2.1. Communication actions and their forms

We defined communication activity as the movement of meanings in social space. The elementary scheme of communication (Fig. 1.1) corresponds to communication activity, more precisely, not to activity as a whole, but to its elementary part - communication action. A communication action is a completed operation of semantic interaction that occurs without changing the participants in communication. The subjects who have entered into communication can pursue three goals: firstly, the recipient wants to receive from the communicant some meanings that are attractive to him; secondly, the communicant wants to communicate to the recipient some meanings that affect the behavior of the latter; thirdly, both the communicant and the recipient are interested in interaction in order to exchange some meanings. Accordingly, three forms of communication action are possible.

1. Imitation— one of the most ancient forms of conveying meanings, used by higher animals and birds; No wonder some scientists considered the source of imitation herd instinct. Imitation is understood as the reproduction by the recipient of the movements, actions, habits of the communicant. Imitation can be voluntary and involuntary (unconscious). Arbitrary imitation (imitation) is used in schooling, mastering technology, skill. Involuntary imitation is the main method of primary socialization of children preschool age.

AT public life through imitation, fashionable innovations, popular ideas and trends are disseminated. At the same time, thanks to imitation, traditions, customs, and stereotypes of behavior are passed on from generation to generation. No wonder in the "Instructions of Merikar", a monument of Egyptian writing of the XXII-XXIII centuries. BC e. It says: "Imitate your fathers and your ancestors." We can say that imitation is one of the ways in which a living social memory exists.

E. Fromm among the specifically human socio-cultural needs noted the desire for assimilation, the search for an object of worship, identifying oneself with someone stronger, smarter, more beautiful. In childhood, children liken themselves to their parents, in adulthood - to literary heroes, athletes, artists, warriors. This need can be called the need for idol making (to find or create an idol).

One should not think that imitation does not correspond to the elementary scheme of the communication action (Fig. 1.1), because there is no explicit semantic message addressed to the recipient. In fact, such a message, which is attractive to the recipient, always exists. The recipient purposefully chooses the communicant and uses him as a source of meanings that he would like to learn. At the same time, the communicant often does not realize his participation in the communication action. Imitation is such an object-subject relationship, where the recipient plays an active role, and the communicant is a passive object for imitation.

2. Dialog - a form of communication interaction mastered by people in the process of anthropogenesis in the formation of human language and speech. Participants in the dialogue treat each other as equal subjects with certain meanings. A subject is formed between them - a subjective relationship, and their interaction is creative in the sense that a socio-psychological community of partners is achieved, denoted by the word "we".

Dialogue communication is presented as a sequence of statements of participants replacing each other in the role of a communicant and a recipient. A statement is not a word, not a sentence, not a paragraph, but a unit of meaning that makes it possible to answer it. The participants in the dialogue jointly create a dramatic text that has a relative semantic completeness. The relativity of the completion of the dialogue is determined by the fact that the reaction to this or that statement can manifest itself in the behavior of the recipient after a long time. Literature, theatre, lectures are just designed for a delayed response. An unfinished dialogue develops into a communication discourse, covering many subjects and continuing indefinitely. In short, discourse is a multi-subject endless dialogue.

3. Control- such a communication action when the communicant considers the recipient as a means of achieving his goals, as an object of control. In this case, a subject-object relationship is established between the communicant and the recipient. Management differs from dialogue in that the subject has the right to monologue, and the recipient cannot discuss with the communicant, he can only report his reaction through the feedback channel.

Managerial monologue can be: in the form orders(the communicant has authority recognized by the recipient); in the shape of suggestion(suggestions), when the coercive power of the word is used due to the repeated repetition of the same monologue (advertising, propaganda, sermon); in the shape of beliefs, appealing not to subconscious motives, as in suggestion, but to reason and common sense with the help of a logically constructed argument.

A special form of managerial communication action is infection, which spontaneously arises in the masses of people. Infection is characterized by emotional intensity and aggressiveness. Its sources can be ritual dances, musical rhythms, religious ecstasy, sports passion, oratory. Apparently, as in the case of suggestion, unconscious impulses play a large role in infection.

Dialogue is close to behavior according to the "stimulus-response" scheme; it does not require such a level of programming and organization as a monologue speech. Therefore, it is dialogue that is considered the original form of speech that arose even among the Pithecanthropes (150-200 thousand years ago), and monologue speech is a later communication achievement that requires a higher culture of speech and some oratorical skills.

On fig. 2.1 the considered forms of communicative actions are systematized according to similarities and differences. It should be noted that the forms of communication actions may include different content, and at the same time, the same meaning can be conveyed in two or even three forms, for example, you can teach something by showing (imitation), by instructing (management) or by dialogical explanation.

It is not necessary to absolutize the boundaries between different communication forms. Imitation, dialogue, control can merge with each other, complement each other. So, dialogue can become a method of management, for example, Socratic dialogue is structured in such a way as to force the opponent to admit that Socrates was right; dialogue between a teacher and a student is a common form of pedagogical influence. Generally speaking, any meaningful dialogue (meaningless chatter does not count) aims to have some kind of managerial impact on the minds of the interlocutors. Imitation is a degenerate dialogue where the communicant is indifferent towards the recipient (ignores him), and the recipient conducts an imaginary dialogue with the communicant.

Rice. 2.1. Forms of communication actions

Communication actions are elementary acts, one might say atoms of communication activity, but they are also used in non-communication activity (knowledge, labor). Practically in all types of communication activity, the forms considered by us are found, but one of the forms prevails. This allows communication activity and, in general, at its various levels to be presented in the form of dialogic, managerial, imitative, i.e., to identify the forms of communication activity and the forms of elementary communication acts.

2.2. Types, levels and forms of communication activities

Three subjects belonging to different levels of the social structure can act as communicants and recipients: an individual personality (I), a social group (G), and a mass population (M). They can interact with each other, for example, I - I, G - G, M - M, or with each other, for example, I - G, I - M, G - M, etc. Abstractly speaking, 9 types of social communications are obtained. But this is not enough. As shown in section 2.1, communication actions can be carried out in the form of imitation, dialogue, control. Dialogue is the interaction of equal partners, which is possible between subjects of the same social level, and not of different levels, because subjects of different levels, for example, I and M, are not equal. There can be imitation or management between different levels of subjects, but not a dialogue of equal participants.

We accept the following notation. Those types of communication activity, where I, or G, or M acts as an active, purposeful subject, we will call, respectively, microcommunication, midicommunication, macrocommunication. Those types where I, or G, or M act as an object of influence, we will call, respectively, interpersonal, group and mass communication, understanding under them the levels of social communications. The resulting two-dimensional classification of types and levels of communication activity is shown in fig. 2.2.

As follows from Fig. 2.2, there are 7 forms of microcommunication, 5 forms of midicommunication and 3 forms of macrocommunication. Each of the forms manifests itself at the interpersonal, group, mass level. We systematize and designate the resulting 15 forms of communication activity in the form of table 2.1.

To complete the picture of possible forms of communication activity, one should take into account quasi-communication, when the communicant refers to imaginary the subject and acquires a sense of dialogue with him. This includes the phenomenon of fetishization, which N. D. Kondratiev described as follows: “it begins to seem to people that things have special supernatural properties to be valuable, to have the prerogatives of holiness, greatness, a source of law, etc. In other words, people begin to endow things physically significant properties not inherent in them, just as savages attributed the properties of an omnipotent deity to idols. The creation of all kinds of "idols", the cult of leaders, etc., ultimately has the goal of creating an omniscient and omnipotent "quasi-communication" partner.

Now let's consider in more detail the listed forms of communication activity, distributing them by types of social communication: micro-, midi-, macro-communication.

Legend:

I - individual;

G - group;

M - mass aggregate;

R - recipient;

K - communicator;

p - imitation; d - dialogue; y - control.

Rice. 2.2. Types and levels of communication activities

Table 2.1. Forms of communication activity

	communicator.	Communic.	Conditional designations	Name
				copying
				reference (reference group)
				management collective
				socialization
				negotiation
				group hierarchy
				adaptation to
				management society
				borrowing achievements
				interaction
				informational aggression

2.3. Types of communication activities

2.3.1. Microcommunication

Table 2.1 presents 7 forms of microcommunication, where the individual acts as an active recipient (imitation) or active communicator (dialogue, control); as communication partners, either another individual, or a social group, or a mass aggregate (society as a whole) can be. The content of microcommunication is fairly obvious; on the interpersonal level - this is either the assimilation of forms of behavior, skills, external attributes of the selected role model - sample copy, or exchange of ideas, arguments, proposals between interlocutors - friendly or business conversation, or instructions for execution by their subordinate - team. On the group level are possible reference(the same imitation, but not of an individual, but of a social group with which the individual wishes to identify himself, for example, imitation of merchants nobility or "new Russians" to the aristocrats of the spirit; note that a negative reference occurs when a person consciously avoids the signs of the group he rejects) or team management - management, organization, group leadership; finally on a mass level, communication actions serve to socialization - the development by a person of norms, beliefs, ideals generally accepted in a given society, in order to "be like everyone else", and authoritarianism, i.e., despotic control of the masses of subject people (absolutism, tyranny, autocracy - political forms of authoritarianism). Note that the dialogical relations of an individual with a group or a mass are excluded, because dialogue is possible only between partners of the same level. The imitation of a friendly conversation between the general and the soldiers does not count, because this is a "quasi-dialogue".

A practically important question arises: is it possible to learn microcommunications? This question is extremely significant for teachers, businessmen, people (businessmen), managers, politicians, who in fact are microcommunication professionals. This question is also of interest to people who want to be successful in society, to achieve spectacular self-expression and public approval. There are many witty and boring tips, recommendations, rules, for example: be silent or say something better than silence; use words prudently, not for nothing one mouth, but two ears; the power of speech lies in the ability to express a lot in a few words; people obey not the one who is smarter than the others, but the one who speaks the loudest, etc.

Since antiquity, rhetoric has been developing - the doctrine of eloquence, illuminated by the authority of Plato and Aristotle, in the 20th century as scientific discipline a stylistics was formed that studied language norms and their areas of application, the culture of speech began to be taught in educational institutions, and managers and politicians began to be taught the rules business communication, social conflictology and the art of arguing. There is no shortage of guidelines. Let's take a look at some of them.

• Do not perform incomprehensible speech acts; the meaning of the speech should be clear to the listeners.
• Do not perform insincere speech acts; speech should correspond to the real thoughts, intentions, experiences of the speaker.
• Be consistent and make sure that subsequent speech acts are logically connected with the previous ones.
• Speech must be purposeful, the speaker must have an idea that is realized in speech, etc.

Especially a lot of useful advice concerns non-verbal means of microcommunication: gestures, facial expressions, postures, distance between interlocutors, volume and intonation of speech. However, acquaintance with the streams of educational, scientific and practical literature leads to an unequivocal conclusion: microcommunication activity cannot be "learned" from books, there are no ready-made recipes, because it is an art, i.e., creative, productive, playful, and not reproductive. ritual activity. The success of any oral presentation or written communication depends primarily on the abilities and talents of their authors. Let's say you can memorize "Letters to a Son" by the English aristocrat Philip Chesterfield (1694-1773) or study the best-selling books of the successful businessman Dale Carnegie (1888-1955), but this does not guarantee spiritual freedom, the ability to "win friends and influence people" or confidence in public speaking. Nevertheless, it is very useful to get acquainted with these classic works.

2.3.2. midicommunication

The five forms of midicommunication include such social communication phenomena as fashion- imitation-based transmission in the social space of material forms, patterns of behavior and ideas that are emotionally attractive to social groups (we note that fashion is a product of neoculture, paleoculture did not know fashion); negotiation - the usual way of resolving conflicts and reaching agreements between social groups; group hierarchy develops in large institutions (managers - workers), in army units, in estate-caste societies, where contacts between groups are clearly regulated; environmental adaptation turns into a communication problem for national diasporas living among foreigners; for non-Christians, for example, Muslims among Christians; for underground revolutionaries, etc.; leadership of society is carried out by creative groups that generate worldview meanings that determine the spiritual (not material!) life of society. Let's take a closer look at this form of midicommunication.

Worldview meanings are knowledge that explains the observed phenomena, the origin of man and the universe, the meaning of human life, ideals, norms and incentives for social activity. The social groups that develop these meanings and the communication messages in which they are imprinted find themselves at the center of the spiritual life of society. These centers shift in the course of socio-cultural evolution.

Archeoculture is peculiar mythocentrism, the guardian of which was the caste of priests, who owned the sacred esoteric knowledge. Paleoculture is characterized religioceptprism, in the mainstream of which were literature, art, education, philosophy. Since the 17th century (the century of universal geniuses), Western European neoculture has been developing under the auspices of secular knowledge, headed by philosophy and in the 19th century gradually moved to science-centrism. Physicists, economists, political scientists determined the spiritual climate in democratic Western countries. Otherwise it was in Russia.

Neo-cultural modernization began, as you know, with the stormy reform activity of Peter I, which was continued in a milder manner by Catherine I. The nobility was the main military-political and economic force of Russian society in the 18th century. After 1761, when, according to the decree of Peter III "On the Liberty of the Nobility", confirmed by Catherine, this class was exempted from compulsory public service and received a free hand for cultural creativity, a luxurious, brilliant, albeit superficial noble culture was created, the golden age of which was begun by N. M. Karamzin, and ended by M. Yu. Lermontov. In the spiritual life of Russia in the 18th - the first half of the 19th century, a characteristic "two-center" developed: one ideological center was the Orthodox Church (remember the Uvarov triad "Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality"), and the other center was in Western Europe, from where the Russian nobles drew Voltaire's ideas. and Rousseau, then the liberalism of Madame de Stael and Benjamin Constant, then the utopian socialism of A. Saint-Simon and C. Fourier.

However, since Pushkin's time, a phenomenon began to occur in the spiritual life of Russia, unknown to Western Europe - the center of spiritual life literature has become and talented writers - writers, poets, critics - became the "rulers of the ideological thoughts" of Russian society, teachers and prophets. The second half of the XIX century - the era of Russian literary centrism. The well-known words of A. I. Herzen date back to this time: “For a people deprived of public freedom, literature is the only tribune from the height of which it makes you hear the cry of your indignation and your conscience. The influence of literature in such a society takes on dimensions long lost by others European countries". The well-known role of literature in preparing public opinion for the abolition of serfdom (D. V. Grigorovich, I. S. Turgenev, N. A. Nekrasov), in the emergence and development of nihilism, populism, Tolstoyism, the emancipation of women, the glorification of the images of selfless militants of underground Russia . There is a tendency of teaching, preaching, accusation characteristic of critical realism. Literary centrism became a school for educating the raznochintsy intelligentsia, which shook the colossus of the Russian autocracy.

The phenomenon of literary centrism in Russian history is interesting and instructive due to the fact that it shows the revolutionary potential hidden in the bowels of the seemingly most peaceful and harmless social and communication institution - fiction.

Soviet time - domination politicocentrism, the content of which was determined by a group of leading communist ideologists in accordance with the G u M formula. On the basis of the Leninist principle of party membership, a gigantic propaganda system was created. This system had the following features:

• only a managerial monologue was allowed, setting out ideologically sustained truths; doubts, objections, dissent, pluralism were unconditionally excluded, so there was no room for dialogue;
• centralized management, ensuring the consistency and coordination of all influences on the mass consciousness;
• mobilization of all communication resources: mass media, fiction, cinema, fine arts, theater;

As a result, the high efficiency of the communist education of a person of a new formation was ensured - homo sovieticus. Homo sovieticus is a product of the Soviet communication system, its own offspring, grown on the fertile soil of social mythology. The case of Lenin-Stalin, the communist future of mankind, the party - the mind, honor and conscience of the era, hostile environment and spy mania - these were strong myths that ideologically ensured both the cult of Stalin's personality and the unity of the people in the years of pre-war, military and post-war trials.

