The use of collective nouns
Collective numerals two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten are used mainly in colloquial speech. These numerals have limitations in their ability to combine with other words.
Collective numbers are combined:
1) with nouns denoting the names of males: three men, four students, five soldiers;
2) with substantiated adjectives and participles denoting males: three brave, two waiting; five vacationers;
3) with common nouns: three orphans;
4) with pronouns we you they: two of us, two of them, five of you;
5) with the noun children: two children;
6) with nouns denoting cubs of animals: seven kids, three wolf cubs;
7) with nouns that have only a form plural and denoting paired or composite objects: two sledges, three trousers, four days.
With animate nouns (especially in indirect cases), collective numbers can be replaced by cardinal numbers of whole units:
five students - five students
three children three children
seven soldiers - seven soldiers
Such options are normative in both cases.
Collective numerals are not used with nouns denoting females and animals:!!! it is impossible - three daughters, seven sheep, two bears;
necessary : three daughters, seven sheep, two she-bears
Collective numerals are not used with neuter nouns denoting inanimate objects: !!! not allowed: three lakes; necessary: three lakes
In the field of adjectives, frequent violations of the norm include the formation of a complex form of comparative and superlative degrees. The norm corresponds to forms like “more, less + the initial form of the adjective”: more interesting, most, least + the initial form of the adjective. Type formation is more interesting, the most interesting is erroneous. Forms like the deepest, the wisest are also non-normative. superiority is expressed in them twice: by the suffix -eysh-, -aysh- and the particle most. That's right: the deepest, the wisest or the deepest, the wisest.
There are many rules regarding the use of verbs.
The verbs to rinse, sway, purr, splash, scour, wave and some others form variant forms of the present tense:
rinse and rinse sway and sway purr and
purr splash and splash prowling and roam waving
and wave.
The first forms, with alternation of consonants, are general literary, the second, without alternation, are characteristic colloquial style and more vernacular.
The present tense forms of the verbs syat are also stylistically differentiated ( sprinkles- sprinkles), pinch ( pinches- pinch); the first forms are literary, the second colloquial.
There are features in the formation of the imperative mood of some verbs:
From the verb to go - go,(!!! You can’t: go, go), put from the verb - put(!!! It is impossible: lie), from the verb to put - put your luggage(!!! It is impossible: lay down), from the verb to lie down - lie down(!!! It is impossible: lie down).
Verbs need special attention. put.
Verb put not used with attachments:
Right wrong
I I put I will put
You you put you put
He lays down he will put down, etc.
The verb put, on the contrary, is used only with prefixes:
Right wrong
I I will put i lay down
You put down you lie down
He put he lays down, etc.
Variant word forms of verbs sum up- summarize condition- to cause focus- to focus authorize- to empower are distinguished as bookish (with the vowel O in the root) and colloquial (with the vowel A in the root). The former are preferred.
A common mistake is to save the suffix -nu- in the past tense form of unproductive verbs to -nut: (get wet, freeze, dry, get used to, wean, hang, hang, rise, raise up, turn sour, shudder, reject and some other). In the past tense, you need to use the forms: froze, wet, dry, used to, weaned, hung, hung, resurrected, erected, turned sour etc. !!! It is impossible: it froze, got wet, dried out, got used to it, hung, etc.
- 1. Collective numerals two, three, four (other numerals of this type are rarely used; cf. the usual five days instead of “five days”) are combined:
- 1) with masculine and common nouns that name persons: two friends, three orphans;
- 2) with nouns that have only plural forms: two sledges, three scissors, four days;
- 3) with nouns children, guys, people, with a noun person in the meaning of "man": two children, three guys, three young people, four strangers;
- 4) with personal pronouns we, you, they: there are two of us, three of you, there were five of them;
- 5) with substantiated numerals: two entered; three in gray overcoats; seven do not expect one.
