular culture, education and creativity, which is impossible without some “freedom from”…. Freedom to some extent from power, ideology, freedom from isolation and class. Students have always been a special group of people, which had their own customs, traditions, their own culture and identity. It is the relationship between students and universities, which acted as conductors of state order and politics, that is and was the subject of research by domestic scientists both before the 1917 revolution and after.

The relevance of studying these relations has not disappeared to this day, because the authorities have always sought to put universities under control in order to be able to educate a loyal generation of young people. However, the paradox of such an attitude of power is that it almost never succeeded. Students at all times, even the most severe reaction, were aware of their unity, their interests and defended them in every possible way.

The purpose of this work is to try to solve a difficult dilemma: was the tsarist government the factor that determined not only the development of Russian students, but also predetermined its historical fate? Did the political weakness of the government, expressed in its dictatorship and authoritarianism, create conditions for development that predetermined the role of the Russian intelligentsia in the future? That is, the purpose of this work is an attempt to answer the question about the role of autocracy in the formation of a special type of intelligentsia, active in student years and passive during the crisis of power, unable to do anything and somehow turn the situation around.

Conclusion (excerpt)

The role of post-reform universities in social and political life was determined by deep objective prerequisites. Not only university problems proper lay at the basis of the university crisis, which became especially aggravated by the beginning of the 20th century. The unresolved contradictions of a society in which the development of capitalism was held back by feudal remnants, the absence of political freedoms at that time created a tense political climate in Russia in the last quarter of the 19th century. Even during the reforms of the 1960s, the government cut off any legal path to freedom, because it responded with repression even to simple petitions, because it never even allowed people to speak freely about freedom.

Literature

SOURCES

1. Kovalevsky M.M. Moscow University in the late 70s and early 80s of the last century. Personal memories / Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

2. Lebedev V.A. Educational memories. / Russian antiquity 1908. No. 7 - 10

3. General Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities in 1863/ w*w.lib.r* - Library of Maxim Mashkov.

4. Pisarev D.I. Works in 4 volumes. M., 1955 - 1956. T2

5. Full Code of Laws of the Russian Empire /under. ed. A.A. Dobrovolsky. SPb 1911., book 2

6. Sechenov I.M. At Moscow University (1850 - 1856) / Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

7. Sorokin V. Memoirs of an old student / Russian antiquity 1888 No. 12

LITERATURE

1. Andreev A.Yu. Lectures on the history of Moscow University. 1755-1855. M., 2001

2. Borodzin I.N. Universities in the era of the 60s - In the book History of Russia in the XIX century. SPb. 1908 - 1909. T4

3. Great reforms in Russia 1856 - 1874 / ed. L.G. Zakharova et al. M., 1992

4. Georgievsky A.I. Brief essay government measures and plans against student unrest. SPb. 1890

5. Janilyaev G.A. University autonomy / From the era of great reforms. 1893. 10th ed. SPb., 1907

6. Elenev F.P. Student riots. SPb.1888.

7. Ikonnikov V.S. Russian universities in connection with the progress public education/ Bulletin of Europe, 1876. No. 9 - 10

8. Klyuchevsky V.O. Course of Russian history / Electronic book. IDDK.2005

9. Leikina-Svirskaya V. R. Intelligentsia in Russia in 1901-1917. M., 1981

10. Leikina-Svirskaya V.R. Intelligentsia in Russia in the second half of the 19th century. M., 1971

11. Litvak B.G. Coup of 1861 in Russia: why the reformist alternative was not implemented. M., 1991

12. Moscow University in the memoirs of contemporaries. 1755-1917. M., 1989

13. Pokrovsky M.N. Russian history since ancient times. M., 1934

14. The revolutionary situation in Russia in the middle. XIX century / Ed. M.V. Nechkina M., 1978

15. Rozhdestvensky SV Historical review of the activities of the Ministry of Education. 1802-1902. SPb. 1902

16. Firsov N.A. Student stories at Kazan University 1855 - 1863 / Russian antiquity 1889. No. 3,4, 6 - 8

17. Shchetinina GI Students and the revolutionary movement in Russia. M., 1987

18. Shchetinina G. I. Universities in Russia and the charter of 1884, M., 1976

19. Eymontova R.G. Russian universities on the path of reform: the sixties of the XIX century. M., 1993

20. Eymontova R.G. Russian universities on the verge of two eras. From serf Russia to capitalist Russia. M., 1985

Federal Agency for Education
State educational institution
higher professional education
Vyatka State University
Faculty of Humanities
Department of History of Russia