2.3.3. macro communication

Macrocommunication forms of communication interaction, which in Table. 2.1 named borrowing achievements(M p M), interaction of cultures(M d M) and information aggression(M y M), are clearly visible in the thousand-year history of interaction between the Russian state and Europe. Moreover, fluctuations from imitation to dialogue and vice versa are easily noticed. Information aggression is a relatively new phenomenon that appeared only in the 20th century.

The baptism of Russia at the end of the 10th century is an indisputable act of macrocommunication imitation. The time of Kievan Rus, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, specific civil strife and the Tatar-Mongol yoke - this is the period of "humble apprenticeship" among the Bulgarians and Greeks, when the Russian scribe was "a poor spirit, begging under the windows of European temples of wisdom with the fruits of someone else's pile, grains from a spiritual meal where he had no place" (V.O. Klyuchevsky). But gradually the Russian Church acquired its rights as a spiritual paleocultural center and freed itself from the tutelage of the Patriarchs of Constantinople. In 1346, not a Greek sent from Tsargrad, but a Russian man, Alexy, became the Moscow metropolitan. In 1380, Sergius of Radonezh blessed the Grand Duke of Moscow Dmitry for the battle with Mamai. The 15th century is the time when the Muscovite state gained political independence and ideological independence, for the Church of Constantinople, having found itself in the territory since 1453 Ottoman Empire capitulated to the papacy. The M p M phase is over.

Russian "humble disciples", encouraged by recent victories over the Tatars, abandoned the union with the Latins and decided to serve Orthodoxy in their own way. At the beginning of the 16th century, the idea of ​​Russian messianism arose - "Moscow - the third Rome", national pride ripens. Russian "bookmen", according to the same Klyuchevsky, began to teach: "Brothers! do not be arrogant; if anyone asks you if you know philosophy, you answer: you don’t know Hellenic greyhounds, you don’t read rhytarian astronomers, nor with wise philosophers byvah, philosophy is lower than ochima seen." Previously, the Russian scribe loved translations from Greek articles in various branches of knowledge: in mineralogy, logic, medicine, rhetoric, now he furiously shouted: “Everyone loves geometry is abominable before God; I have Christ in me." Ivan IV, who started the Livonian War for access to the Baltic Sea and was about to marry Elizabeth of England, of course, considered himself not a student of European wisdom, but an equal partner of any monarch. Muscovy was ready for a dialogue of cultures according to the M d M formula.

XVII century - the time of gradual rapprochement with Europe. The German Settlement, regiments of a foreign system appear in Moscow, free-thinking Russian nobles like A.L. Ordin-Nashchokin wear European clothes at home, the tsar's children are taught by a graduate of the Kyiv Academy, a former Jesuit Simeon Polotsky. However, Russian people do not lose their national dignity. Peter's transformations - unconditional discipleship, a new "breach under the windows of European temples of wisdom", a new phase of M p M.

German dominance assumed such dimensions that the Russian guards willingly gave the crown to the charming Elizabeth, mainly because she was "Petrov's daughter." But the illiterate Russian nobles were irresistibly attracted by the charms of European civilization, and it was not by chance that D. I. Fonvizin put into Ivanushka's mouth (the comedy Brigadier) a confession: "my body was born in Russia, but my spirit belongs to the French crown." Europe of the 18th century gave the cultural elite of the Russian nobility, firstly, an atheistic education in the spirit of Voltaire and Diderot, and, secondly, Freemasonry, oriented towards spiritual and mystical searches.

The bloody French Revolution caused a negative reaction in Russian society and led to disappointment in the ideals of the Enlightenment. Macrocommunication imitation began to fade. In 1795, N. M. Karamzin bitterly wrote in Melidor’s Correspondence to Filaret: “Where are the people we loved? Where is the fruit of science and wisdom? destruction, I do not recognize you ... I cover my face. Paul I, fighting the revolutionary infection, banned the import of foreign books into the Russian Empire. The aggressive Napoleonic wars and the Patriotic War of 1812, it would seem, should finally alienate Russia from crazy Europe, but the Russian officers returned from foreign campaigns with criticism not of Europe, but of their Fatherland. The Decembrists were Russian patriots, but they thought along Western lines.

In the 1940s, two currents of Russian thought took shape and began to openly compete: Westernism and Slavophilism. The dispute between Westernizers and Slavophiles is a struggle between two macrocommunication ideologies. The Slavophiles asserted Russia's right to an equal dialogue with the West and saw Russia's mission not in conquering Europe with brute gendarmerie force, but in giving it new meanings (Orthodox ethics, catholicity, altruism) that would heal decrepit and decaying Europe from weakness (communication formula M y M). Westerners emphasized Russia's belonging to Western culture and urged to refrain from arrogant spiritual separatism and still willingly perceive the achievements of European progress, especially in terms of science, technology, democracy, aesthetics (communication formula M p M).

The Nikolaev official ideology, which had assimilated the role of the "gendarme of Europe", saw in Western culture a hotbed of sedition, which should be mercilessly suppressed. The depravity of this ideology was shown by the Crimean War. Reforms of Alexander II - Western-style modernization (M p M); counter-reforms of Alexander III - an attempt to "freeze" Russia in the spirit of Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality, but it was too late. The pendulum of Russian history was rapidly moving to the West.

Liberalism, constitutional democracy, social democracy, Marxism - all these are not Russian, but imported fruits. Perhaps only anarchism, adorned with the names of M.A. Bakunin and P.A. Kropotkin, is a domestic work. The Bolsheviks began the construction of communism according to the Marxist scenario, developed not for Russia, but for industrialized Europe. The script had to be overhauled, and now the pendulum of history takes the Soviet Union into unknown distances. We cannot copy either bourgeois democracy, or bourgeois culture, or bourgeois science, we will go our own way, we will overtake and outstrip America and Europe. Military victory, and then - the Iron Curtain, the struggle against cosmopolitanism and kowtowing before the West, ideologically sustained nationalism in the Soviet style. There is no longer a communication dialogue; this, according to the formula M y M, is informational aggression (Table 2.1).

The Soviet Union has always waged an active offensive ideological struggle against any non-communist doctrines. The role of communicants in the international arena was played by the Comintern (III Communist International, established in 1919, dissolved in 1943) and "fraternal communist parties" that existed in most countries of the world. A convincing argument in favor of the "advantages of socialism" was the victory of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War. This argument was fully exploited by communist propaganda; in the post-war years, a third of the world had a Soviet orientation.

But the ideological opponents of the country of the Soviets did not doze off either. Since 1946, the Cold War began, which was a true information war, a war for the trust and sympathy of the world community. It was a confrontational dialogue according to the M d M formula. Skillfully planned propaganda campaigns followed one after the other, using the events of 1956 in Hungary and the Prague Spring of 1968, space flights and sporting achievements, the Olympic Games and youth festivals, the Vietnam War and the war in Afghanistan. The struggle was on an equal footing, but in the 70s the United States managed to outplay the Soviet strategists. The Soviet Union was drawn into an exhausting arms race, into a provocative program " star wars". Economic exhaustion, aggravated by the mediocrity of the aging Politburo, led to a fall in the country's prestige, to the loss of the won positions. cold war ended with the defeat of the USSR, a defeat not on the battlefield, but in the virtual space of information wars. The confrontation between the USSR and the West is over. The formula M d M was replaced again, as in the time of Petrova, by the student formula M p M.

It should be noted that the concepts of micro-, midi-, macrocommunication do not match with the concepts of interpersonal, group, mass communication, although they intersect with them. If we refer to Table. 2.1, it can be seen that out of 7 types of microcommunication, only 3 belong to the interpersonal level, and macrocommunication is represented only in three cases out of seven at the level of mass communication. In this regard, let us clarify the subject of the theory of mass communication.

L. V. Petrov offers the following definition: “mass communication is the creation of a single social field based on a process that includes, on the one hand, the extraction, processing and transmission of socially significant information using relatively high-speed technical devices carried out by specialized institutions; and, on the other hand, the reception and assimilation of this information by numerically large, socially diverse, dispersed audiences. Thus, in the case of mass communication, technically equipped "specialized institutions" in the form of the press, cinema, radio, television act as communicants, and mass audiences act as recipients. Such communication interaction is characterized by the formula G y M (leadership of society), and it is precisely the problems of social management, as L.V. Petrov, "the creation of a single social field" is the main subject of the theory of mass communication. Thus, this theory does not study all forms of mass communication, but only one of its forms G y M, which can be called midi mass communication. Therefore, it cannot be considered either a theory of macrocommunication, or even a general theory of mass communication.

2.3.4. Cooperation and conflicts in communication activities

Communication tragedy: two parallel lines fell in love. Alas!

Table 2.1 presents the forms of communication activities depending on the actors involved and their communication roles. These forms can have different content: they can serve to strengthen cooperation and consensus between the participants in communication, or they can express conflict relations, conflict of views, distrust.

As the table shows, the most "peaceful" form is imitation: there is no ground for conflicts in all types of communication (micro-, midi-, macro-). The most "militant" form should be recognized as management, which presents such methods of imperative coercion as order, censorship, information warfare, counter-propaganda, cultural imperialism and other disgusting phenomena of communication violence. True, in modern democratic societies, the manipulative management that replaces conflictogenic command coercion with soft psychological technologies that create the recipient's illusion of freedom of choice and cooperation with the communicant (advertising, public relations, image-making).

Dialogue communication is most consistent with the social psychological nature people and therefore it brings the most satisfaction to the participants. It is the dialogue, forming a community of "we", that creates the ground for joint creative activity, for friendly communication, for the disclosure and development of the personal potential of partners. Dialogue at the level of microcommunication becomes a form of spiritual friendship and effective business cooperation, which does not negate fundamental disputes and differences of opinion. At the level of midicommunication, dialogical cooperation between various social groups is possible, including a dialogue with the authorities, which again does not cancel rivalry and polemical discussions between opponents. To achieve national accord and international cooperation, a macro-communication dialogue is of decisive importance, in which peoples, states, and civilizations become participants.

The Christian preaching of love for one's neighbor, in fact, advocates a "diffuse" friendly fusion. P. A. Florensky explained: "Every external seeks mine a not me. The friend wants mine and me. And the apostle writes: "I am not looking for yours, but for you" (2 Cor. 12:14). The outer covets "the case", and the friend "himself" me. External wishes yours but receives from you, from the fullness, i.e. part, and this part melts in the hands like foam. Only friend, wishing you, whatever you are, gets in you all, the Israeli philosopher Martin Buber (1878-1965), emphasizing the differences between dialogue (subject-subject relationship) and management (subject-object relationship), postulates two types of human relationship to the surrounding reality: a) the relationship "I- YOU", which implies "flow from I to YOU", a true understanding and reciprocity of communicating people; b) the relationship "I-IT", when a person, being the subject of consciousness and action, perceives the objects around him and other people as impersonal objects serving for utilitarian use, exploitation, manipulation. The existence of people is thus divided into dialogic existence, when a dialogue is unfolding between the individual and the outside world, between the individual and God, and monological (egocentric) existence. Full realization of the individual, - M. Buber claims in his teaching called "dialogical personalism" is possible only in the first case. retaet ideological sound.

It is interesting to pay attention to the fact that different literary styles occupy different places in Table. 2.2, moving from imitation to control and further to dialogue. Old Russian hagiographic writings (lives of the holy fathers), as well as romantic (J. Byron, A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, M. Lermontov) and utopian and journalistic works (N. Chernyshevsky, P. Lavrov, N. Ostrovsky) offered their readers samples for imitation, a reference group, thereby controlling their behavior through the formula I p G.

Enlightenment and critical-realist literature, starting with N. M. Karamzin and ending with M. Gorky, cultivated subject-object relations with a "friend-reader", which corresponds to the formula of cooperation between G and M or G and G. In modernism, shocking the reading public (remember "The Slap in the Face of Public Taste") and professing self-enchanted egocentrism, the control scheme G at G operates, but with a conflicting content. Socialist realism, which propagated party doctrines, belongs to the G&M formula, as do all means of propaganda seeking to establish cooperation with recipients.

Unlike previous aesthetic styles, where the author invariably considered himself a prophet, a teacher of life, a "genius" (modernism), in modern Russian postmodernism the author refrains from managerial monologue and invites the reader to participate in an intellectual game with texts. At the same time, as a prerequisite, it is assumed that readers know those "primary texts", those "quotations" from which the postmodernist constructs his "secondary" work. For example, they turn to classical literature of the 19th century ("Pushkin's House" by A. Bitov, "The Soul of a Patriot or Various Messages to Ferfichkin" by Evg. Popov) or to Soviet culture (the direction of Sots Art art, working with images, symbols, ideologemes of the Soviet time - "Polysandry" by Sasha Sokolov, "Kangaroo" by Yuz Aleshkovsky). Postmodernism finds itself in the class D e G, where dialogue cooperation between elite writers and elite readers is realized.

It must be admitted that the problems of cooperation and conflict have not been the subject of close attention of our scientists until recently. True, one cannot fail to recall the ethical ideas of the remarkable anarchist theorist Pyotr Alekseevich Kropotkin (1842-1921). In contrast to social Darwinism, which reduced the law of the struggle for existence to an immoral war of "all against all", Kropotkin defended the principle of universal cooperation in nature and society, mutual assistance as a factor in evolution. Referring to the institution of sociability, that is, the innate need for communication, Kropotkin explained the origin of tribal communities, labor cooperation, cultural progress, and the future of communist society.

In the early years Soviet power Aleksey Kapitonovich Gastev (1882–1941), Russian scientist and poet, acted as the founder Central Institute labor(1920), where the methodology of scientific organization and work culture was developed, paying considerable attention to communication between employees. The ideas of this methodology were developed in ergonomics - science that studies the relationship "man - a tool of labor", and in modern management theory.

In the 1990s, it was not the problems of creative cooperation that became topical, but the problems of conflict resolution. It turned out that conflicts are an inevitable companion of social life, represented at all levels of social communication - interpersonal, group, mass. Formed conflictology, which is one of the applied social and communication disciplines. The subject of conflictology are marital conflicts, labor conflicts, interethnic and political conflicts and other conflict situations. The theoretical and methodological foundation in the study of both cooperation and conflict is social Psychology, where the problem of communication has always occupied a central place.

2.4. Communication as a socio-psychological and communication category

The category "communication" is often identified with the category "communication". This identification occurs by itself in English-language texts, where, apart from communication, there is no other word for the translation of the Russian "communication". In the "Psychological Dictionary" edited by V.P. Zinchenko and B.G. Meshcheryakov (M.: Pedagogy-Press, 1996), a reference is given: Communication, cm. Communication. Communication is defined as "the interaction of two or more people, consisting in the exchange between them of information of a cognitive or affective nature", that is, the exchange of knowledge or emotions. Social scientist Yu. D. Prilyuk came to the conclusion that "etymologically and semantically, the terms "communication" and "communication" are identical.

However, there are social psychologists who take a broader view. B. D. Parygin states: “Communication should mean not only relations of sympathy or antipathy on the scale of a small group, but also any social relationship in general - economic, political, since it has its own socio-psychological side and manifests itself in more or less indirect contact between people... The whole set of social relations of society, regardless of their scale (micro or macro environment) can be considered as one of the manifestations and results of communication between people.

The identification of the categories "communication" and "social communication" would be the easiest and simplest solution, but there is a danger of losing important aspects of the category of "communication" missed by communication theories. Usually, communication is included in the practical activities of people (joint work, cognition, play), although there is also the possibility of isolating communication into an independent activity that satisfies a person's needs for contacts with other people, that is, a communication need. In the general case, there are three sides, or three plans of communication (G. M. Andreeva, B. D. Parygin, A. V. Petrovsky, M. G. Yaroshevsky):

1. Perceptual side - mutual perception, the desire to understand the motives of the behavior of partners;
2. The communicative side is the exchange of statements, sign messages;
3. The interactive side is the exchange of not only words, but also actions in accordance with the adopted program of joint practical activities.