AT spoken language and in common parlance, the range of compatibility of collective numerals is wider. They match:
- a) with the names of female persons, for example: The Zinenkov family consisted of a father, mother, and five daughters (Kuprin); He would not have had enough money to educate numerous children - five girls and three sons (Paustovsky); I went to the (military) school to ease the worries of my father, who had three more of my sisters (V. Peskov). As the examples show, this use is more common in the forms of oblique cases, less often in the form of the nominative case, for example: Three women in the house (G. Nikolaeva); combinations like “three dressmakers”, “four students”, etc. are not recommended even in colloquial speech;
- b) with the names of young animals, for example: two cubs, three puppies;
- c) with the names of paired objects, for example: two mittens, three boots in the meaning of “so many pairs”; the combination of two trousers is normative (and not “two pairs of trousers”, evoking the idea of four items, since trousers are counted not in pairs, but in pieces); combinations of a pair of trousers, a pair of scissors are colloquial;
- d) with other words in a stylized speech: “Three border guards. Six eyes and a motor launch” (Bagritsky); three horses (Paustovsky).
- 2. With the synonymy of constructions with quantitative and collective numerals of the type two friends - two friends, one of the options can be chosen.
The use of collective numbers is preferred:
- 1) with substantiated adjectives male: two passers-by, three sick, four escorts;
- 2) with masculine nouns ending in the nominative singular -a: two men, three grandfathers.
In some cases, on the contrary, collective numbers are not used, since they introduce a reduced connotation of meaning, for example: two professors, three generals (not: "two professors", "three generals").
3. In combination with animate nouns, collective numerals are used both in the nominative and in oblique cases: three children, mother of three children.
In combination with inanimate nouns, as a rule, only the nominative-accusative form is used: two sledges, three scissors, four days. In indirect cases, the forms of the corresponding cardinal numbers are used: to two sledges, with three scissors, about four days.
With the word watch (device), a collective numeral is used (one watch, two hours) or the word piece is added (five watches are missing). The expression "a couple of hours" is colloquial.
1. Collective numbers two, three, four (other numerals of this type are rarely used; cf. the usual five days instead of "five days" ) are combined:
1) with masculine and common nouns that name persons: two friends, three orphans;
2) with nouns that have only plural forms: two sledges, three scissors, four days;
3) with nouns children, guys, people, with a noun face in meaning "human" : two children, three boys, three young people, four strangers;
4) with personal pronouns we, you, they; we are two, you are three, there were five of them.
Collective nouns are used in the meaning substantiated numerals: two entered, three in gray overcoats; seven do not wait for one.
In colloquial and colloquial speech, the range of compatibility of collective numerals is wider. They match:
a) with female names for example: The Zinenkov family consisted of father, mother and five daughters (Kuprin); He would not have had enough money to educate numerous children– five girls and three sons(Paustovsky); At the [military] school, I went to ease the worries of my father, who had more my three sisters (V. Peskov). As the examples show, this usage is more common in oblique cases, less often in the nominative case, for example: three women in the house(G. Nikolaeva); type combinations "three dressmakers", "four students" etc. not recommended even in colloquial speech;
b) with the names of baby animals, for example: two cubs, three puppies;
in) with the names of paired objects, for example: two mittens, three boots in meaning "so many couples"; combination is normal two trousers (but not "two pairs of trousers" , defiant idea of four items, since trousers are counted not in pairs, but in pieces); combinations a pair of trousers, a pair of scissors are conversational;
G) with other words in stylized speech: Three border guards six eyes yes motorboat(Bagritsky); three horses (Paustovsky).
2. With synonymy, constructions with quantitative and collective numerals of the type two friends two friends you can choose one of the options.
The use of collective numbers is preferred:
1) with substantiated masculine adjectives: two passers-by, three sick, four escorts;
2) with masculine nouns ending -a : two men, three boys.
In some cases, on the contrary, collective numbers are not used, as they bring a reduced connotation of meaning, for example: two professors, three generals (not "two professors", "three generals" ).
3. In combination with animate nouns, collective numerals are used both in the nominative and in oblique cases: three children, mother of three.
In combination with inanimate nouns, as a rule, only the nominative-accusative form is used: two sledges, three scissors, four days. In indirect cases, the forms of the corresponding cardinal numbers are used: to two sledges, with three scissors, about four days.