COURSE WORK

« Russian STUDENTS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY »

Completed: student gr. Is-21 N.Yu.Kuritsyna

Scientific adviser: deputy chair

N.I. Nikulin

Kirov 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction …………………………………………………………………………….3
1 Overview of university education in the second half of the 19th century......................6
2 University statutes……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3 Students of Russia in the second half of the XIX century ……………………….17
3.1 Social composition and worldview ……………………………………...17
3.2 Life and entertainment …………………………………………………………..22
3.3 National corporations and student communities …..………………...29
Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………34
References ……………………………………………………………...36

Introduction

University education has existed in Europe for over 900 years, and in Russia for about 300. The university is one of the most enduring and fruitful creations of European genius. He played an outstanding role in the development and establishment of modern science throughout the world.
The system of university education in Russia differed significantly from the Western one, although it was its direct successor. It was the difference from others and the originality of the educational system that attracted scientists to the study of Russian universities.
The first scientific research on the history of Russian universities appeared in the second half of the 19th century, first of all, to note the publication of the professor of Kyiv University V. Ikonnikov “Russian universities in connection with the course of social development”, placed in the “Bulletin of Europe” (1876, No. 9-11 ). The author made one of the first attempts to trace the development of the university idea in Russia and its implementation over a century and a half. He considered the history of universities in close connection with the social life of the country. It is also worth highlighting the essay by P.N. Milyukov “Universities of Russia”, placed in volume 68 of the Encyclopedic Dictionary of F.A. Brockhaus - I.A. Efron (St. Petersburg, 1902). This essay described in detail the development of Russian universities until the end of the 19th century and contained rich factual and statistical material.
Of the private plots of university history, the greatest attention was paid to the student movement: Vydrin R.I. “Highlights of the student movement in Russia”, Melgunov S.P. “From the history of student societies in Russian universities”, etc.
After the revolution of 1917, the history of Russian universities was not given due attention for several decades. And only after the 50s. interest in this issue has revived. The main attention of Soviet historians was drawn to the study of certain periods in the history of Russian universities. It is necessary to note the works of A.E. Ivanov, G.I. Shchetinina, R.G. Eymontova. All of them started with the publication of articles, and completed their research with solid monographs, representing a significant contribution to the historiography of Russian universities.
As if summing up some results of the study of domestic higher education before 1917, a team of authors published in 1995 the book “Higher Education in Russia: an outline of the history before 1917.” The monograph contains a lot of interesting factual material, the appendices are of great value.
In Russia, an independent university system arose and developed, the role and place of which in the life of Russian society has not yet received comprehensive coverage. And without this, it is impossible to reform universities or bring their activities in line with the requirements of modernity. Considering this and the fact that numerous reforms are currently being implemented in the field of education, this study seems to be relevant.
When formulating the topic of the study, it was also taken into account that, referring to the humanitarian block of sciences, history is actively engaged in the study of the life and life of people within a certain historical stage. Proceeding from this, the study of higher education in Russia will be most complete if it is carried out through the study of students.
The system of higher education in Russia is not static. Reforms in this area have taken place and are taking place with enviable regularity. Usually the period of the most active transformations is associatedwith the accession to the throne of Alexander II, which determined the time frame of this study for the second half of the 19th century.
Thus, the object of study is the higher schools (universities) of post-reform Russia, considered in an organic relationship with the situation of Russian students in the second half of the 19th century.
And, consequently, the subject of research is the historical process of reforming Russian higher education (universities) in the period of the 60s - 90s. XIX century through university charters, everyday and worldview characteristics of the Russian students of the era under consideration.
The purpose of the study is to reveal the features of university education and student life in these time frames. From which I follow the following tasks:

Summarize information about the universities that existed in Russia in the second half of the 19th century.
To study the regulatory framework of universities and student associations.
Consider the social composition of students in the second half of the 19th century.
Reveal the role of the origin of students in the formation of the ideology of the student world.
Describe the daily life of a student of this era.
Consider the activities and functions of student associations.