Thus, communication appears as the sum of three different processes: perception (people's knowledge of each other) + communication, accepted as a verbal-verbal-speech activity + joint purposeful actions, for example, building a house or playing football. There are four simplifications in this equation: firstly, the communicative side is reduced to verbal communication, consisting in the exchange of statements, and is overlooked wordless communication between people, for example, mutual understanding of the players of a football team played or partners in a dance, coordinated actions of hunters for a large animal or soldiers on a battlefield, etc .; in these cases, side B falls out, while sides A and C remain; secondly, given the case of the transformation of communication into the content of communication, when side B falls out, it should be stated obligation presence in all cases of communication of the act of perception and optional sides B and C; thirdly, interaction, i.e., joint labor activity, can be in the form of physical labor (material production) or in the form of mental labor (spiritual production); this distinction is fundamentally important, because the joint spiritual production is essentially merges with verbal communication between participants (for example, "brainstorming", scientific controversy, co-authorship of publications), and in the case of material production, there is no such merger; fourthly, this formula is generally not suitable for written communication or for electronic communication.

As a result, a simple arithmetic formula: O (communication) \u003d A (perception) + B (communication) + C (interaction) turns into a more complex one. logical formula:

O = A Λ (B V ¬ B) Λ (V V ¬ C).

The formula reads like this: communication is perception BUT and(Λ - sign of conjunction - logical multiplication) verbal communication B or(V - sign of disjunction - logical addition) lack of such(¬ - negation sign, logical NOT) and material interaction AT or lack thereof. Since the case when there is neither B nor C is excluded (there can be no communication), the following options remain:

1. O 1 \u003d A Λ B Λ C - material labor, accompanied by verbal communication;
2. O 2 =A Λ B - communication through verbal (verbal) communication, spiritual work, in which C = B;
3. O 3 \u003d A Λ B - material labor without verbal accompaniment;
4. O 4 \u003d A Λ ¬ B - communication through non-verbal (non-verbal) communication.

Soviet philosophers and social psychologists who comprehended the problem of communication, as a rule, had in mind option 1 and identified the concept of communication with the concept of der Verkehr (German communication, communication, movement) used in the works of K. Marx. According to Marx, communication (Verkehr) is not limited to the movement of meanings, it can take on a material form. Material communication reflects production relations between people (division of labor, ownership of property, management and execution), which are realized in the process of material production. According to this variant, social communication, i.e., the movement of meanings in social time and space, turns out to be part social communication.

The rest of the options show the limitations of this conclusion. Option 3, where there is no verbal communication at all, removes the question of the relationship between communication and communication. As for options 2 and 4, before analyzing their content, it is necessary to state continuity of perception not only with communication, but also with oral communication in verbal and non-verbal form.

Indeed, a real communication action in all its forms - imitation, management, dialogue - necessarily includes the perception of each other by partners, the formation of their images (images) in the minds of the subjects of communication and their emotional experience, i.e. perception. For effective management or dialogue, it is important to predict the recipient's reaction to a particular message, you need to know the motives that guide him, his expectations and communication skills. On the other hand, the recipient forms his attitude towards the communicant: indifference, trust, sympathy, etc. In short, the communicator and the recipient "model the communicatively significant features of the interlocutor's personality" (A. A. Leontiev).

Based on the foregoing, options 2 and 4 turn into statements: communication is spiritual work in the form of verbal (verbal) communication, or communication is non-verbal (non-verbal) communication. These statements can be combined, and then it turns out that oral communication in these cases is not part of communication (option 1), but is identical to communication.

So, we come to the following conclusions:

1. Oral communication: does not happen outside of communication, while communication may not include verbal communication.
2. The relationship between oral communication and communication occurs in two ways:
   1. communication - the spiritual component of material and production communication (part of communication);
   2. communication exhausts the content of spiritual communication (identical to communication).
3. Oral communication activity is the spiritual communication of social subjects. Let us pay attention to the fact that this definition does not contradict the definition of communication activity as the movement of meanings in social space; for the spiritual communion of social subjects is nothing other than the above-mentioned movement.
4. Written communication and electronic communication coincide with written communication, since joint material and production activities are excluded.

2.5. Games and pseudo-games

2.5.1. Game as a creative communication action

The game is a communication between people, which can take place in three ways:

• Playing within the framework of non-verbal (non-verbal) communication, for example, sports games.
• A game within the framework of verbal (verbal) communication, for example, language games like crossword puzzles and puzzles.
• A game that combines verbal and non-verbal communication, such as a dramatic performance.

But the essence of the game is not limited to communication, the game is not only the transfer of meanings, but also creation new meanings. Therefore, the game is a creative and communicative action.

The game is an indispensable companion of the development of mankind. On the stage archeoculture games performed extremely important functions. They were used for the socialization of the younger generation (especially the initiation rite), for preparation for a collective hunt, for training. But educational and training functions were not the main ones in the ancient gaming activity; the main field of play - the intralithic one - these are holidays, rituals, primitive art (dances, music, petrography, myths). All these activities are associated with the creation, storage, dissemination and development of meanings, i.e. they represent archaeocultural creative and communicative activities. In group games primitive comprehended a sense of unity with the collective, joined the social memory of the community and tried to make his own contribution to this memory.

Formation paleocultures led to the formation of socio-cultural institutions - religion, art, education, literature, and finally, science and journalism; the game was pushed into the leisure environment as a kind of frivolous activity. But among all peoples, games have been preserved in the form of holidays that have the sacred meaning of communication with divine forces, as well as everyday festive communication. Communication significance of the Olympic Games and grandiose holidays Imperial Rome is undeniable: these were forums for communication between citizens and the transmission of traditions from generation to generation. The Christian culture condemned demonic games; Christ never laughed and there are no icon-paintings of smiling saints or great martyrs. But even in the dark ages of the Middle Ages, along with ritually strict church holidays, knightly and poetic tournaments, masquerades flourished, carnivals, bullfights, and folk festivals rooted in cheerful paganism were practiced.

In paleoculture, there has been a division of cultural activity into two channels: folk culture, playful in nature, and elite professional culture, guided by non-gaming norms and standards. Both cultures ensured the movement of the meanings they created in social time and space.

Neoculture liberated the masses, the working people had leisure and with it an increased demand for entertainment, games, and spectacles. In the 20th century, the leisure industry developed, which occupied all communication channels and means: newspaper, magazine and book business, theater and cinema, radio broadcasting and television. The gaming essence of this industry is obvious: its machines did not produce material goods, but entertainment items that filled the leisure time of idle people. To two varieties of culture - folk and elite - a third variety was added - commercial popular culture- a characteristic sign of a mature neoculture.

Post-neoculture with multimedia computing enriched the entertainment market computer games. Computer games quickly became very popular: sociologists found that Americans annually spend more dollars on computer games than on the purchase of sound recordings, movie tickets and theater tickets combined. Computer games from childhood accompany the younger generation, causing, on the one hand, physical inactivity, atrophy of the musculoskeletal system and muscle muscles, on the other hand, rapidly developing intelligence, i.e., logical thinking and human imagination. The computer player gets used to moving from one virtual world to another, quickly perceive unfamiliar situations and adapt to them. In a rapidly changing Society XXI century, developed intellectual flexibility will ensure adaptation to new, unexpected realities. Computer games thus perform the function of youth socialization in a post-industrial society, similar to archaeocultural mysteries.

So, the creative and communication mission of creating and transmitting socially recognized meanings in social space and time has been carried out by games from the time of the Paleolithic to the present day. But how do games differ from other types of socio-cultural activities, what is their enduring charm?

1. Every game is free activity, playing on orders - not a game, in extreme cases - an imitation of a game. Freely entering the game, a person can just as freely leave it. What can be terminated at the request of the participants is the game; non-play is something that cannot be stopped at will. Coquetry is a game, but love is not; legal laws are a game, the laws of nature are not a game.

2. The game does not pursue the receipt of material products, like labor, but it is not aimless. The aim of the game is win, which may be of a moral-emotional or material nature; in the general case, moral and emotional stimuli are more important, the loss of which leads to the degeneration of the game into a non-game activity.

3. Achieving a win requires non-trivial, innovative solutions from the players, so the game can be classified as creative productive activity. During the game, not only are transmitted, but also created new meanings.

4. The game as a "kingdom of freedom" opposes everyday real life as the realm of necessity. The demonstrative otherness of the game is determined by the isolation of the playing space (temple, arena, screen, classroom, office, etc.); regulation of time - the beginning and end of the game, the periods of its repetition are established; use of costumes, passwords, masks; the isolation of the players, the limited circle of them initiated into the "secret" of the game; the inviolability of voluntarily adopted rules. But there may be no demonstrative signs, on the contrary, the game may be masked, which is typical for hypocrites, seducers, deceivers and other intruders.

5. Thanks to freedom, creative environment, harmonic orderliness, detachment from everyday life, the game creates a temporary, limited perfection in the chaos of everyday life. She is able to enchant people by satisfying them. aesthetic need.

6. The game is unpredictable but fair test of strength, perseverance, courage, resourcefulness, will, intelligence, charm, erudition of the players, and thereby satisfies ethical need; that is why wrong refereeing, cheating, unfair struggle, insulting the sense of justice, are so outraged.

As a result, we get the following definition: The game is a creative (productive) spiritual communication of independent subjects, carried out within the framework of voluntarily accepted or conditional rules and having ethical and aesthetic appeal. Spiritual communication, as shown in paragraph 2.4, always has a communication side, that is, it is associated with the transfer of known meanings; creative communication in the form of a game involves not only the communication of the known, but also the production of new meanings. Therefore, the game is a creative communicative action.

The game is bilateral, if there are subject-subjective relationships characterized by ease, interest, readiness to abide by the rules of the game. But she may be unilateral, if not all participants involved in the game want to become players or are aware that they are participating in some games. Then there are subject-object or object-subject relations, by virtue of which the participants-objects become victims of deceit, mystification, delusion, and instead of winning, they become disappointed.

It is not difficult to understand that in a two-way game there is a communication dialogue; one-sided subject-object relations are inherent in management, where the subject "plays" with the object, like a cat with a mouse; one-sided object-subject relations are inherent in imitation. Thus, game situations correlate well with the forms of communicative actions (see Fig. 2.1). This conclusion is confirmed by the typification of games.

Any game is expedient, but the goals pursued by the playing subjects may be different. Depending on the purpose of the game are divided into four types:

A masquerade game, which consists in hiding the true intentions, the actual state of the playing subject, his personality. The aim of the game in this case is manipulation partner, spectators, public, control them in the desired way. The masquerade game is used in microcommunications - D. Carnegie's psychotechnics is a vivid example of this, in party propaganda, in information wars (see paragraph 2.3). It is clear that the masquerade game is a one-sided game.

The game-illusion is another example of a one-sided game, but only games of the subject with himself, self-manipulation. The goal is to escape into virtual fantasy worlds in search of mental relief, hedonistic experiences, in flight from everyday obligations. The game-illusion apparently lies at the basis of folklore creativity, reading avid literature, and at the basis of computer games that captivate with the fabulous fantasy of their virtual worlds.

The riddle game consists in knowing, revealing, exposing the real, but hidden, disguised essence of a person, an event, a mysterious object. Three cases are possible here, which represent different variants of object-subject relations: the object is deliberately involved in the game by the subject himself in order to recognize its essence; the object is specially offered to the solver, the subject (recipient), so that he shows his ingenuity, erudition, intuition, for example, charades, mysterious drawings, etc .; the subject uses the object to imitate it.

The game-competition ("agonal" game from the Latin "agon" - public competition, public battle) is a two-sided game, a subject-subject dialogue, the essence of which is to fight in order to achieve victory, to prove one's superiority. This includes games of chance, games of chance, lotteries, etc., which are a "game with fate." The main gain is the feeling of self-affirmation, satisfaction, the delight of victory, although many participants, such as professional athletes, are not indifferent to the accompanying material prizes.

The attractiveness of play activity lies in the unpredictability of the end result, in the creative contribution that the subject must make in order to remove this uncertainty. As already noted, any game is a creative activity, but only figuratively it can be said that any creativity is a game of the physical and spiritual forces of a human creator. Creativity extends not only to the game, but also to non-playing labor and spiritual activity. For example, technical inventions and lawmaking are dictated by objective circumstances, and not by a disinterested desire for self-expression. At the same time, it happens that gaming activity loses its creative component and degenerates into a pseudo-game.

2.5.2. Pseudo-game as a non-creative communication action

Pseudo-game is a game that has lost its creative component, but retained its communication component, enclosed in a game form. Pseudo-game does not have ease, voluntariness, unpredictability of the result, on the contrary, it is a mandatory sequence of predetermined actions, deviations from which are not allowed. These actions are communication verbal or non-verbal actions, devoid of creative content. Therefore, a pseudo-game can be defined as a non-creative communication action. Pseudo-games are divided into labor service and ritual.

Pseudo-game labor service is carried out under the influence of external coercion (duty, duty, violence). So an actor who has lost inspiration is forced to present a pseudo-play to the audience, because he cannot leave the stage. Acting turns into a labor service, which requires not innovative and productive, but imitative and reproductive activity, which creates the appearance of a playful, even theatrical action. Another example is a student who forces himself to master a subject that is not interesting for him by cramming.

The game form, borrowing a theatrical term, can be called a performance, that is, a way of performing, presenting some meaning to the recipients. In a performance, it is not words that take precedence, but non-verbal actions, behavior of participants. Performance communication is used not only in the theater, but also in mass holidays and carnivals, political shows and demonstrations, company presentations and advertising campaigns, but the area of ​​its origin was sacred rituals and palace ceremonies.

Rituals are divided into ritual and everyday. The ceremonial ritual was originally a sacred action, a mystical dialogue with supernatural forces. It is clear that such a dialogue is a serious matter on which the well-being of society depends. Therefore, the serious content was clothed in a theatrical performance to make it more enjoyable for the divine recipients. Since improvisation was excluded, the religious ritual was originally an obligatory service, not a free game. Sophisticated ceremonials were developed in paleoculture to communicate with the "earth gods" - various lords.

Subsequently, a ritual began to be understood as a strictly observed traditional ritual of any public actions, for example, festive processions and meetings, wedding celebrations, funerals, etc. Ritual rituals do not have such signs of a game as creative innovations, free entry and exit, unpredictability of the result, but emotional and ethical appeal due to the bright game form (performance).

The ceremonial ritual approaches game of illusion, for it is characterized by the function of social self-manipulation, smoothing social differences and conflicts, demonstrating solidarity and unity (which are almost always absent in real social life). It can be called a "pseudo-illusion game" that plays out traditional plots in predetermined circumstances. That is why the ritual behavior of the masses was intensively planted by totalitarian regimes as performances confirming loyalty to the regime (parades, rallies, demonstrations, etc.). This question is comprehensively considered in the monograph by Glebkin VV "Ritual in Soviet culture".

Everyday ritual or etiquette is a standard, stable norm of everyday communication between people, adopted in a given culture. At the same time, it is assumed that ritual and etiquette behavior is only a formal procedure that does not reveal the true feelings and intentions of the participants. That's why they say: "for him it's just a ritual," implying, if not outright hypocrisy and pretense, then at least the discrepancy between the inner world and the outer performance.