At the word clock (device) collective noun is used one watch, two hours ) or add the word thing (missing five watches ). Expression "couple of hours" has a spacious character.
TYPES OF SYNTACTICAL CONNECTION IN A PHRASE AND A SENTENCE:
COORDINATION, MANAGEMENT, CONNECTION
The writing is a combination of syntactically equal or independent elements: homogeneous members in a simple sentence (cats and dogs; slowly but surely; I came, I saw, I conquered) or parts of a sentence (compound and complex non-union).
Subordination- this is a combination of syntactically unequal elements (words in a sentence, as well as parts of a complex sentence). In a phrase, there is only a subordinating relationship between words.
When it is proposed to find in the text a phrase with a subordinating relationship "coordination / control / adjoining", it should be immediately excluded from the circle of searches grammatical basis sentences - a combination of the subject with the predicate, compound nominal and verbal predicates, as well as introductory words. It is the introductory words, since in introductory phrases and sentences may contain one or another type subordination. Compare: “Alik, as if hypnotized, stepped forward. It seemed to him that the giant was fiddling with the zipper on his jacket. Then something flashed in his hand. May be, short club "(S. Dovlatov) - may be here introductory word. “Igor Efimov believes that the publication of any creative heritage a great writer cannot depend on the will of his heirs. Elena Dovlatova categorically disagrees with this position, especially since, according to her, Dovlatov himself was against the publication of his letters ”(O. Sulkin); “Dovlatov’s intonational lightness, even playfulness, which, perhaps, is not equal in subtlety to any writer, it seems to me, insidiously deceptive ”(P. Basinsky) - according to her, I think - introductory combination and sentence.
The main types of subordination are: coordination, control and adjacency.
Agreement is a type of connection in which the dependent word is likened to the main one in its form, that is, it is put in the same gender, number and case as the main word - a noun or any part of speech in the function of a noun: “Dear mourners"or" Do not understand those who did not wait them”, or “Not every“ then"is written with a hyphen" - and changes when the main one changes: "Recently I re-read pieces from your "Metapolitics". It is well written about the costs of freedom. About, at what cost freedom gets. About freedom as permanent goal, but also heavy burden... <…>It's a shame to think that all this abomination- the birth of freedom.<…>For decades we have lived in conditions total lack of freedom. We were flattened like a flounder the heaviest burden of all sorts of prohibitions. And suddenly we were picked up tearing lungs hurricane of freedom"(S. Dovlatov).
Communication combinations agreement easy to find in the text, if you remember that the variable parts of speech act as a dependent (subordinate word) in them: adjectives (about grievous burden total unfreedom, gravest cargo), possessive (from your"Metapolitics"), relative ( which price), index ( this abomination) and attributive ( all abomination, all kinds prohibitions), negative ( no forces), undefined ( some people) pronouns, full participles (tearing hurricane) and ordinal numbers ( nineteenth year) and nouns - agreed applications that agree with the main word in number and case (if the agreed noun changes in numbers); the gender of nouns is unchanged, so that on this basis they cannot agree (mother- teacher, in the house- new building).
From participles and adjectives participating in the syntactic connection, agreement should be distinguished from substantivized words - adjectives and participles that have passed into the category of nouns: “Freedom is equally favorable to bad, and to good"(S. Dovlatov). These words form combinations with the connection management, since they are nouns in this context: favorable (to what?) To good.
A special case is quantitative numbers in the composition of phrases. In phrases, they usually act as dependent words, but not always. AT nominative and accusative cases, such numerals are the main word, in other case forms - subordinate. Compare: " twenty years worked as a guard" - "And you," the captain interrupted me, "serve the Motherland only until six o'clock?!". In the phrase up to six o'clock the numeral six standing in the form of the genitive case is a dependent word: up to hours (how many?) six is an agreement. In the phrase twenty years the numeral twenty is the main word: twenty (what?) years is management.