Following from the tasks set, the study is based on the analysis of normative sources, journalism and memoirs of the period of the second half of the 19th century, as well as the study of scientific works of Russian historians.
The course structure consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.
The provided research can be used by school teachers in teaching the course "History of the Fatherland" or in the formation of elective courses. And also to prepare students, both of the Faculty of History and other profiles for seminars.

Chapter I. REVIEW OF UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE 19TH CENTURY

It is customary to begin the history of Russian universities on January 28, 1724, when the Senate adopted a Decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences with a university and a gymnasium. Although officially St. Petersburg University began functioning in the status of a university only in 1819. The first real higher education institution in Russia to receive the status of a university was the Moscow State University (MGU), opened in 1755.
Usually a new stage in the development of Russian universities is associated with the accession to the throne of Alexander II. However, the facts indicate that already in the last year of the reign of Nicholas I, certain changes began in relation to education in general, and universities in particular.
The Committee for the Transformation of Educational Institutions was created under the leadership of D. Bludov. In 1854, a new minister of public education, S. S. Norov (brother of the Decembrist), was appointed, who, together with his unofficial adviser A. V. Nikitenko (professor of the SPU and a liberal censor), presented to the tsar a report on the need to improve the situation of universities. If in 1854 Nicholas I did not allow the 50th anniversary of Kazan University to be celebrated, then in 1855 the 100th anniversary of Kazan University was solemnly celebrated, and the Tsar sent a Letter of Thanks to the university on this occasion. In addition, in 1854, after a long break, it was allowed to increase enrollment in some universities, but only in medical faculties.
With the beginning of the reign of Alexander II, the process of change accelerated, the most restrictive prohibitions of previous years were gradually lifted. Already in 1855, restrictions on the admission of students were lifted, and from 1856 graduates were again sent to foreign universities to prepare for the professorship, the rights of universities to elect rectors and deans were restored, from 1859 it was allowed to subscribe books from abroad without censorship, since 1860 the former departments of philosophy and state law were revived, and new ones were opened in accordance with the requirements of the time. In a short time, there was a rapid increase in the number of university students, by an average of 2 times over 8 years. There was a rapid change in the composition of teachers, the professorial staff was updated by almost 50% in 1855-1862, especially in law faculties.
Many young professors appeared in the departments, including those who were considered politically unreliable, who were exiled, etc. So, N. I. Kostomarov, who had just returned from exile and replaced the conservative Ustryalov, was elected to the department of Russian history of the SPU.
There was a radical change in the heads of universities, military trustees were replaced by civilian officials. For example, an outstanding surgeon, Professor N.I. Pirogov became a trustee of Kyiv University (the first case in the history of Russian universities). Young talented scientists appeared as rectors: Kyiv University was headed by 34-year-old Professor Bunge N. (future Minister of Finance of Russia), Kazan University - 32-year-old prof. Chemistry A.M. Butlerov.
Enlightenment and science in the second half of the 19th century developed under more favorable conditions compared to the previous time. The abolition of serfdom and other bourgeois reforms contributed to the acceleration of economic progress and the development of the social movement.
By the middle of the XIX century in Russia there were: Moscow (1755), Derpt (since 1802), Vilensky, Kazansky, Kharkov (1804), Kyiv, St. Petersburg (1819). After the adoption of the University Charter of 1863, two more universities were opened: Novorossiysk in Odessa (1865) and Warsaw (1869).
In addition to classical universities, the number of higher technical educational institutions has increased. Polytechnic institutes were founded in Kyiv, St. Petersburg, Novocherkassk; Technological Institute in Tomsk.
Great strides were made in higher education, with the number of universities reaching ten by the end of the century. The university charter of 1863 gave the universities almost complete autonomy in a wide variety of fields. But in 1884, the government of Alexander III introduced a new charter that deprived the universities of autonomy and increased supervision over them. In the 70-80s. the foundation was laid for women's higher education - courses were opened in different cities.
The number of students during the reign of Alexander II increased by almost two and a half times (in 1854 - 3547 students, in 1880 - 8193 students) 1 .
Under Alexander III, another university was opened - in Tomsk.The grand opening of the first university in Siberia took place on July 27, 1888. The Charter of 1884 was extended to the new university. However, Tomsk University allowed the admission of students from theological seminaries, among 72 first-year students in 1888 there were 30 graduates of gymnasiums, 40 - theological seminaries, 2 were transferred from other universities. In 1893, 34 people were released from this reception - the first Siberian doctors. Features of Tomsk University: donations and long construction led to the fact that it immediately turned out to be well equipped, with many laboratories, a botanical garden, a library with almost 100 thousand books and magazines; among the students there were many expelled for participation in revolutionary activities from other universities, a significant number of them came from low-income families, besides, in Tomsk there were few opportunities for extra money, so private donations for scholarships played a large role, which allowed many students to receive from 100 to 420 rub. in year. In subsequent years, there was a struggle to open new faculties in Tomsk, and in 1898 admission to the Faculty of Law was announced, out of 142 accepted then, 47 graduated in 1902.
Thus, in the second half of the 19th century in Russia, higher education began to develop even more actively both in terms of quality and quantity.