Ritual and etiquette norms play an important role in cultural communication. The phenomenon of tact is the ritualization of everyday life. A tactful person will not insert a remark about his own personal problem into a conversation, even if it is a thousand times more important for him than the topic of secular conversation. He will not pay attention to an inappropriate remark or a tactless act of another. In contrast to ritual rituals, which are a "pseudo-game-illusion", everyday etiquette approaches a "pseudo-game-masquerade". Two conclusions follow from the above:

• Pseudo game- a communication tool developed by society for the preservation and transmission of significant meanings in time; this is a very important element of social memory, acting at all stages of the development of culture - from archeoculture to post-neoculture.
• Two-sided game, which has a dialogue communication form, is the primary source of the most important cultural meanings. I. Huizinga, the famous Dutch culturologist, not without reason asserted: “in myth and in cult, the great driving forces of cultural life are born: law and order, communication, entrepreneurship, craft and art, poetry, learning and science. Therefore, they are rooted in the same ground of play action".

2.6. Truth and lies in communication

The meanings (knowledge, skills, emotions, incentives) that communicants communicate to recipients are not always truthful, sincere, or reliable. Lies, deceit, illusion, deceit - this is communication phenomena, they do not exist outside of social communication. Beasts do not betray or deceive each other; they do not have the "instinct of lies and deceit", and their mind is not sufficiently developed to invent something that does not really exist. True, they practice various "military tricks" in interspecies struggle in order to confuse the enemy and save their lives, for example, mimicry, obfuscation of traces, etc., but in general zoocommunication is always true.

Innocent Homo sapiens in the Stone and Bronze Age did not know theft and treachery, they naively believed every word, and even more so an oath, did not have locks on the doors, were not jealous of their wives and communicated confidentially with spiritualized nature. However, in military affairs, provocations, ambushes, and even perjury were allowed (remember specific Russia), and myths, fairy tales and folklore served as sources of fiction and imaginary worlds. The development of civilization and communication, the emergence of cities, trade, usury, bureaucracy, writing, and fine arts contributed to the corruption of the wiser mankind. Marquis L. Vovenart (1715-1747), a contemporary of Voltaire, highly valued by him, sadly remarked: "all people are born sincere and die liars." Count Honoré Mirabeau (1749-1791) explained why this is so: "To be sincere in life means to fight with an unequal weapon and fight with an open chest against a man protected by an armor and ready to stab you with a dagger." Oscar Wilde expressed the same thought more succinctly: "a little sincerity is a dangerous thing, but a lot of sincerity is undoubtedly fatal." There is a bleak picture of social communications, saturated with deceit, slander, falsehood, delusions, hypocrisy. But let's not succumb to despondency, but try to understand the intricate problem of truth and lies.

As shown in section 2.4, communication activity is the spiritual communication of social actors, which includes two spiritual processes: oral communication and perception. In addition, communication includes the joint material and labor activities of communication partners. It follows that the sources of lies can be:

• speech is an unreliable communication activity;
• the partner's image is the result of an erroneous perception;
• violation of cooperation is the result of malicious interaction.

Malicious interaction or deceit - it is participation in material activities in order to prevent its successful completion, such as espionage, provocation, betrayal. Malicious interaction involves a mask (mask) that hides the true intentions of a spy or traitor and provides erroneous perception, as well as misleading communication actions, primarily speech, that excludes exposure. A type of deceit is perfidy(perjury) - violation of the obligations assumed, use to the detriment of the trust of the recipient. Cunning and treachery are social actions that go beyond the scope of communication activities, although they include some communication actions. We will turn to truth and falsehood as characteristics of communication activity.

One should distinguish between truth as a dispassionate and adequate reflection of the events and phenomena of the real world and the truth associated with the communicant's awareness moral responsibility for your statements. It should be noted that this distinction is not characteristic of the Western European peoples, but has long existed in the minds of Russian people. The idea that the truth, not connected with goodness and justice, is a flawed truth, and even, perhaps, not the truth at all, has taken root in the Russian mentality. Of course, we are not talking about truth in the natural sciences or mathematics, but about truth in social life, where truth, or rather truth, serves as a motive for certain actions. It is no coincidence that the Russian ethical philosophers N. K. Mikhailovsky and N. A. Berdyaev used the concepts of "truth-truth" and "truth-justice" in their works, giving preference to the latter. Summing up opinions, we can state the following differences between "truth" and "truth":

1. Truth is a category of logic and theory of knowledge, expressing the correspondence of our knowledge about the world to the world itself. Truth is a category of the psychology of mutual understanding, expressing not only the correspondence of knowledge to the world, but also the attitude of a person to true knowledge. We know the truth, and we understand the truth (not only with the mind, but also with the senses). Truth always contains a grain of truth; without it, it cannot be true. But this grain is still not enough. Truth is a truth that has received a subjective assessment, the moral sanction of society. This circumstance leads to the fact that when comprehending the same truth, different versions of the truth may appear.

2. The motives for saying the truth and the truth are different. The motive for publishing the truth: the purification of public knowledge from delusions. The motives for telling the truth depend on the personal goals of the communicant, which can be: a) a selfish goal - obtaining any benefits - fame, the halo of a "truth-lover", the destruction of an opponent; b) self-affirmation, expression of one's credo, "better the bitter truth than the sweet lie"; c) pedagogical and educational goal: a sincere conviction that the truth will contribute to the moral improvement of the recipient; d) self-improvement through telling the truth, despite the possible adverse consequences.

3. For a Russian person, only the truth in which he believes is true; no matter how convincing the evidence for the truth of the reported fact, the Russian does not perceive the fact as true until he believes in it. The main obstacle to believing in the veracity of the message is that it does not correspond to ideas about what should be, that is, about what can and should happen in a given situation. The contradiction between reason and feelings becomes a psychological barrier due to which the truth is perceived as a lie.

4. Many recipients prefer to evaluate the veracity of a message primarily by the criterion of justice, that is, from the point of view of their own ideal relations between people, and not by the criterion of objective truth.

In the metatheory of social communication, the following definition can be adopted: truth - a reliable and subjectively motivated message of the communicant that does not contradict the ethical ideas of the recipient. This message can be a text ("tell the truth") or an action ("act the truth"). The concept of truth is applicable only to the text.

The antipode of truth not true(falsehood) manifests itself in three varieties. First, untruth as a delusion: the communicant believes in the reality of the existence of something, but is mistaken; as a result, he tells a lie, not wanting it at all. Secondly, a half-truth is a message that combines correct and incorrect information due to limited knowledge, incomplete control of the situation, and trust in unreliable sources, such as rumors. Thirdly, a lie is a deliberate misrepresentation of information. According to Augustine, "a lie is something said with the intention of telling a lie." Let us pay attention to the fact that from a formal-logical position, all three varieties of falsehood are equivalent in the sense that they do not correspond to the real state of affairs; Ethics is another matter: from an ethical standpoint, a lie is condemned as an immoral act, and a delusion can be justified.

In communication activities, the truth is used in management and dialogue, which have the motivation of cooperation; lies are used in conflict situations of dishonest dispute or mercenary management of recipients. Deception (fraud) - communication management through lies or half-truths. For example, the recipient is told a half-truth with the expectation that he will make erroneous, but consistent with the intentions of the fraudster conclusions. It is said that in the final race the Soviet athlete took an honorable second place, and his opponent came penultimate, but it is not reported that there were only two participants. Consequently, a fraudulent communicator can avoid outright lies, but give the recipient a distorted picture of reality. Deception is a close relative of deceit and perfidy, but it belongs to the realm of texts, not actions.

Successful deception usually relies on the deceived expectation effect. The deceiver takes into account the expectations of the recipient, throwing him false, but expected information. Recall A. S. Pushkin:

Ah, it's easy to deceive me!

I'm glad to be deceived!

The deceived in this case becomes an unwitting accomplice of deception, a victim of his own inadequate ideas about reality.

An illusion is a voluntary self-deception when the recipient agrees to believe what the communicant reports. If cheating is communication control to the detriment recipient, then the illusion is a communication control for the benefit of recipient. Fiction literature operates with illusory, fantastic pictures, art, opera, theater, cinema, computer multimedia. Despite the obvious conventions, viewers, readers, listeners succumb to the charm of the truth of art and enjoy this "truth". So, I. A. Bunin admired the fact that Leo Tolstoy in all his life in all his books did not have a single false word. By the way, we note that irony, metaphor, joke, grotesque - this is not a deception, but an illusory "truth of art." As a result of our conceptual and terminological analysis, the following oppositions emerge:

• Truth - Truth;
• Truth - Falsehood, including Delusion, Half-truth, Falsehood, Illusion;
• Truth - Deception, Perfidy, Cunning.

Let us note that Truth, in its Russian understanding, can justify not only delusion or half-truth, but also a direct lie (“white lie”, for example), but is not compatible with deceit, perfidy, deceit (“acts not in truth”) . We also note that the Truth goes beyond the limits of communication activity (truth-justice), as well as its antipodes: deceit, treachery, deceit.

It is desirable that in all types of communication activities, at the interpersonal, group and mass levels, the principle of truthfulness be observed. But this principle is understood in different ways. There are three points of view.

Truth for the sake of truth (ethical purism). A complete liberation of communication messages from delusions, half-truths, lies, and deceit is required. So, Academician D.S. Likhachev wrote: "Half-truth is the worst kind of lie: in half-truth, a lie is faked as truth, covered with a shield of partial truth." L. N. Tolstoy declared: “I would write the epigraph to the story: “I will not hide anything.” Not only that, in order not to lie directly, one must try to lie, negatively silent.”

People who adhere to the rule "the truth is any: at a price" in everyday life often injure the psyche of other people. They do not think about the possible reaction of the recipient, guided by the dogmatically hardened conviction that "the bitter truth is better than the sweet lie." The purist-truth-monger is often motivated by the satisfaction of a supposedly fulfilled duty ("opened people's eyes"). Faux pas is truth for the sake of truth in the mouth of a fool.

However, despite the calls of ethical purists, contained in the biblical commandments, in real communication the ideal of absolute truthfulness cannot be achieved for four reasons:

• conscientious errors a communicant who may not have full and true knowledge of the facts under discussion, without suspecting it;
• subjectivism of selection facts included in the message. For example, it is in principle impossible for a truth-seeking historian to tell about everything that took place in reality, and in this case, the "silence" condemned by L. N. Tolstoy is practically inevitable;
• inequality of social status communicator and recipient. So, parents to the child's question "where do children come from?" it is not necessary to tell the pure truth; the military leader should not frankly tell the soldiers the combat situation; the director of the company is not obliged to disclose company secrets, etc.
• psychological restrictions. Psychology, in principle, denies the possibility of a true description of any fact due to unintentional, unconscious, involuntary distortions introduced by conscientious witnesses and observers.

Truth and lies for good (morally justified communication). The communicant, communicating the truth known to him, seeks, first of all, to benefit (good) the recipient or another person in question, guided by the criteria of justice and goodness, and not straightforward love of truth. If the brutal truth can be used to harm someone or mentally injure an unsuspecting person, silence is preferable.

In the case of ethically justified lies, the requirement of truthfulness is overcome by a stronger ethical imperative, known from the New Testament as "white lies." Examples of such humane lies: misleading the patient by a doctor guided by medical ethics; hiding the plane crash in order to avoid panic; the silence of the prisoner in the face of the enemy.

The smartest N. Ya. Mandelstam wrote in her memoirs: “Without lies, I would not have survived in our terrible days. And I lied all my life - to students, in the service, to good friends whom I did not fully trust, and there were the majority. at the same time, I didn’t believe it - it was a common lie of our era, something like stereotypical politeness, I’m not ashamed of this lie ... ". Who has the conscience to reproach her for this lie?

Truth and lies by calculation (selfish pragmatism) take place when the truth is revealed in order to compromise someone, to benefit personally. A lie of convenience is a deception in the selfish, party, state interests, but not for the sake of ethical considerations. A lie based on extramoral considerations is communication violence.

How are different understandings of truthfulness implemented in practice? The ethical purism of absolutely true communication, as already noted, is practically unattainable. Even science, which has always been considered the citadel of true knowledge, refuses to achieve it. The words of the founder of the Athenian philosophical school Anaxagoras (c. 500-428 BC) remain relevant: "Nothing can be fully known, nothing can be fully learned, nor in which cannot be fully ascertained: feelings are limited, the mind is weak, life is short. "P. Laplace (1749-1827) 2200 years later stated:" what we know is limited, and what we do not know is infinite. 20th-century philosopher Karl Popper proclaimed that the principle of the movement of scientific knowledge is not confirmation (verification) of scientific truths, but, on the contrary, their falsification, i.e., refutation. communication activities.

Interpersonal communication. Truth and lies for the good are manifested in everyday etiquette, in stereotypical politeness, which N. Mandelstam wrote about as "the usual lies of our era." The famous female coquetry and capriciousness, the tendency to pretense and favor to flattery, more than once served as a target for male wit. Stendhal stated categorically: "To be completely sincere for a woman is the same as to appear in public without a dress." D. Diderot: "Women drink flattering lies in one gulp, and bitter truth - in drops." The gallant G. Flaubert finds an excuse for the fair sex: "Women are taught to lie, no one ever tells them the truth, and if sometimes they have to hear it, they are struck by it as something extraordinary." Of course, the female lot at the beginning of the 21st century is significantly different from the lifestyle of women in the 19th century, but has the psychology of femininity changed radically? E. Ryazanov, who wrote: "Love is a deceitful country where every person is a deceiver," is just as right as O. Balzac, who said: "Love is a game in which people always cheat."

Truth and falsehood by calculation bring a lot of grief in everyday life: from professional scammers, deceivers and cheaters like Sonya the Golden Hand to the sophisticated manipulation of the consciousness of one's neighbor according to the recipes of Dale Carnegie. Who has not had to deal with hypocrisy, duplicity, slander, cunning, rudeness and stupidity that clog everyday communication? All this is the fruit of communication violence in interpersonal communication. How can one not recall M. M. Zoshchenko, who once wrote: “As for deceit, then - alas! - we undoubtedly still have it, and let’s not close our eyes - it’s decent ... And we even have special names have chosen to denote this - double-dealers, schemers, adventurers, swindlers, araps, etc. From this it is quite clear that we still have enough of this good. we will not be. And why would he be, since there will be no reasons left for that. Zoshchenko, of course, was cunning. But after all, he himself complained about the "too soft pen of gentlemen writers, who sometimes wrote far from what they thought. And vice versa."

Group communication. Truth and lies for good are created by believers, and missionaries and preachers, magicians, fortune-tellers, astrologers are their hotbeds. Utopias composed by noble dreamers (T. More, T. Campanella, A. Saint-Simon, C. Fourier, R. Owen, K. Marx and F. Engels) are a lie for good. A. S. Pushkin dreamed of the triumph of truth and justice when he exclaimed:

The darkness of low truths is dearer to me

A deceit that elevates us.

The "truth of art", which has already been mentioned, of course, serves the benefit of various groups of its admirers. Medical appeals like "The Ministry of Health warns: smoking is dangerous for your health" are a manifestation of sincere concern for the welfare of smoking citizens, but only a quarter of smokers trust these appeals.

Truth and lies of convenience extend not only to military affairs, intelligence, counterintelligence and other law enforcement agencies, but also to the sphere of business, entrepreneurship and trade, where ethically pure mutually beneficial deals are as rare as incorruptible courts. No wonder the American millionaire Morgan said: "What cannot be done for money can be done for a lot of money."

The struggle of political parties, scientific schools, trends in art is not complete without slander, insults, deceit and direct violence. Let us recall the struggle between the "Karamzinists" and the "Shishkovists" at the beginning of the 19th century; persecution of "nihilists" who allegedly set fire to shops in St. Petersburg; provocateurs of the tsarist secret police S. Degaev, E. Azef, R. Malinovsky; finally, Lysenkoism and the sciences repressed in the Soviet Union - pedology, genetics, cybernetics, the theory of social communication.