Control is a type of subordination in which the dependent word (noun or any part of speech in the function of a noun: pronoun, substantiated word, numeral (see on a friend / on him / on the seated / on both) is put in the case form (without a preposition or with a preposition), which is determined by the lexical and grammatical meaning of the main word (verb, noun, adjective, quantitative numeral in the nominative or accusative case, adverbs or words of the state category). In other words, the main thing requires a certain case form from the dependent - in the term itself control there is a hint that the dominant word governs the subordinate.
Dependent words in control answer questions of indirect cases: “I I remember one incredible campsite history. Prisoner Chichevanov, robber and murderer, sat out on special mode recent day. For tomorrow he should have been released. <…>I, according to the same instructions, located in the back at the side. On the way, it seemed ridiculous to me so alert guard Chichevanov"(S. Dovlatov). Communication management is found in the phrases I remember (what?) History, sat out (on what?) in mode, sat out (what?) for a day, settled down (in what?) in the back, settled down (at what?) at the side, it seemed (in what ?) on the road, it seemed (to whom?) to me; it seemed (by what?) ridiculous, to protect (who?) Chichevanov, they had to release (who?) him.
Let us also pay special attention to the fact that in some phrases, despite the possibility of posing other, circumstantial, questions (he sat out (where?) in the mode, settled down (where?) in the back, settled down (where?) at the side, it seemed (where?) ) on the road), we have control in front of us, as indicated by the presence of prepositions in these combinations. A preposition is always a sign that we have control, not adjoining.
Adjacency is a type of subordinating connection, in which the dependence of the subordinate word is expressed not grammatically, but lexically (in meaning), word order and intonation. Only invariable significant parts of speech adjoin: adverb, infinitive, gerund, simple comparative adjective (older children), invariable adjective (khaki), noun - inconsistent application (in the Izvestia newspaper), possessive pronouns his, her, them. With this in mind, you can easily find a combination with the adjoining connection. And the term itself is quite transparent: the dependent adjoins, that is, it explains the main thing.
The main word in such a phrase is the verb: “On the road, it seemed to me so ridiculous guard vigilantly Chichevanova" - to guard (how?) vigilantly; noun: "We drank Turkish coffee"- coffee (what?) in Turkish; "I've never been overcome desire to travel by car or train, I liked horse riding"- desire (what?) to travel, riding (what?) on horseback; adjective: " quite prone exaggerate, our interlocutor did not betray himself this time either" - inclined (how? how much?) very; adverb: “I have a more valuable dignity,” the captain announced, “I make good money. All sorts of bonuses and stuff. In vain you laugh. Under socialism, this is important. And communism is everything still problematic...” - problematic (when?) yet; "He behaved very strange"- strange (how much?) Very; participle: "All patients, wishing to enroll to see a doctor, they can do it by phone” - those who want (what? what to do?) to make an appointment; gerund: “Egorov put a block of wood. Been eyeing the bitches for a while. Then he swung briefly and sharply lowered the ax, tilting slightly him ... "- tilting (how?) slightly.
Particular attention should be paid to phrases with possessive pronouns his, her, them: they, in contrast to the homonymous forms (remember the story about Manichka) of personal pronouns, do not change and, accordingly, enter only in touch abutment. Compare: "Tomorrow he should have been released"- should have freed (whom?) him - his here is the genitive form of the personal pronoun he, therefore, we have communication control. " his head was arranged differently than mine ”- his head (whose?) is a possessive pronoun that does not change: his head, his head, his head, therefore, adjoins the main word.
A special case of adjunction is when the dependent word is an infinitive: “ Please write down me to a driver's course. In this case, the combination please write down is not a compound verbal predicate, since the action is carried out by different subjects ( actors): I ask, and you / he / they, etc. will write down, that is, another person / persons, and the infinitive in this case is not part compound predicate, but as an addition (please write down (about what?)).