CHAPTER II. UNIVERSITY STATUTE

The study of university statutes in Russia in the XIX century. can make a significant contribution to understanding the multifaceted process of formation of the regulatory framework of universities.
If in the West university life proceeded slowly and measuredly, its organizational forms, which developed over the centuries, practically did not change, and universities existed as separate entities, each with its own charter, then in Russia it showed very energetic dynamics and proceeded in much more acute and conflict forms. This is because universities in the West began as private enterprises run by founders at their own risk. The state stood apart, as an outside observer or arbitrator.
In Russia, the association of professors has never played an independent role, as in the West, since the professors were in the service and, in relations with students, acted on behalf of the state. Universities were created by the state, fully financed by the treasury and were called imperial. Therefore, their statutes (the same for all) were carefully developed and adopted, as a rule, in the course of a complex legislative procedure, with the involvement of the best legal forces. Suffice it to recall that such prominent statesmen and public figures as V.N. Karazin and M.M. Speransky. The statutes were approved by the emperor, which gave them the highest legal status and made them a kind of code of university life. During a period of less than a hundred years, four statutes were changed in the country (1804, 1835, 1863, 1884). Between the statutes of 1804 and 1884 there was a huge distance, in which, over the course of the shortest period on the scale of history, a whole era fit in, and each of the statutes, in itself, represented major stages in the construction of a higher school. And every time these were largely different statutes, reflecting the significantly updated realities of university life. In this case, we are talking about the formation and formation of a highly sensitive and active social community of students, new for Russia, which predetermined considerable problems and features of the law-making process. In the literature, the active role of the state in universities is assessed negatively: “Throughout the 19th century. four times according to the number of reigns of emperors, reforms and counter-reforms in higher education are replaced. Tsarism now retreats, then again goes over to an attack on relatively independent higher education. In an effort to reconcile irreconcilable statehood and science, the higher school was reconstructed four times in the 19th century.” 2
Based chronological framework of this study, let us dwell in more detail on the Charters of 1863 and 1884.
The system of training scientific and pedagogical personnel of Russian universities was finally formed in the second half of the 19th century.
Established in accordance with the new university charter, adopted on July 18, 1863, the system of training scientific and pedagogical personnel of universities was class-based and selective. The government pursued a dual policy in this regard. On the one hand, it could not fail to attract the best scientific and pedagogical forces to the universities, but, on the other hand, it constantly sought to select them on a class basis in accordance with the requirement of reliability. At the same time, the second trend clearly prevailed, as a result, universities and other higher educational institutions experienced an acute shortage of highly professional scientific and pedagogical personnel.
The state has taken many measures to combat the problem of shortage of personnel. According to the Charter of 1863, the number of lectures given by professors was not regulated, in contrast to the Charter of 1835. Under the latter, each professor was required to teach at least eight hours a week. Tenured professors delivered as many hours of lectures per week as the faculty would assign them based on the considerations they presented. As a result, universities were able to increase their teaching staff by 67 percent 3 .
In order to provide universities with the missing professors and teachers, the Ministry of Public Education in 1862 adopted a resolution on inviting foreign scientists to universities for the positions of professors and associate professors. The government also allowed the Minister of Education to send young scientists abroad to prepare them for professorships. The seconded were obliged to serve in the department of the ministry for two years for each year of their stay abroad. During the period 1862-1865, for example, 89 people were sent abroad 4 . Similar trips were made to other universities in the country.
The Institute of Candidates was also used to replenish the teaching staff of universities. Students who completed the full course of the university with excellent results and submitted a dissertation approved by the faculty received a candidate's degree and remained at the university to receive a master's and professorship. Those left at the university were under the supervision of professors, attended lectures on selected sciences and conducted practical classes.
Acquiring a master's degree required new oral examinations and a public defense of a dissertation. A candidate in a year could apply for a master's degree. Masters after a year could apply for a doctorate degree, subject to the presentation and public defense of the dissertation. Academic degrees at universities could be awarded to both Russian subjects and foreigners.
The content, forms and methods of training young scientists, both in Russia and abroad, were determined by the universities themselves and presented through the trustee of the educational district at the discretion of the Ministry of Public Education.
In January 1864, a new regulation on tests for academic degrees was approved. In accordance with it, at all faculties, the number of categories of sciences, for which doctoral and master's degrees were awarded, was increased. The new regulation abolished examinations for applicants for the degree of doctor of science, requiring only the presentation of a dissertation and its public defense (with the exception of a doctor of medical sciences).