Mass communication. Mass audiences have always been considered by ambitious and power-hungry individuals and active social groups as an object of communication control. Few people cared about the welfare of the people and therefore the principle of truth and falsehood triumphed. Our time is especially rich in professionals in the field of communication violence. Advertising, image-making, public relations are areas of skillful manipulation of a gullible public. Would financial pyramids like MMM be possible without advertising? Mass media, served by an army of talented technologists, have a particularly powerful potential. They skillfully use silence, selection and distortion of facts, constructing versions, spreading rumors. They create a repulsive image of the enemy and an attractive image of their "owner" who pays for communication services. The personality cult of the leader was created by Soviet writers and newspapermen in accordance with the party order, and did not arise spontaneously among the people.

However, the masses striving for the truth easily succumb to lies. for the benefit of. The oldest "lie for good" was mythology, which has now degenerated into rumors, social mythology, sometimes deliberately distributed by cunning technologists. The secret of the impact of the myth on the mass consciousness is as follows:

• the myth is convincing because it simultaneously affects the rational and emotional spheres;
• myth mobilizes for action: it draws an attractive private example, instilling the illusion of its general availability;
• the myth corresponds to the aspirations, expectations, habitual stereotypes of the social environment.

2.7. conclusions

1. Communication action - a completed operation of semantic interaction that occurs without changing the participants in communication. Depending on the purpose of the participants, the communication action can be carried out in three forms: imitation, control, dialogue. Communication activity consists of communication actions. The predominant form of communication actions (imitation, or control, or dialogue) becomes the form of the corresponding communication activity.

2. The subjects and objects of communication activity can be: an individual person (I), a social group (G), a mass population, up to society as a whole (M). Those types of communication activity, where I, or G, or M acts as an active, purposeful subject, are called, respectively, microcommunication, midicommunication, macrocommunication. Those types where I, or G, or M act as an object of influence are called, respectively, interpersonal, group and mass level communications. Dialogue is possible only between subjects of the same level; management and imitation - between subjects of all levels.

3. Microcommunication activity in all its forms is an art, i.e. creatively productive, playful, and not a ritual-reproductive activity.

4. Midicommunication management is the driving center of the spiritual life of society, acting at different stages of culture in the form of mythocentrism, religious centrism, literary centrism, science centrism, political centrism.

5. In the history of all countries, and the Russian state in particular, macrocommunication (borrowing of achievements, interaction of cultures, information aggression) served as a source of internal political and socio-cultural upheavals.

6. Communication activity is not a chain of successive communication actions (operations), but the unity of communication and non-communication acts; and vice versa, any non-communicative activity (cognition, labor) includes communication actions in its structure.

7. Communication activity includes not one, but two social subjects (as opposed to labor and cognitive activity) that have one performer. It follows from this that communication activity is a social relation, the poles of which are cooperation and conflict.

8. Oral communication activity is the spiritual communication of social subjects; she is not out of touch.

9. The game is a creative and communicative action that served as a source of the formation of human culture. The game is a creative (productive) spiritual communication of independent subjects, carried out within the framework of conditional rules voluntarily adopted by them and possessing ethical and aesthetic appeal. Depending on the purpose of the game, they are divided into four types: a masquerade game, an illusion game, a riddle game, and a competition game.

10. Pseudo-game - a game that has lost its creative component, but retained the communication component contained in the game form. Pseudo-games are divided into labor service, ritual rituals, everyday rituals (etiquette). Ritual-etiquette pseudo-games are part of social memory.

11. Truth - a reliable and subjectively motivated message of the communicant that does not contradict the ethical ideas of the recipient. The antipode of truth - untruth (falsehood) acts as a delusion, half-truth, lie. Deception is communication control through lies or half-truths. Illusion - voluntary self-deception.

12. Terra incognita communication-spatial activity is very extensive, perhaps yielding in this respect only to communication-temporal (mnemonic) activity, which is even less studied. We will formulate only two problems:

For the recipient, messages containing only meanings already known to him and messages consisting of unknown meanings are equally useless. The former are rejected as meaningless (trivial), the latter as incomprehensible (inaccessible). The optimal message is one in which the known allows understanding (decoding) the unknown and making it the property of the recipient's consciousness. Therefore, the message must strike a balance between what is known and what is unknown to the recipient. What is this balance?

A person cannot free himself from communicative interaction with other people; it is impossible to live in society and be free from social communication. We are all in the networks of communication services that control (manipulate) us. These services often operate with lies for convenience. However, there is no "lie detector" that would diagnose dishonest actions at the level of group or mass communication. Is it possible to develop technologies for detecting insincerity as a counterbalance to communication management technologies?

Literature

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Lecture 6. Types, levels and forms of communication activities. Rassuditelnova Irina Mikhailovna Senior Lecturer of the Department of Public Relations 1

2. COMMUNICATION ACTIVITY AND COMMUNICATION 1. Communication actions and their forms 2. Types, levels and forms of communication activity 3. Types of communication activity 3. 1. Microcommunication 3. 2. Midicommunication 3. 3. Macrocommunication 3. 4. Cooperation and conflicts in communication activities 2. 4. Conclusions

Communication actions and their forms We defined communication activity as the movement of meanings in social space. The elementary scheme of communication (Fig. 1) corresponds to the communication activity, more precisely, not to the activity as a whole, but to its elementary part - to the communication action. A communication action is a completed operation of semantic interaction that occurs without changing the participants in communication. COMMUNICANT, sender, transmitter of a message, RECIPIENT, addressee, receiver of the transmitted object Elementary scheme of communication

Three forms of communication action. The subjects who have entered into communication can pursue three goals: 1. the recipient wants to receive from the communicant some meanings that are attractive to him; 2. the communicant wants to communicate to the recipient some meanings that affect the behavior of the latter; 3. The communicant and the recipient are interested in interaction in order to exchange some meanings. Accordingly, three forms of communication action are possible - Imitation, Dialogue, Control It is not necessary to absolutize the boundaries between different communication forms. Imitation, dialogue, control can merge with each other, complement each other.

1) Imitation is one of the oldest forms of conveying meanings, used by higher animals and birds; not without reason, some scientists considered the herd instinct to be a source of imitation. Imitation is understood as the reproduction by the recipient of the movements, actions, habits of the communicant. Imitation can be voluntary and involuntary (unconscious). Arbitrary imitation (imitation) is used in schooling, mastering technology, skill. Involuntary imitation is the main method of primary socialization of preschool children.

Imitation - Object subject relation In public life, through Imitation, fashionable innovations, popular ideas and trends are disseminated. At the same time, thanks to imitation, traditions, customs, and stereotypes of behavior are passed on from generation to generation. We can say that imitation is one of the ways in which a living social memory exists. The recipient purposefully chooses the communicant and uses him as a source of meanings that he would like to learn. At the same time, the communicant often does not realize his participation in the communication action. Imitation is such an object - a subjective relationship, where the recipient plays an active role, and the communicant is a passive object for imitation.

2) Dialogue - subjective attitude Dialogue is a form of communication interaction, mastered by people in the process of anthropogenesis in the formation of human language and speech. Participants in the dialogue treat each other as equal subjects with certain meanings. A subjective relationship develops between them, and their interaction is creative in the sense that a socio-psychological community of partners is achieved, denoted by the word "WE". Dialogue communication is presented as a sequence of utterances of participants replacing each other in the role of communicant and recipient.

A statement is not a word, not a sentence, not a paragraph, but a unit of meaning that makes it possible to answer it. The participants in the dialogue jointly create a dramatic text that has a relative semantic completeness. An unfinished dialogue develops into a communication discourse, covering many subjects and continuing indefinitely. Discourse is a multi-subject endless dialogue. Dialogue is close to behavior according to the "stimulus-response" scheme, it does not require such a level of programming and organization as a monologue speech. Therefore, it is dialogue that is considered the original form of speech that arose even among the Pithecanthropes (1500-200 thousand years ago), and monologue speech is a later communication achievement that requires a higher culture of speech and some oratorical skills.

3) Management - the subject of object relations. Management is such a communication action when the communicant considers the recipient as a means of achieving his goals, as an object of management. In this case, a subject-object relationship is established between the communicant and the recipient. Management differs from dialogue in that the subject has the right to monologue, and the recipient cannot discuss with the communicant, he can only report his reaction through the feedback channel. The "friendship" of a general with a soldier is unlikely.

The considered forms of communicative actions are systematized according to similarities and differences. It should be noted that the forms of communication actions may include different content, and at the same time, the same meaning can be conveyed in two or even three forms, for example, you can teach something by showing (imitation), by dialogic explanation or by instruction (management). Forms of communication actions Recipient in the role of Communicative roles of a purposeful nikant Commu as a subject of the object of influence of a purposeful subject dialogue imitation of the object of influence management -

Elementary Acts Communication actions are elementary acts, one might say atoms of communication activity, but they are also used in non-communication activity (knowledge, labor). Practically in all types of communication activity, the forms considered by us are found, but one of the forms prevails. This allows communication activity and, in general, at its various levels to be presented in the form of dialogic, managerial, imitative, i.e., to identify the forms of communication activity and the forms of elementary communication acts.

Types, levels and forms of communication activities Three subjects belonging to different levels of social structure can act as communicants and recipients: 1. Individual personality (I), 2. Social Group (G), 3. Mass aggregate (M). They can interact with each other, for example, I - I, G - G, M - M, or with each other, for example I - G, I - M, G - M, etc. It turns out 9 types of social communications. As shown before, communication actions can be carried out in the form of Imitation, Dialogue, Control. Dialogue is the interaction of equal partners, which is possible between subjects of the same social level, and not of different levels, because subjects of different levels, for example, I and M, are not equal. Between different-level subjects there can be Imitation or Control, but not a dialogue of equal participants.

Types of communication activity Those types of communication activity where I, or G, or M acts as an active, purposeful Subject, we will call, respectively, microcommunication, midicommunication, macrocommunication. Those types where I, or G, or M act as the Object of influence, we will call, respectively, interpersonal, group and mass communication, understanding under them the levels of social communications. The resulting two-dimensional classification of types and levels of communication activity is shown in fig. Designations: I - individual; G - group; M - mass aggregate; R - recipient; K - communicator; p - imitation; d - dialogue; y - control.

7 + 5 + = 15 forms of communication activities There are 7 forms of microcommunication, 5 forms of midicommunication and 3 forms of macrocommunication. Each of the forms manifests itself at the interpersonal, group, mass level. We systematize and designate the resulting 15 forms. To complete the picture of possible forms of communication activity, one should take into account quasi-communication, when the communicant addresses an imaginary subject and gains a sense of dialogue with him. This includes the phenomenon of fetishization,. Let us consider in more detail the listed forms of communication activity, distributing them by types of social communication: micro-, midi-, macro-communication.

Types of communication activities 1. Microcommunication (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) Table 1 presents 7 forms of microcommunication, where an individual acts as an active recipient (imitation) or an active communicator (dialogue, management); as communication partners, either another individual, or a social group, or a mass aggregate (society as a whole) can be. The content of microcommunication is fairly obvious; at the Interpersonal level, this is either the assimilation of forms of behavior, skills, external attributes of the chosen role model - copying the model, or the exchange of ideas, arguments, proposals between interlocutors - a friendly or business conversation, or instructions for their execution to a subordinate - a command.

At the group level, reference is possible (the same imitation, but not of an individual person, but of a social group with which an individual wishes to identify himself, for example, imitation of merchants of the nobility; (note that there is a negative reference when a person consciously avoids the signs of the group he rejects) leadership collective - management, organization, leadership in a group; At the mass level, communication actions serve for socialization - the development by a person of norms, beliefs, ideals generally accepted in a given society, in order to "be like everyone else", authoritarianism, i.e. despotic control of the masses of subject people ( absolutism, tyranny, autocracy are political forms of authoritarianism.) Note that the dialogue of an individual with a group or mass is excluded.

Midicommunication (8, 9, 10, 11) Five forms of Midicommunication include such social communication phenomena as fashion - based on imitation transmission in social space of material forms, patterns of behavior and ideas that are emotionally attractive to social groups; negotiations are a common way to resolve conflicts and reach agreements between social groups; a group hierarchy is formed in large institutions (managers - workers), in army units, where contacts between groups are clearly regulated; adaptation to the environment turns into a communication problem for national diasporas living among foreigners; society is managed by creative groups that generate ideological meanings that determine the spiritual (not material!) life of society. Let's take a closer look at this form of midicommunication.

Worldview meanings are knowledge that explains the observed phenomena, the origin of man and the universe, the meaning of human life, ideals, norms and incentives for social activity. These centers shift in the course of social and cultural evolution. Archeoculture is characterized by mythocentrism, Paleoculture is characterized by religiocentrism. Since the 17th century (the century of universal geniuses), Western European neoculture has developed under the auspices of secular knowledge headed by philosophy, and in the 19th century gradually moved to science-centrism. the Leninist principle of party membership, a gigantic propaganda system was created (monologue, centralized management, mobilization of all communication resources) As a result, the high efficiency of the communist education of a person of a new formation - homo sovieticus

Macrocommunication (13, 14, 15) Macrocommunication forms of communication interaction, which in Table. 2 named borrowing of achievements (M p M), interaction of cultures (M d M), information aggression (M y M), are clearly visible in the thousand-year history of interaction between the Russian state and Europe. Moreover, fluctuations from imitation to dialogue and vice versa are easily noticed. Information aggression is a relatively new phenomenon that appeared only in the 20th century. The baptism of Russia at the end of the 10th century is an indisputable act of macrocommunication imitation. (M p M),

Historical examples Ivan IV, who started the Livonian War for access to the Baltic Sea and was about to marry Elizabeth of England, of course, considered himself not a student of European wisdom, but an equal partner of any monarch. Muscovy was ready for a dialogue of cultures according to the formula (M d M). XVII century - the time of gradual rapprochement with Europe. Peter's transformations - unconditional discipleship, a new "breach under the windows of European temples of wisdom", a new phase (M p M). The military victory of the USSR, and then the Iron Curtain, the struggle against cosmopolitanism and cringing before the West, ideologically sustained Soviet nationalism. There is no longer a communication dialogue; this, according to the formula (M y M), informational aggression

Dialogue communication is most consistent with the socio-psychological nature of people and therefore it brings the greatest satisfaction to the participants. Dialogue at the level of microcommunication becomes a form of spiritual friendship and effective business cooperation, which does not negate fundamental disputes and differences of opinion. At the level of midicommunication, dialogical cooperation between various social groups is possible, including a dialogue with the authorities, which again does not cancel rivalry and polemical discussions between opponents. In order to achieve national accord and international cooperation, a macro-communication dialogue is of decisive importance, in which peoples, states, and civilizations become participants.

Historical examples Enlightenment and critical realist literature, starting with N. M. Karamzin and ending with M. Gorky, cultivated the subject-object relationship with the “friend reader”, which corresponds to the formula of cooperation G with M or G with G. In modernism, shocking the reading public (remember "The Slap in the Face of Public Taste") and professing self-enchanted egocentrism, the control scheme G at G operates, but with a conflicting content. Socialist realism, which propagated party doctrines, belongs to the G&M formula, as do all means of propaganda seeking to establish cooperation with recipients.

Communication as a socio-psychological and communication category The category "communication" is often identified with the category "communication". In the “Psychological Dictionary”: Communication, see Communication is defined as “the interaction of two or more people, consisting in the exchange of information between them of a cognitive or affective nature”, i.e. the exchange of knowledge or emotions. Identification of the categories "communication" and "social communication" would be the easiest and simplest solution, but there is a danger of losing important aspects of the category "communication" that were missed by communication theories.