Allied words in complex sentences - relative pronouns who, what, how much, which, what, whose in the forms of indirect cases, the same pronouns as interrogatives in simple sentences and adverbs where, where, when, where, why, why, how, how much they also act as dependent words in phrases with various types of connection: “Precipitation,” Yegorov reacted, “you better listen, which I dream saw. As if Voroshilov gave me a saber ”- a dream (what?) What is an agreement; “On the same day, Boris noticed Corporal Petrov near the restroom, whom colleagues called- Fidel "- called (who?) whom– management; " Where you let's go in the middle of the night? I would go in the morning "- drove (where?) where- junction.
One of our colleagues reminded us of the well-known student “cheat sheet” hint:
When agreeing, the three requirements of the main to the dependent - gender, number, case.
When managing, one requirement of the main to the dependent is the case.
When joining, no one can demand anything.
Formation and use of the noun also obeys certain rules, non-observance of which leads to speech errors. Norms for the use of numerals in modern Russian are peculiar and specific. The numeral is a lexically closed category that is not replenished today with new units. However, the use of numerals is a serious speech problem. So, for example, complex numerals like eighty, seven hundred - the only group of words in which both parts are declined: eighty, seven hundred (creative falling), about eighty, seven hundred (propositional falling) - in modern speech has practically lost the declension system . This is a violation of the norm, which is imperative, that is, mandatory for all speakers of a given language. In modern colloquial speech, the declination of complex numbers is lost, which is also facilitated by the professional speech of mathematicians, however, in official speech, the norm requires the declination of both parts of complex numbers.
Declension rules extremely simple:
when declining compound numbers, all the words included in it change: the library has replenished five hundred forty three books; about five hundred forty three books we talked about; five hundred forty three students appeared student cards;
when declining ordinal numbers, only the last word: meet the twenty-fifth, in the year one thousand nine hundred and forty-one;
Word one thousand acts in the function of both a noun and a numeral, therefore in tv.p it can be used - a thousand and a thousand. The dispositive norms of the forms of tv.p. - eight and eight, but the literary language prefers the first form.
At the formation of phrases “numeral + noun in plural. h." collective (up to 5) and quantitative (c5) numerals are used: three friends, five soldiers, eight days. Collective numbers (two, three, ..., ten) are not used in official speech, although they coincide in meaning with cardinal numbers. But even in colloquial speech, their use is limited: they are not combined with the names of persons female, with inanimate nouns, with denominations high ranks, positions (hero, general, professor, etc.).
Collective numbers fit together with the names of male persons (except for the names of high ranks, positions): two boys, six soldiers ; With cub names: seven kids, five wolf cubs ; with substantiated adjectives: seven mounted, four military ; with nouns that have only plural form: two hours, four scissors, five days ; with nouns: children, children, people- three guys, four strangers . Combinations like 22, 23, 24, 32, 33, 34 102, 103, 104, days in Russian are impossible, since they require the form of a collective numeral, which cannot be included in a compound numeral. If necessary, use synonymous expressions with lexical substitution: 22 days have passed, the twenty-second day has ended etc. As we see, collective numbers don't match with nouns denoting females. You can't say: of five daughters ; as well as with masculine nouns denoting the names of animals: one cannot say - three wolves .
Combined with nouns female used in Russian numeral "both", and with nouns masculine - both": with both banks and along both rivers.
The declension of the numeral depends on the gender of the noun "one and a half". The masculine and neuter take the form one and a half in the nominative and accusative, and in the rest - one and a half; the feminine gender is one and a half - in the nominative and accusative, and in the rest - one and a half: limit yourself to one and a half meters, add to one and a half thousand.
Difficulties are also seen in the use of fractional and mixed numbers. In what number should the nouns "percentage", "quintal" be put, if they have a mixed number? It should say: forty and a half percent, but five and five tenths of a meter, because at mixed number The noun is ruled by a fraction.
21 + 22. Norms for the use of verbs and verb forms
Formation and use of the verb and verb forms in speech should be normative, but in case of violation of the norms, gross grammatical errors occur. The verb is a rather complex part of speech in terms of form usage. . Errors when using the verb and its forms connected with:
wrong education;
ignorance of the stylistic differences of individual verb forms;
non-observance of alternations in the basis of the verb;
non-normative formation of imperative mood forms;
incorrect formation of aspect pairs of verbs.