The introduction of the new University Charter and Regulations contributed to the growth in the number of defended dissertations. During the period 1863-1874, 572 people received the degree of doctor of science, 280 people received the master's degree (whereas in the 16 previous years these figures were 130 and 184, respectively).
Universities, in accordance with the Charter of 1863, had their own printing houses and bookstores, could publish periodicals, have their own censorship for theses and other scientific publications. In addition, universities, with the permission of the Minister of Public Education, were given the right to establish learned societies for the improvement of any particular part of the sciences. All this, of course, also created objective opportunities for improving the professionalism of the scientific and pedagogical staff of Russian universities.
According to the charter of 1863, they were admitted to the university from the age of 17,without entrance examinations for those who successfully graduated from the gymnasium. The student signed on the observance of the university rules, the wearing of the uniform was canceled, outside the walls of the university the student became subject to the police. The creation of student organizations was not allowed. The transition of a student from course to course became possible only through tests, graduating from the university with good grades and submitting dissertations received a candidate's degree, and those who graduated satisfactorily and did not submit dissertations were awarded the title of a real student. The category of state students was eliminated and scholarships were introduced for those in need, lectures were levied for fees established by universities (an average of 40-50 rubles per year).
The charter of 1863, which opened up new opportunities for the development of domestic education and science, lasted only until 1884. After the assassination of Tsar Alexander II by Narodnaya Volya in 1881, the government resumed its offensive against university autonomy and tightened control over teaching. Nevertheless, the universities have preserved themselves as centers of advanced scientific knowledge and spiritual life in Russia.
The university counter-reform was carried out in 1884 by the Minister of Public Education I.D. Delyanov, who, when asked about the reasons for the dismissal of one of the professors, replied that “he has only thoughts in his head” 5 . Appointed to the post of Minister of Public Education in 1882, Delyanov submitted to the State Council a draft university reform developed by Count D.A. Tolstoy. The majority of the members of the State Council spoke out against the project, but the opinion of the minority was approved, and on August 23, 1884, the General Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities was issued, which hampered university autonomy, limiting university self-government. The power of district trustees over universities was greatly expanded. The rector was not elected by the council, but was appointed by the Minister of Public Education, who from now on could not take into account the opinion of the professors when appointing teachers and could give instructions to the professors, make reminders and remarks 6 .
The competence of the university council and faculty meetings was largely limited. Deans were appointed by the trustee, the position of vice-rector was abolished, and the university court was destroyed. The examination for students who completed the course was carried out in special state commissions, only those students who had been credited with a set number of semesters were allowed to test. Overall, tuition fees have doubled.
The charter of 1884 introduced a number of innovations into the practice of university education that have not lost their relevance today: “examination requirements”, which in a certain sense meant the transition of higher education to unified curricula and programs and the introduction of a state educational standard in the modern sense of this phrase; the restoration of a de facto full-time associate professor, the abolition of the title of a real student and candidate, and an increase in the importance of practical training. Some of the provisions of the statute, although not implemented, were very attractive academically for their formulation: giving the student the right to choose a lecturer, curriculum, the opportunity to listen to lectures from another faculty.
The new charter, although it limited the limits of university autonomy and academic freedoms within the framework of a single statehood, did not abolish them at all. The election of rectors and professors was preserved with some practical restrictions.
The foregoing indicates that everything that happens in university life in the 80-90s. The 19th century, after the adoption of the charter of 1884, was more in line with the modernization of the university system than with radical reforms. But the ongoing modernization had a clearly expressed political motive: to expel anti-government sentiments and opposition from universities, to turn the teaching staff into conscientious and obedient education officials, and students into “trustworthy” and organized students.
In general, the analysis of the statutory texts allows us to conclude: firstly, about the worthy, if not central, place of students (the main object and subject of legal relations) in the university system and about the energetic dynamics of the statutory norms governing its legal relations; secondly, about the exclusive role of the state in university construction; thirdly, about the steady increase in legislative activity and the progressive nature of the movement of statutory norms. First of all, the materials of the analysis testify to the rapid, with the accumulation of practical experience, the growth of the normative mass itself, along with an increase in the quality of the legal elaboration of norms.
In conclusion, it should be noted that, on the whole, the level of university education in Russia was quite high, and at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries it fully corresponded to Western European education.