Three plans of communication Usually communication is included in the practical activities of people (joint work, cognition, play), although there is also the possibility of isolating communication into an independent activity that satisfies a person's needs for contacts with other people, i.e. communication need. In the general case, there are three sides, or three plans of communication. The perceptual side is mutual perception, the desire to understand the motives for the behavior of partners; B. The communicative side - the exchange of statements, sign messages; C. Interactive side - the exchange of not only words, but also actions in accordance with the adopted program of joint practical activities.

Oral communication So, we come to the following conclusions: 1. Oral communication: there is no outside of communication, while communication may not include verbal communication. 2. The relationship between oral communication and communication occurs in two versions: communication is the spiritual component of material and production communication (part of communication); communication exhausts the content of spiritual communication (identical to communication). 3. Oral communication activity is the spiritual communication of social subjects. Let us pay attention to the fact that this definition does not contradict the definition of communication activity as the movement of meanings in social space; for the spiritual communion of social subjects is nothing other than the aforementioned movement. 4. Written communication and electronic communication coincide with written communication, since joint material production activities are excluded.

Conclusions (1 5) 1. Communication action is a completed operation of semantic interaction that occurs without changing the participants in communication. Depending on the purpose of the participants, the communication action can be carried out in three forms: imitation, control, dialogue. Communication activity consists of communication actions. The predominant form of communication actions (imitation, or control, or dialogue) becomes the form of the corresponding communication activity. 2. The subjects and objects of communication activity can be: an individual personality (I), a social group (), a mass G aggregate, up to society as a whole (M). Those types of communication activity, where I, or G, or M acts as an active, purposeful subject, are called, respectively, microcommunication, midicommunication, macrocommunication. Those types where I, or G, or M act as an object of influence are called, respectively, the interpersonal, group and mass level of communication. Dialogue is possible only between subjects of the same level; management and imitation - between subjects of all levels. .

Conclusions (6 12) 3. Microcommunication activity in all its forms is an art, i.e. creatively productive, playful, and not ritually reproductive activity. 4. Midicommunication management is the driving center of the spiritual life of society, acting at different stages of culture in the form of mythocentrism, religious centrism, literary centrism, science centrism, political centrism. 5. In the history of all countries, and the Russian state in particular, macrocommunication (borrowing of achievements, interaction of cultures, information aggression) served as a source of internal political and socio-cultural upheavals. 6. Communication activity is not a chain of successive communication actions (operations), but the unity of communication and non-communication acts; and vice versa, any non-communicative activity (cognition, labor) includes communication actions in its structure. 7. Communication activity includes not one, but two social subjects (unlike labor and cognitive activity), which have one performer. It follows from this that communication activity is a social relation, the poles of which are cooperation and conflict. 8. Oral communication activity is the spiritual communication of social subjects; she is not out of touch.

1

1 GAU "Institute for retraining and advanced training of managers and specialists of the social protection system of the city of Moscow"

The author in this article, relying on the works of domestic and foreign scientists, as well as on the data of his research, reveals hot topic dedicated to communication activities. The paper considers the types of communicative activity, systematizes this area of ​​knowledge in the aspects of intercultural communication. The author presents the result of a theoretical understanding of the essence, structure, types, cultures, personally and socially oriented types of communicative activity, in a mono- and multicultural environment, levels and forms of communicative activity, reveals the content of micro-, midi- and macrocommunication. As well as the situations characteristic of their application, the system-forming role of communication in modern society.

social interaction.

personality

socially oriented type of communicative activity

personality-oriented type of communicative activity

intercultural communication activities

communicative activity

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9. Articles on sociology [Electronic resource] ROGERS CARL. - URL: http://er-team.moy.su/publ/nauka/sociologija/rogers_karl/10-1-0-183 (date of access: 11/12/29013).

10. Sukhovershina Yu.V., Tikhomirova E.P. Skoromnaya Yu.E. Training of communicative competence. – Ed. 2nd. - M .: Academic Project; Fund "Mir", 2009. - S. 49-53.

11. Shchedrovitsky G.P. Thinking. Understanding. Reflection. - M., 2005. - 800 p.

In a modern post-industrial society, where information and the speed of its receipt are of high value, it is difficult to overestimate the role of communication. Encyclopedic Dictionary edited by M.Yu. Kondratiev defines communicative activity (lat. communicatio - communication, message) as an activity, the subject of which is another person - a communication partner. Communicative activity is the subject of research in many branches of knowledge, including psychology, where the psychologism of the nature of communication is revealed. Communicative activity is directly directed at another person as its subject, and has a two-way connection, it is a complex multi-channel system of interaction between people and social communities, and exists in various forms. Intercultural communicative activity is singled out as a systemic process of transferring information from one person to another or between groups of people from different ethnolinguistic environments, consistently unfolding in a specific social space-time. It is formed and developed on the basis of personal needs and motives existing in society. In addition, in the socio-philosophical literature of recent years, two types of communicative activity are distinguished: personality-oriented and socially-oriented. Communicative activity has a complex structure.

Based on the concept of A.N. Leontiev, the following main structural components of personality-oriented communicative activity can be defined: the subject of communication, the need for communication, communicative motives, communication actions, communication tasks, means of communication, product of communication.

Many researchers also distinguish the process of communicative activity. So, from the point of view of the Russian scientist B.F. Lomov, the process of interpersonal communicative activity is a "system of associated acts", i.e. the interaction of two subjects, two endowed with the ability to initiate communication of people. Dialogue is a real unit of interpersonal communicative activity, consisting of actions, statements and hearings.

As for the level of communicative activity, the studies distinguish between interpersonal, group, mass. In the applied aspect, these three levels constitute the communicative activity of the individual. The foundation of this process is the system-thought-activity approach (SMD-approach), which implies polysubjective interaction realized through activity.

From the standpoint of the SMD methodology, communicative activity can be defined as the movement of meanings in social space-time. The minimum implementation unit of research in this context is the communication act of activity.

The communicative act of activity is an organized and structural process localized in space and time, occurring without changing the participants in communication. Its various structural components are singled out and emphasized: actor, object, goal, means, cultural and social norms, actions, procedures, operations.

The communicative aspect of the SMD approach involves three main forms of interaction: monologue, dialogic, polylogical.

Regardless of the form, each act is determined by: the initiator of communication, initiated into communication (subject-partner), communicative norms-regulators, goals of actors, and spatio-temporal orientation.

It should be noted that the starting and ending point of any interpersonal communicative activity is self-consciousness, which predetermines the content, functions, manner and style of the communication act.

The realization by a person of his subjectivity in communication is primarily associated with the presence of the necessary level of communicative competence, which is the quintessence of the ability to socio-psychological prediction and programming of a communicative situation.

A communicative forecast is formed in the process of analyzing a communicative situation at the level of actors' communicative attitudes (i.e., the type of temperament, subject-practical preferences; emotional assessments of the actors' forms of communication).

With this approach to the characterization of communicative competence, it is advisable to consider communication as a system-integrating process that has the following components: communicative-diagnostic, communicative-prognostic, communicative-programming, communicative-organizational.

An important skill in communication is emotional and psychological self-regulation, which manifests itself in the perceptual and expressive abilities of the subject of communication. A special place in the structure of the communicative competence of the individual is occupied by the experience of communication.

The determinism of the expressiveness of communication from emotional and psychological self-regulation was noted by L.S. Vygotsky: “the desire of every feeling to be embodied in certain images corresponding to this feeling”.

The characteristic of a person's capabilities, which determine the quality of his communication as a whole, is called the communicative potential, which consists of the communicative properties of the personality, communicative abilities and communicative competence. The basis of the cognitive component of the communicative competence of an individual as a subject of communication is socio-normative experience.

American psychologist, personality trait theorist Gordon Willard Allport identified eight personality traits that expand the range of communication skills. They are: experience, similarity (actors of communication observe in each other the same features that are inherent in themselves), intellect (directly proportional relationship between the development of intellect and the ability to give an accurate assessment of the subject, object, case-event), a deep understanding of oneself, detachment (an actor skilled in the art of communication, well versed in people, is often more likely to limit his social circle), aesthetic inclinations (often correlated with detachment), social intelligence and complexity (it is more difficult for an actor who is less intellectualized and communicatively competent to understand an interlocutor who is more complex and subtle developed than himself). In addition, Allport identified nine of the most common psychological communicative types (positive person, absurd person, know-it-all, chatterer, coward, cold-blooded unapproachable interlocutor, disinterested interlocutor, important bird, why) and expedient forms of communication with them.

A person-oriented type of communicative activity implies the following principles: target conditionality, individualization, functionality, situationality and relevance.

The goals pursued by the actors of communication come down to receiving and transmitting meanings. This involves several forms of communication action: imitation, dialogue / monologue, control. Management differs from dialogue in that the subject has the right to monologue, and the object cannot discuss with the subject, he can only report his reaction through the feedback channel. Managerial monologue expresses itself in the form of an order, suggestion and persuasion.

Carl Rogers said that the goal of communication is an adequate understanding of oneself and others, and understanding is possible only in honest communication. This raises the question of self-disclosure, the relationship of openness and mutual understanding in the process of a communicative act. Dishonesty, discrepancy in speech and action, shyness, lack of feedback almost always leads to misunderstanding and dissatisfaction. The paradox is that the stronger the openness, the stronger the personality develops.

It should be noted that the forms of communication actions include different content, and at the same time, the same meaning can be conveyed in two or even three forms, for example, you can teach something by showing (imitation), by instructing (management) or by monologue explanation. Forms of communication overlap and complement each other. In general, it can be stated that any meaningful dialogue is a managerial and motivational action on the person initiated into the communicative act.

The subjects and objects of communication are: a person, a group or a mass of people. Actors interact directly with each other and with each other. Thus, nine types of social communications are formed, carried out in three forms. It should be noted that dialogue, as a form of interaction, is typical for equal subjects of a communicative act. Relations of the form of imitation and control are generated between different-level subjects.

The so-called quasi-communication is also curious, when the communicant turns to an imaginary subject and gains a sense of dialogue with him. This includes the phenomenon of fetishization, which N.D. Kondratiev described it as follows: “It begins to seem to people that things have special supernatural properties to be valuable, to have the prerogatives of holiness, greatness, a source of law, etc. In other words, people begin to endow things with significant properties that are not physically inherent in them, just as savages attributed the properties of an omnipotent deity to idols. The creation of all kinds of "idols", the cult of leaders, etc. ultimately aims to create an omniscient and omnipotent "quasi-communication" partner.

A more detailed study of the types of social communication: micro-, midi-, macro-communications - shows that the content of micro-communications on interpersonal level it is either the assimilation of forms of behavior, skills, external attributes of the chosen role model - copying the model; or an exchange of ideas, arguments, proposals between interlocutors - a friendly or business conversation; or instructions for execution by their subordinate - a command. At the group level, reference is possible (the same imitation, but not of an individual, but of a social group with which the individual wishes to identify himself). At the mass level, communication activities serve to socialize.

Can Microcommunication Be Learned? Since antiquity, rhetoric has been developing - the doctrine of eloquence, consecrated by the authorities of Plato and Aristotle. In the 20th century, stylistics took shape as a scientific discipline, studying language norms and their areas of application, and culture of speech began to be taught in educational institutions. There is no shortage of methodological recommendations and practical guides on microcommunication.

It should be noted that especially a lot of useful advice concerns non-verbal means of microcommunication: gestures, facial expressions, postures, distance between interlocutors, volume and intonation of speech (3). However, acquaintance with the streams of educational, scientific and practical literature leads to an unequivocal conclusion: microcommunication activity cannot be “learned” from books alone, there are no ready-made recipes, because it is an art, i.e. creative-productive, playful, and not reproductive-ritual activity.

Midi-communications are such forms of social and communication phenomena as fashion - based on imitation of the transmission in the social space of material forms, patterns of behavior and ideas that are emotionally attractive to social groups; negotiation; group hierarchy; adaptation (the most relevant in the study of issues of intercultural communication); management.

Macrocommunication is seen as the borrowing of achievements, the interaction of cultures and information aggression. Examples of these forms of interaction are always seen in the foreign policy of any state in historical retrospect. Information aggression is a relatively new phenomenon of macrocommunication that took shape in the 20th century.

The most "peaceful" form of macrocommunication is imitation, and the most "militant" form is recognized as order, censorship, information warfare, counter-propaganda, cultural imperialism.

To achieve national accord and international cooperation, a macro-communication dialogue is of decisive importance, in which peoples, states, and civilizations become participants.

If the actors represent different cultures, it is always about intercultural communication. Intercultural communication involves different levels of interaction. It is generally accepted to consider intercultural communication as communication between different ethnic groups and their subcultures. The studies also highlight communication between representatives of various religious denominations, where each is an integral and self-sufficient culture. Communication between people of different ages and gender, communication between residents of different areas is also determined by intercultural communication. In the business sphere, communication is also sometimes an act of intercultural communication.

It should be noted that both in personally and socially oriented communicative practices, intercultural communication occupies a separate role. The unawareness of cultural differences by its participants often leads to the use of the wrong communication strategy and erroneous tactics, which significantly reduces communication efficiency. Faced with representatives of other cultures, it becomes clear that the usual behavioral models no longer work.

Thus, the foregoing shows that communicative activity is a complex system of many types of activities. various types communicants, which in turn consists of a significant number of subsystems.

In conclusion, it should be noted that communicative activity has a significant impact on the processes of socio-economic and political development of society, but cannot be an effective means of regulating interethnic tension.

So, for example, under the influence of the media and some leaders of public opinion in Russia, stereotypes about “migration pressure”, about “replacement with a new population”, and allegedly at the expense of visitors from abroad, are widespread. In fact, the entire flow of visitors, including domestic and international migration, is only 1.5% of the total population (accordingly, the migration balance is even less important). This indicator is naturally slightly higher in the sparsely populated eastern and northern regions, but even there the share of migrants among the population does not exceed 1.7-1.9% of the inhabitants of the respective federal districts. The share of visitors from abroad among the population of Russia is even smaller - only 0.14%.

There are few visitors from abroad even among the migrants themselves. In general, in Russia over the past decade, the share of visitors from other countries among all migrants was only 15.5% (excluding temporary migration). During 2001-2010, this share even decreased in the first half of the decade, then grew, reaching the highest values ​​in 2009 and 2010. At the same time, in the Central Federal District, the share of migrants from other states increased to 18% by the end of the decade. In other federal districts, the increase in the share was insignificant, and in the Far East this share even decreased.

So, there is no significant renewal of the population due to migration in Russia, and among all migrants, those who arrived from other states make up a small proportion.

At the same time, today in Russia, primarily in large urban centers, there are manifestations of extremism, the presence of racist and other violence motivated by intergroup hatred, an increase in aggressiveness in manifestations of domestic xenophobia. A serious threat is posed by radical nationalism, which divides Russians along ethnic lines and hinders the establishment of a common Russian identity. Under the influence of such slogans and other factors, extremists resort to violence against ethnic minorities, migrants and foreign citizens.

It is obvious that there are no universal principles for the formation of ethnic tolerance either in Moscow or in the state as a whole, but it is also obvious that as a result of the expanded interaction between national and regional cultures a qualitatively new situation has arisen. It is hardly possible to unequivocally assess the rapprochement of cultures as a process of purely integration. The idea of ​​"unity in diversity" seems to be the most productive. This formula assumes the existence of a regulatory function not only for the state, but also for society. Ensuring it in practice is the main task of the national policy of the Russian state, the authorities of Moscow, local governments and society as a whole. And intercultural communication can become an effective tool for its implementation.

An important element of its formation could be special training centers for potential migrants in countries - donors of migrants. Their financing could be carried out on a parity basis by the donor country and the Russian Federation, bearing in mind the economic significance of migrants for these countries. AT training centers it is necessary not only to teach the Russian language, but also Russian history, culture, geography, economics, literature, religious studies and, of course, the basics of intercultural communication. In Russia, it would be expedient to continue training this contingent, and to finance it at the expense of entrepreneurs in sectors that use migrant labor.