Among Russian verbs there is a group of words called insufficient verbs. Usually these verbs are devoid of the 1 (sometimes 2) person singular present and future tenses. Thus, it is impossible in the language (unless it is done for a special stylistic purpose) to say : I calve or bud, flow or rust , since these actions denote processes occurring in inanimate nature or in an animal and flora, they also include actions related to the functioning of the human body (dissolve, stick together) and abstract meanings (say, conclude).
Missing in the system of language and form 1 person from verbs win, convince, find oneself, feel, kink, dare, blow, buzz, immortalize, nonsense, mischief, since, theoretically formed, these forms are not very pleasing to the ear. If you need to use them in speech, you should use the descriptive form: I can convince, I want to find myself, etc.
Another group of words forms the so-called abounding verbs:rinse, cackle, purr, drip, move, splash, prowl, wave, splash- which suggest two forms of the present tense: for example, cackle and cackle . The colloquial nature of the second form should be noted. And in other verbs, doublet forms express semantic differentiation: so , splash (splash) - “sprinkle, sprinkle”, and splash (sprinkle) - “scatter drops, scatter drops”.
Non-observance of alternations in the stem of the verb is due to the influence of vernacular: can't say burns, protects, guards – should burn, protect, guard. Using Type Forms to condition - to condition, to sum up - to sum up, to concentrate - to concentrate with vowel alternation in the root refers to the dispositive norm of use, but the forms with - O are the property of book speech. For this reason, the phrases should be recognized as true: The development of science determines technological progress. At the end of the lesson, summarize everything that has been said. Of the forms of the past tense such as dry - dried, wet - wet, preference is given to the shorter one. Colloquial forms should not be used in speech: run, we want, (should be run, we want ) so these verbs have a special conjugation system, they are called heterogeneous.
Difficulties arise in the formation of imperative mood forms from the verbs to go, to go. Forms go (those) and go (those ) have a colloquial connotation and should not be used in the literary language. As a replacement, you should use the form - go (those), although the verb itself to travel is no longer in the language system.
Speech errors in the formation of aspect pairs of the verb occur when the heterogeneous aspect pairs are replaced by single-root ones ( to put - to lay, to lay down - to put) and in the formation of a verb that does not exist in the language system ( divide - divide). The norm involves the use of a pair lay and lay, divide and divide, lay and lay.
You have to be careful and two-part verbs type injure, execute, command, marry. In their use, a comprehension error entails a speaking and writing error, when a two-pronged verb is perceived by a native speaker as a single verb: he married her.
Species diversity(or temporary inconsistency) can occur with the unmotivated use of both imperfective and perfective verbs in one sentence: As soon as you get into the forest, you will immediately see the golden dress of autumn. (Follow: as soon as you get... ) A similar mistake also happens with the incorrect use of the participle on - shchy with the meaning of the future tense from perfective verbs: The book describes the events taking place in the 15th century. ( Should: taking place in the 15th century ) Errors on collateral inconsistency may be associated with the wrong choice of voice of the verb, including the voice of the participle: Toys produced by the Zagogrska factory are known all over the world. Or: Endless applause. ( Should: produced ... incessant. )
At the formation of participles, it must be remembered that participles formed from non-prefixed verbs with the suffix -nu- usually retain it ( get wet - wet, sticky - sticky, deaf - deaf), and those formed from prefixed verbs, as a rule, are used without it ( get wet – wet, stick - stuck, deaf - deaf.) In some cases, forms are formed with the suffix ( stuck, disappeared) or parallel forms - with and without a suffix ( withered - withered, withered - withered, dried up - dried up, etc.)
A speech error can occur when the same forms of the verb are abused (in particular, the forms of the participle, participle, infinitive.): Not allowed in winter let water freeze in pipes . (Follow: Water must not be left in pipes in winter, as it may freeze). Birds arriving from the south and occupying empty nests incubate chicks. (Follow: Birds that come from the south and occupy empty nests...)