CHAPTER III. STUDENTS IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY

3.1 Social composition and outlook

The social composition of the student body in Russia was much more democratic than, for example, in England or Germany, where almost exclusively children of the aristocracy and the bourgeoisie studied at the universities. The tuition was low and there were many "scholarship holders".
The characteristic features of the Russian student association, even brotherhood, in comparison with the order prevailing in the famous British universities, were sharply noticed by A.I. democratic. Their doors were open to anyone who could pass the exam, and was neither a serf, nor a peasant, nor dismissed by his community. The motley youth, who came from above and below, from the south and the north, quickly melted into a compact mass of camaraderie. Social distinctions did not have with us that offensive influence which we find in English schools and barracks; I am not talking about English universities: they exist exclusively for the aristocracy and for the rich. A student who would take it into his head to boast of a white bone or wealth among us would be excommunicated from water and fire, tortured by his comrades.
In contrast to closed educational institutions, in which mostly nobles studied, a significant number of students at universities were people of the humble and not rich. To make ends meet, students were often forced to earn extra money. It was in the 19th century that the habitual appearance of a Russian student was formed, renting a cheap room and earning a living by private lessons or translations. True, the social status of the students was quite high. But poverty and homelessness have always been the companions of Russian students.
Since the 60s of the 19th century, the main part of Moscow students consisted of the provincial poor, of raznochintsy, who had nothing in common with the townsfolk,
In the post-reform period, the number of university students continued to grow, and in 1880 there were already more than 8 thousand of them. The composition of the student body was changing, there were more students who needed scholarships and earned a living. So, at Kazan University in the early 70s. only 28% of students could exist on their own money, and in Odessa the number of those in need reached 80%. Special scholarships were introduced for a number of categories of students. So, in 1863, 150 scholarships were established for former SPU students who studied at other universities and prepared for teacher's title. For students studying Slavic philology, in 1862 scholarships of Cyril and Methodius were established. They could receive 4 students at Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kazan, Kharkov and Kiev universities (240 rubles per year).
etc.................

Early 19th century - the time of cultural and spiritual upsurge in Russia. The education system of the first half of the XIX century. The case of public education in the post-reform period. Students of the sixties and higher education. Spread of private educational institutions.

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Engineering student initiative. Creation of the university. Scientists and specialists of the Odessa Polytechnic University.

The introduction of fees in higher education. The position of paying students. Charging tuition fees. Fellows. Providing for the poor. Housing status of fellows. Individual scholarships. The ninth conference of the trade union section of the students.

Political life of Russia at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Students as a social stratum. Revolutionary movement in the student environment of St. Petersburg. Organizations and leaders of the revolutionary student movement in St. Petersburg.

Organization of new departments. Student practice. Development of MGSU-MISI.

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Rapprochement of Russia with the West. The first reforms in the field of education. Opening navigation school. Features of teaching in schools. Opening of a medical school in 1706. Library and press under Peter I. Gymnasiums, university courses and academies in Russia.

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