These proposals fit into the provisions of the fundamental article of the President of the Russian Federation V.V. Putin "Russia. The national question”, which analyzes the problems that have accumulated over many decades related to interethnic relations. The provisions of this article can be used in determining the priorities of the state national policy and developing an effective strategy and tactics for practical work.

Reviewers:

Kononova L.I., Doctor of Philosophy, Professor, Head of the Department of Theory and Technology of Social Work of the State Autonomous Institution of the City of Moscow "Institute for Retraining and Advanced Training of Managers and Specialists of the System of Social Protection of the Population of the City of Moscow", Moscow.

Chernyak E.M., Doctor of Philosophy, Professor of the Department of Social Management and social policy State autonomous institution of the city of Moscow "Institute for retraining and advanced training of managers and specialists of the system of social protection of the population of the city of Moscow", Moscow.

Taking into account temporary migrants, the share of international migration relative to domestic migration is even less, and not more, as the media usually write.

Bibliographic link

Goncharenko L.V. COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITY AND ITS SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE // Modern problems of science and education. - 2014. - No. 2.;
URL: http://science-education.ru/ru/article/view?id=12540 (date of access: 01.02.2020). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"

"Forms of organizing joint adult-children's activities in the process of forming social-communicative and speech skills in preschool children"

Personality begins to form from birth as a result of communication with close adults. A person, being a social being, from the first months of life feels the need to communicate with other people, which is constantly evolving - from the need for emotional contact to deep personal communication and cooperation.

A child is introduced to social norms and rules of behavior through family, education, culture... Each child is unique, inimitable, and the ways of interacting with him cannot be universal. Laying the foundations of a holistic, harmoniously developed personality is the main task of any institution working with children.

One of the main tasks comes to the fore the problem of communication and its role in the formation of personality. The practice of communication with children organized by adults enriches and transforms their communication needs. What we have laid in the soul of the child now will manifest itself later, will become his life and ours. Here it is very important to follow the rule - "to be close, but a little bit in front" - communication on an equal footing, but with a certain distance. In a child, you need to respect a personality equal to yourself (but not an adult descends to the level of a child, but, on the contrary, raise him to your level).

Communication, being a complex and multifaceted activity, requires specific knowledge and skills that a person masters in the process of assimilation of social experience accumulated by previous generations.

A high level of communication is the key to successful adaptation of a person in any social environment, which determines the practical significance of the formation of communication skills from early childhood.

We limit the process of forming communication skills to forms of joint adult-child (partner) activity, since the specific content of these forms is planned by the teacher, taking into account the interests and needs of children, and is not strictly regulated by the position of an adult.

For a child, the image of an adult is not just an image of another person, but an image of himself, his own future, embodied in the face of the “other”.

An important component of the educational environment of subject-oriented pedagogy, pedagogy of development and dialogue is - the relationship between the participants educational process: between teacher and children. It is this aspect of the educational process that brings renewal (change) to the existing structures of education. The process of interaction is central to the entire field of preschool education - "the field of preschool education can be considered as a system in which the central point is the interaction of the teacher with the children, and the programs and forms of education are secondary elements - in contrast to education at other age stages of development."

The existing practice of preschool education is characterized by the unresolved nature of a number of problems related, among other things, to the organization of the education of pupils. The problem of education acquires particular relevance in connection with the Federal State Educational Standard to the structure of the main general educational program of preschool education, which spells out the psychological and pedagogical conditions for the successful implementation of the educational program of preschool education. One of which is: "building educational activities based on the interaction of adults with children, focused on the interests and capabilities of each child and taking into account the social situation of his development."

The nature of joint activity is determined not only by the presence of joint actions, but also by the external manifestation of the activity of children. Important for us is the position that interaction in the course of joint activities organized according to the type of cooperation does not exclude, but, on the contrary, assumes the leading role of an adult. An adult creates conditions for the personal development of preschoolers, their independence, elementary creative activity, and the acquisition of cooperation experience . The main function of an adult is not the transmission of information, but the organization of joint activities for its development, solving various problems.

However, as practice shows, the organization of joint partnership activities causes certain difficulties for preschool teachers:

• teachers do not realize the benefits and effectiveness of the joint activities of the teacher with the children;
• many teachers do not know how to organize such activities (creating motivation, presenting new material, organizing children, summing up).

Therefore, for the system of preschool education, Federal State Educational Standards have been established, where requirements have been developed for the structure of the main general educational program of preschool education, which define compulsory educational areas and the main tasks of educational areas.

The introduction of the Federal State Educational Standard implies a change in approaches to the organization of the educational process: in this case, not through the system of classes, but through other, adequate forms of educational work with preschool children.

The scheme for the development of any type of activity is as follows: first, it is carried out in a joint activity with an adult, then in a joint activity with peers and becomes amateur activity.

Federal State Educational Standards require practitioners to solve educational problems in the process of joint activities of a child with an adult (during regime moments; in directly educational activities carried out in the process of organizing children's activities and in the independent activities of children).

The choice of forms of organization of joint adult-children's activities as a means of forming communicative skills is due to the formation of an extra-situational - business form of communication with peers and an extra-situational - personal form with adults.

Partner - Partnerships are relations of equal subjects, each of which has its own value.

Joint adult-child activity is quite complex in its structure and also involves the participation of an adult and a child in a variety of role positions.

In today's society, there are three main types of collaborative activities andthree corresponding ways of assimilation of culture.

The first type is built on instructive and executive principles:

An adult is the bearer of a socially assigned amount of ZUNs, he knows the entire program of the child's activities, and seeks to prevent possible deviations from it. The child is a performer of patterns given by adults through control and imitation. The nature of the interaction - the child must look at the world through the eyes of an adult, "do as he does", assimilate content limited by the limits of the local experience of an authoritarian adult. There is no commonality between them, but rather a "trimming" of the child under the adult.

Second type is built on imitation of search and decision making:

An adult - a carrier of ZUNs, acquiring a quasi-problematic appearance, develops in the child the ability to master the purely rational composition of the activity of solving problems, suggesting those methods of solving that he himself knows. The child solves various kinds of problematic tasks. The nature of the interaction - although there is no constant communication between a child and an adult, it is possible to form the child's abilities, including creative ones.

Third type is built on an open problem for both the child and the adult:

Adult - searches for ways and an open principle of children's activities. The child - searches for the principle of solving the problem - a new general method of action. The nature of interaction - an "exchange of opportunities" is carried out, a social and creative community is established, developmental training is carried out.

The organization of educational activities in the form of joint partnership activities between an adult and children is associated with a significant restructuring of the educator's behavior style.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish two different styles of human relations with other people: authoritarian and democratic. The first is associated with superiority over others, the second - with equality, mutual respect.

Speaking about the partner position of the educator, we mean that he adopts a democratic style of relations, and not an authoritarian one, associated with a teacher's position. The easiest way to understand what it means to be a partner of children is to compare these two positions. The democrat teacher is “close to the children”, being a partner, accepting their individual characteristics, encourages independence, involves each child in common activities in the group, involves children in the discussion of problems, and objectively evaluates their actions.

An authoritarian teacher is “above the children”, manages everything, strictly requires discipline and order, using categorical instructions, does not welcome the manifestation of initiative and independence by children, subjectively assesses the results of children's activities, focuses on negative actions, not taking into account their motives, little interacts with children.

The partner position of the educator contributes to the development of activity in the child, the independence of the ability to make a decision, to try to do something without fear that it will turn out wrong, causes a desire to achieve, favors emotional comfort. “The style of interaction between a teacher and children has a direct impact on the nature of children's communication with each other, the general atmosphere in the children's group. So, if the teacher demonstrates a respectful attitude towards children, supports the initiative, shows interested attention, helps in difficult situations, then it is highly likely that children will communicate with each other according to the same rules. On the contrary, the teacher's authoritarian attitude towards children, the suppression of independence, the presence of negative assessments regarding the personality, and not the actions of the child, can lead to low group cohesion, frequent conflicts between children, and other difficulties in communication.

The constant teaching position of an adult, on the contrary, causes the child's passivity, the inability to make a decision on his own, emotional discomfort, fear of doing something wrong and aggression as the reverse side of fear, as a discharge of accumulated tension.

Educational activities in a partnership form require an adult style of behavior, which can be expressed by the motto: "We are all included in the activity, not bound by binding relationships, but only by desire and mutual agreement: we all want to do this."

At different moments of educational activity, the partner position of the educator manifests itself in a special way.

To begin with, this is an invitation to an activity - optional, relaxed: “Let's go today ... Whoever wants, make yourself comfortable ...” (or: “I will ... Who wants to join ...”).

Forms of joint adult-children's (partnership) activities of preschoolers:

1. Joint games
2. Project activity

The program of the practical course for teaching children the basics of communication "The ABC of communication"(authors L.M. Shipitsyna, O.V. Zashchirinskaya, A.P. Voronova, T.A. Nilova). This course is designed for children aged 3-6 and aims to form social contacts and develop abilities for joint actions in everyday life and play activities. The authors of the course see the following tasks, the solution of which is necessary at preschool age: learning to understand oneself and the ability to "be at peace with oneself", fostering interest in others, developing communication skills with people in various situations, developing the ability to use speech and expressive (facial expressions, gestures, pantomime) means of communication, development of adequate evaluative activity and self-control. The most successful in this course is the acquaintance of children with a variety of languages ​​(the language of nature, the language of communication), with the culture of communication, the specifics of communication between boys and girls, with peers and adults. The authors offer a variety of methods of working with preschoolers (psycho-developing games, observation, walks, excursions, modeling, mini-competitions, competition games), a number of works of art to analyze the communicative behavior of literary characters, an interesting topic of classes was proposed (“Nature does not have bad weather”, “My affectionate and gentle beast”, “How I remember what I remember”, “The secret of magic words”, “Write me a letter”) .

The book presents an original methodology for teaching and developing communication skills in preschool children. Authors, experienced teachers of the Institute of Special Pedagogy and Psychology of the International University of the Family and the Child. Raoul Wallenberg, offer in their book reviews of theoretical and practical training courses for specialists. Of particular value is a detailed lesson plan, provided with texts and comments on games, conversations, exercises, thematic walks, etc., as well as a set of methods for assessing the effectiveness of a teacher's work in developing communication among children. Designed for a wide range of readers - teachers, speech pathologists, educators and methodologists of kindergartens, psychologists, students and parents.

Another form of organizing the activities of a preschooler, which has great potential for the formation of communication skills, are joint games - creative, mobile, didactic, educational games with adults.

Play is the main activity of preschool children. This position is generally recognized in the pedagogy of preschool childhood. Much has been said about the role of play in a child's life. The game, being the closest and accessible view activities, contains inexhaustible opportunities for the full development of a preschooler. However, in the traditional practice of preschool education, the game is relegated to the background. Of course, teachers include game moments, situations and techniques in various types of children's activities, but the development of the game as a free independent joint activity with peers is not given due attention.

According to the researchers, children at senior preschool age prefer games with rules, which include mobile, didactic and educational games. Playing with rules is an element of children's subculture, belonging to children's life from preschool to adolescence (I. Ivich, N. Ya Mikhailenko and H. Shvartsman and others). Games with rules (according to the studies of J. Piaget, D.B. Elkonin) serve as exercises for older preschoolers in relations with other people: they help them to realize their duties, which act here in the form of universal rules; come to an understanding of the norms of morality, the comprehensive requirements of justice, the obligations that each person has to himself.

Games with rules put children in front of the need to agree, plan things, reveal the child's ability for business cooperation in increasingly difficult circumstances. Despite the fact that children's cooperation continues to be practical and related to the real affairs of children, it acquires a non-situational character. Games with rules become an incentive to improve children's communication skills. It is this form of play, according to L.A. Wenger, is of decisive importance in the development of the child, his socialization.

However, traditionally the problem of communication was considered in the context of children's creative role-playing games. Communication and relationships of children in the game, emphasizing that communication is the most important means of building comradely relationships. A.P. Usova noted: “To act together with another child is not so easy at the age of three, four and even six years. And, although it is widely believed that the language of the game is understandable to all children, but it turns out that the language of communication is also needed ... "

What is the role of the educator in the joint activities of an adult and a child in the development of a role-playing game.

1. The teacher must play with the children in order for them to master the playing skills. The joint game of an adult with children will only then be really a game for the child if he feels in this activity not the pressure of the educator - the adult, who in any case must obey, but only the superiority of the partner "who knows how to play interestingly."

2. The teacher should play with children throughout the entire preschool age, but at each stage the game should be deployed in such a way that the children immediately “discover” and learn a new, more complex way of building it. The success of the game depends on the ability of children to understand the meaning of the partner's actions and to be understood by them. To do this, the meaning of the conditional action with the object, the moment of accepting a particular role, the event unfolding in the game must be explained to the partner. Children very early show a desire for joint actions and from an early age they can be taught in game interaction with each other at the level of building a game that is accessible to them.

3. In order to draw children into the game, to play with them together, the educator himself must learn to freely unfold the plot of this or that structure in the “live” process of the game, starting from topics that attract children. The educator must own the game “literacy”, the game culture. Children should be provided at any age with time, place and material for independent play.

It should be especially noted that the game does not tolerate authoritarianism. "Control" of the game is possible only as if from within, when the educator himself enters the imaginary world of the game and unobtrusively offers the child (by means of the game) new twists in the development of the plot. This is much more difficult than organizing a training session. The only way to learn how to play is by playing. At the same time, without the help of an adult, the game itself does not arise. An adult gives the child the necessary toys, it is he who designates the objective action as role-playing and conditional; it helps children to establish interaction and relationships in the game.

The most effective form of adult-child activity in solving the problems of forming communication skills in children of older preschool age is design. Because The project method is based on the idea of ​​focusing the cognitive activity of preschoolers on the result that is achieved in the process of joint work of the teacher and children on a specific practical problem (topic). Solving a problem or working on a project in this case means applying the necessary knowledge and skills from various sections of the preschool educational program and getting a tangible result.

Project activitywe consider it as a systemic component of the educational process, allowing it to be built on the principles of problem and activity approaches, student-centered learning, and cooperation pedagogy.

The specificity of using the project method in preschool practice is that adults need to “guide” the child, help to detect a problem or even provoke its occurrence, arouse interest in it and “draw” children into a joint project, while not overdoing it with parental care and help .

The method of project activity can be used in work with older preschoolers. This age stage is characterized by more stable attention, observation, the ability to start analysis, synthesis, self-assessment, as well as the desire for joint activities. In the project, it is possible to combine the content of education from various fields of knowledge, in addition, great opportunities open up in organizing joint cognitive and search activities for preschoolers, teachers and parents.

Target project activities of a communicative orientation - the creation of conditions for the formation of children's communication skills, hosting the multicultural space of modern society.

Tasks:

• organize practical socially significant activities;
• learn to be sociable, open to new contacts and cultural ties;
• gain experience of self-expression of the personality of each child on the basis of creative activity;
• build positive relationships with each other, with adults, parents

Important design factors include:

• increasing the motivation of children in solving problems;
• development of creative abilities;
• a shift in emphasis from an instrumental approach in solving problems to a technological one;
• developing a sense of responsibility;
• development of communicative competences;
• creation of conditions for cooperation relations between the teacher and the child

In project activities, favorable conditions are created for the formation of children's communication skills, since it contains a key feature - independent choice. The development of communication skills and a shift in emphasis from an instrumental approach to a technological one is due to the need for a meaningful choice of tools and planning of joint activities to achieve the best result. The formation of a sense of responsibility occurs subconsciously: the child seeks to prove, first of all, to himself that he made the right choice.

When solving practical problems, cooperation relations with friends and a teacher naturally arise, the foundations of communication are formed, since for everyone the task is of substantial interest and stimulates the desire for an effective solution. This is especially evident in those tasks that the child himself was able to formulate. Forms of organizing joint adult-child (partner) activities can be:

enriched with communicative criteria and indicators;

can act as independent forms of gradual formation of communicative skills.

In this way, organization of the educational process in the form of a joint partner activity of an adult with children is the best means of solving urgent problems related to the formation of children's communication skills, since it is the cooperation of an adult with children that contributes to their personal development, and also fully complies with modern requirements for the organization of the educational process.

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Forms of organizing joint adult-child activities in the process of forming social and communicative skills in preschool children

"building educational activities based on the interaction of adults with children, focused on the interests and capabilities of each child and taking into account the social situation of his development."

Scheme for the development of any type of activity Independent activity Joint activity with peers Difficulty Independent activity Joint activity with an adult (together, and then next to each other) and with peers

Partner - Partnerships are relations of equal subjects, each of which has its own value.

types of joint activities Built on an open problematic for both a child and an adult Built on an instructive and executive basis; P is based on imitation of search and decision making;

Style of a person's relationships with other people Authoritarian; Democratic.

Invitation to the activity "Let's today... "Whoever wants, make yourself comfortable..." "I will... Who wants to join...".

Forms of joint adult - child (partner) activities of preschoolers Program of a practical course for teaching children the basics of communication "ABC of communication" Joint games Project activities

The program of the practical course for teaching children the basics of communication "The ABC of Communication" authors L.M. Shipitsyna, O.V. Zashchirinskaya, A.P. Voronova, T.A. Nilova.

Joint games Creative; Movable; Didactic; With yuzhetno-role-playing; Educational games.

The goal is to create conditions for the formation of children's communication skills, accepting the multicultural space of modern society.

Tasks to organize practical socially significant activities; learn to be sociable, open to new contacts and cultural ties; gain experience of self-expression of the personality of each child on the basis of creative activity; build positive relationships with each other, with adults, parents.

Factors of project activity increasing the motivation of children in solving problems; development of creative abilities; a shift in emphasis from an instrumental approach in solving problems to a technological one; developing a sense of responsibility; development of communicative competences; creation of conditions for cooperation relations between the teacher and the child

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Characteristics of the main forms of communicative activity

Belykh Elizabeth PP14-14B

Communication is the interaction of two (or more) people aimed at harmonizing and combining their efforts in order to establish relationships and achieve a common result. Communication is not just an action, but precisely an interaction: it is carried out between the participants, each of whom is equally a carrier of activity and assumes it in his partners.

In order to understand communication as a special type of activity, it is necessary to single out the main structural components in communication. The structural components of communicative activity are as follows:

The subject of communication- this is another person, a communication partner as a subject.

The need for communication consists in a person's desire for knowledge and evaluation of other people, and through them and with their help - to self-knowledge and self-esteem. People learn about themselves and about others through a variety of activities, as a person is manifested in each of them.

Communication action is a unit of communicative activity, a holistic act addressed to another person and directed at him as his own object. The two main categories of communication actions are initiative acts and response actions.

Communication tasks- this is the goal, to achieve which, under given specific conditions, various actions performed in the process of communication are directed. The goals (motives) and tasks of communication may not coincide with each other.

Means of communication- These are the operations by which the actions of communication are carried out.

Communication products- formations of a material and spiritual nature, created as a result of communication. These include, first of all, the “general result” that we mentioned in the definition of communication, but also relationships and, most importantly, the image of oneself and other people - participants in communication.

The concept of a form of communication.

Changes in individual aspects that characterize the development of various structural components of communication - needs, motives, operations, etc., together give rise to integral, holistic formations, which are the levels of development of communicative activity. These qualitatively specific formations, which are stages of the ontogeny of communication, were called by us "forms of communication"

So, we call the form of communication communicative activity at a certain stage of its development, taken in a holistic set of features and characterized by several parameters. The main ones among them are the following 5 parameters:

1) the time of occurrence of this form of communication during preschool childhood;

2) the place occupied by it and the system of the wider life of the child;

3) the main content of the need satisfied by children in this form of communication;

4) the leading motives that encourage the child at a certain stage of development to communicate with other people;

5) the main means of communication, with the help of which, within the limits of this form of communication, the child communicates with people.

In the first 7 years of life, 4 types of content are distinguished in the need for communication:

1) needs for benevolent attention (0;02 - 0;06);

2) needs for cooperation (0;06 - 3;0);

3) the need for a respectful attitude of an adult (3; 0 - 5; 0);

4) needs for mutual understanding and empathy (5; 0 - 7; 0).

Situational-personal form of communication.

This form of communication arises in the ontogeny of the first - approximately at 0;02 - and has the shortest time of existence in independent form until the end of the first six months of life.

Within the framework of this form of communicative activity, infants are able to subtly distinguish the gradations of adult attention and at the same time do not distinguish one adult person from another.

Children not older than 6 months. reveal their ability to recognize close adults by the fact that when interacting with them they are more happy and more likely to show initiative than when interacting with strangers. This means that strangers evoke the same attitude in them as native people, and the differences are expressed in the degree of pleasure of children within the same quality, that is, quantitatively.

Without independent adaptive behavior, children adapt to the world through adults. The readiness of the child to rejoice at any adult and any sign of attention on his part ensures that he establishes contacts with any person who will look after him.

The leading motive of communication in the described period of children's life is a personal motive. This is a very peculiar kind of personal motives, because children reflect adults very indistinctly, amorphously; in their person for the child, only attentiveness and goodwill are highlighted.

And here we come to a very important originality of the first form of communication - to its closest connection with emotions. The joy and attention of children to adults change when conditions vary, not according to the laws of a passive reaction, but according to the rules of an active action: they increase with weak influences from an adult (here you need to attract an adult, keep him, stimulate him to communicate) and weaken with strong influences (the child has already received something). what he aspired to). Therefore, on the lap of the mother, the child is quiet, peaceful, and when he sees her from afar and still not knowing whether she will approach him, he moves excitedly, cries out.

The components included in the revitalization complex ensure the successful excretion by the child from environment an adult (freezing), the implementation of facial (smile) and specific vocal (cooing) communication with an adult and the active involvement of an adult in communication (movements of the limbs and body).

Situational-business form of communication.

This form of communication appears in the ontogenesis of the second and exists in children from 0 - 06 to 3. But it is very different from the first genetic form of communication. communication communicative child

To begin with, it no longer occupies the place of the leading activity - the object-manipulative activity of children is now moving forward in this place. Communication with adults is woven into the new leading activity, helping her and serving her. The main reasons for contacts between children and adults are now connected with their common cause - practical cooperation, and therefore the business motive is put forward to the central place among all motives for communication. The child is unusually interested in what and how an adult does with things, and the elders are now revealed to children from this side - as amazing craftsmen and artisans, capable of creating true miracles with objects.

The child's need for cooperation with an adult.

When contacts with an adult were included in the matter, and the approval of the elders meant praise for some achievement of the baby (climbed onto the sofa, climbed the stairs, made a "knife"), it turned out that the described changes do not mean that children now value adults less or do not they value their attention so much: no, the significance of adults in their lives is completely preserved, even increases, but qualitatively changes in its character. The child now needs an adult to cooperate with him in business, organizing it, helping in difficult times, encouraging him in case of failure, praising his achievements.

So, in situational business communication, children need the presence of an adult and his benevolent attention, but this is not enough - he needs an adult to be related to what the child is doing and participate in this process.

In the middle of the 2nd year of life, many children begin to speak. They manage to subordinate speech to the situation and in many cases build their statements in such a way that they can be understood only by taking into account momentary circumstances.

Attachment to an adult gives rise in a child to a natural desire to follow in their actions the behavior of their elders as a model. Thanks to personal contact, the remarks of an adult - his praises and reproaches - become of great importance for children in mastering the necessary, correct actions with objects. In other words, the existence of situational-business communication is the time during which children move from non-specific primitive manipulations with objects to more and more specific, and then to culturally fixed actions with them.

Extra-situational-cognitive form of communication.

In the first half of preschool childhood, the child can observe the following, third form of communicative activity. Like the second, it is mediated, but woven not into practical cooperation with an adult, but into a joint cognitive activity- one might say, in "theoretical" cooperation. Object manipulations of young children were also largely aimed at revealing the properties of objects; the child's practical "trial and error" serve as the basis on which his orienting and perceptual actions are then formed. But the primitiveness of early manipulations and elementary forms of cooperation with adults allow children to establish only the most superficial, unimportant properties of things. However, the development of curiosity and the constant improvement of ways to satisfy it (perception, visual-effective, and later visual-figurative thinking on the basis of mastering speech) force the child to pose ever more complex questions. It is shown that a preschooler is trying to understand, neither less nor more, how the origin and structure of the world, relationships in nature, the secret essence of things.

But the ability to understand such problems on their own in a small child is very limited. The only real way to understand them is communication with surrounding adults. Children-"why" bring down an avalanche of questions on the elders. It is natural, therefore, that the leading cognitive motive in the third form of communication. An adult appears before children in a new capacity - as an erudite, able to resolve their doubts, give them the necessary information, provide the necessary information. And since in the course of "theoretical cooperation" problems are discussed that are far from the situation of interaction between children and elders, communication acquires - for the first time after the birth of a child - a pronounced out-of-situation character.

Words of encouragement cause disproportionate delight among preschoolers: children jump, clap their hands, emit victorious cries, they are even able to kiss a person little known to them. But on the other hand, even the mildest reproach can be perceived by them with extreme exaggeration: children argue, get angry, some cry, others immediately go to their rooms, and the next time they try to meet, they refuse to go to the experiment.

The non-situational-cognitive form of communication is characterized by the desire of the child to respect the adult. Children want praise and do not want to put up with comments, they perceive them as a personal insult.

Children's need for respect can become the basis for serious violations of the child's behavior and activities: he begins to become stubborn, becomes whiny, avoids contacts. But a soft joke from an adult, a careful attitude towards a child who has made a mistake, and most importantly, a constant demonstration of one's confidence in his abilities, talents and good will quickly calm the child, unleash his initiative and restore his desire to cooperate with an adult.

The main means of communication in children with an extra-situational-cognitive (as well as with an extra-situational-personal) form are, of course, speech operations: after all, they alone give children the opportunity to go beyond a limited situation into an infinite world around them. Interestingly, preschoolers not only use the word, but also turn it into a special object of study.

At preschool age, the game acquires the main importance among all types of activity of the child. Special studies have shown that at the initial stages of the development of play, children try to reflect mainly the external, “material” aspect of adult activity, which they work through by playing out.

Therefore, they attach great importance to the use of various substitute items, symbolizing "adult" equipment, work clothes and characteristic attributes.

Extra-situational-personal form of communication.

By the end of preschool age, children have the fourth and highest form of communication with adults for preschoolers - extra-situational-personal. As can be seen from its name (personal), it is similar to the first genetic form of communication and marks that the development process has thus completed the first round and, describing the spiral, has moved on to the second round.

The personal motive of communication - the leading one in the fourth form of communicative activity - has a completely different character than in the first. An adult appears before children in the fullest extent of his talents, characteristics and life experience. Now, for a preschooler, he is not just an individual or an abstract personality, but a concrete historical and social person, a member of society, a citizen of his country and his time.

Indeed, older preschoolers are characterized by a desire not just for the benevolent attention of adults, but for mutual understanding and empathy with them. The new content of the communicative need is expressed in the fact that the child no longer necessarily insists on praise: it is much more important for him to know what is right. And although he is upset if he acted incorrectly, he willingly agrees to amend his work, change his opinion or attitude to the issues under discussion in order to achieve a commonality of views and assessments with an adult. The coincidence of one's position with the position of the elders serves as proof for the child of its correctness. The child is now in no hurry to argue with adults - he is sensitive to their wave and tries first to better understand the elders, to find the reason why they think this way and not otherwise.

The desire for a commonality of views with elders gives children support in pondering moral concepts, in the formation of moral judgments, because by their very origin the rules of behavior in society, relationships with comrades are social, and only elders who have mastered social experience can help the child determine the right path.

The new form of communication is closely connected with the highest levels of game development for preschool childhood. The child now pays less attention to the material side of the reality he reproduces - now he is mainly interested in those complex relationships that develop between people in the family and at work. In communicating with adults, the child draws material for his games, vigilantly observes all the shades of the behavior of the elders when they clash with each other. Contacts with adults and with older children open up to the child the prospect of his future life for the coming years: he learns that he will soon go to school.

The most important significance of extra-situational-personal communication is that thanks to it, the child learns about an adult as a teacher and gradually learns the idea of ​​himself as a student.

Children most successfully acquire new knowledge in conditions close to classes, or in ordinary life, if they master an extra-situational-personal form of communication.

Extra-situational-personal communication is the highest form of communicative activity observed in children under 7 years of age. Its role in a child's life consists, as we have tried to show, in children's mastering the rules of behavior in the social world, in comprehending some of its laws and relationships.

The significance of situational-personal communication lies in the fact that it stimulates the formation of perceptual actions in infants in different analytical systems. At first, these actions serve communication, but, learned in the social sphere, they then begin to be used to get acquainted with the objective world, which leads to a general significant progress in cognitive processes in children. The most important achievement of the first six months of life - the mastery of grasping - is also associated with the activity of communication, since throwing up the handles is one of the elements of the animation complex, and the collisions with objects that occur during this initiate the formation of a purposeful grasping action.

We see the significance of situational business communication mainly in the fact that it leads to the further development and qualitative transformation of the objective activity of children (to the transition from individual actions to procedural games) and the emergence and development of speech. But mastering speech allows children to overcome the limitations of situational communication and move from purely practical cooperation with adults to cooperation, so to speak, "theoretical".

The significance of extra-situational-cognitive communication between children and adults is, in our opinion, that it helps children immeasurably expand the scope of the world accessible to their knowledge, allows them to reveal the relationship of phenomena, learn about the existence of causal and other relationships between objects and phenomena. . Adult support, his constant help become an important condition for the development of children's thinking. At the same time, knowledge of the world of objects and physical phenomena soon ceases to exhaust the interests of children. They are increasingly attracted by events taking place in the social sphere, especially since most of the objects surrounding children are also products of the activity of the mind and hands of a person. The development of thinking and cognitive interests of preschoolers goes beyond the third genetic form of communication, where it received support and stimulus, and transforms the general life activity of children, in accordance with which the activity of their communication with adults is also transformed.

We see the significance of extra-situational-personal communication in the general mental development of the child in the fact that it introduces the child into the world of people, complex in its structure, and allows him to take an adequate place in this world. The child learns to navigate in the social sphere and establishes diverse complex relationships with people around him. He learns the rules of the hostel, the concept of his rights and obligations. Finally, the child is attached to the moral and ethical values ​​of the society in which he lives. The acquired experience and knowledge is modeled by preschoolers in role-playing games and applied in their real life practice under the supervision and guidance of an adult. Thanks to the achievements of children in extra-situational-personal communication, they come to a state of readiness for schooling, an important part of which is the child's ability to perceive an adult in the role of a teacher and take the position of a student in relation to him with all the ensuing consequences.

Results

Of paramount importance in the emergence and development of communication in children are the influences of an adult, whose anticipatory initiative constantly “pulls” the child’s activity to a new, higher level according to the mechanism of the “zone of proximal development” [L.S. Vygotsky, 1982]. The practice of interaction with children organized by adults contributes to the enrichment and transformation of their social needs. Without the constant support of an adult, especially in the first months and years of life, the development of children's communication with others slows down or even stops. But the active intervention of an adult can in a relatively short time cause favorable changes in the communication of children even of older preschool age, correct defects and deviations in their communicative activity.

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