Quite frequent in speech are errors associated with the use of verbs and verb forms in - Xia Verbs in - Xia cannot be used if they have the same two meanings - passive and reflexive: Cucumbers are washed under the stream cold water. Citizens walking along the boulevard . (Follow: Cucumbers are washed under running cold water. Citizens walking along the boulevard.) However, when it comes to automatic action, the form on -sya not replaced by a personal verb: The door opens automatically. Form on -sya prefer in scientific texts when it is important to focus not on the subject, but on the object of action: The report addresses the following issues.
When using adverbs it must be remembered that they are formed from transitional and intransitive verbs perfect and imperfect form, from the verbs of each of the three voices: real, passive and middle: walk - walking, stop - stopping, discussing - discussing . However, from a number of imperfect verbs, gerunds are not formed: bake, sleep, save, prick and etc. It is impossible to form gerunds from most verbs with the suffix -well-:sour, smell, wither, look, also from part of the verbs of 1 conjugation, forming the basis of the indefinite form with the help of the suffix -a, and the basis of the present (or future simple) without this suffix: knit - knit, plow - pasha, dance - dance. gerund with suffix - learn, - yuchi Besides being are used as a rule in folk-poetic speech: looking, playing, thinking
Perfective gerunds with a vowel stem can be used in two forms - With suffixes -in and - lice:writing - writing, closing - closing, bending - bending . In the modern literary language, forms with the suffix -in. Forms on – lice inherent archaic, colloquial or colloquial character: He sat with his eyes closed. ( Should: He was sitting eyes closed.) Possible options freezing - freezing, wiping - wiping, erasing - wiping(the second form in each pair is colloquial). In this case, you should only pronounce bringing out(without bringing out),sweeping (not sweeping), finding (not finding), taking (not taking), making a mistake (not making a mistake), carrying (not carrying), etc.
In pairs putting - laying down (hand on heart), gaping - gaping (listen to open mouth), fastening - holding fast (to agree reluctantly), breaking - breaking (rush headlong), lowering - later (work through the sleeves) etc. the second forms are obsolete and are preserved only in phraseological expressions. An outdated shade is also observed in the forms remembering, meeting, bored, discovering, turning, leaving, forgiving, falling out of love, parting, seeing, hearing, grasping and etc.
Uncommon in modern language forms running, burning, searching, carrying, writing, kohl, dancing, walking, laughing, scratching, etc.
Numeral
The numeral is an independent significant part of speech that combines words that denote numbers, the number of objects or the order of objects when counting and answer the question "how much?" or "what?".
Digits of numerals by value
Identify quantitative and ordinal numbers.
Cardinal numbers denote abstract numbers (five) and the number of objects (five tables) and answer the question "how much?".
Cardinal numbers are whole (five), fractional (five-sevenths) and collective (five).
Integer cardinal numbers denote whole numbers or quantities. Integer cardinal numbers are combined with countable nouns, that is, with such nouns that denote objects that can be counted as pieces.
Fractional quantitative numbers denote fractional numbers or quantities, and can be combined with both countable nouns (two-thirds of candy) and uncountable nouns (two-thirds of water), but cannot be combined with animate nouns.
Collective numbers denote the number of items as a whole. The collective numerals include the words both, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten. Collective numerals have limited compatibility; they do not combine with all nouns, but only with some:
1) with nouns that name males (two men); the numeral both is also combined with nouns denoting females (both women),
2) with nouns person, person, child (five people, persons, children),
3) with the names of baby animals (seven kids),
4) with nouns that have only plural forms (two sledges); these nouns are combined mainly with the numerals two, three and four,
5) with nouns that name paired objects (two socks); two socks are two socks, and two socks are four socks, i.e. two pairs of socks,
6) with personal pronouns we, you, they (there weren't two of them).
Ordinals indicate the order of items when counting (first, second, fifth, one hundred and twenty-fifth) and answer the question "which one?".
Digits of numerals by structure
By structure, numerals are distinguished simple, complex and compound.
Simple numbers consist of one word (two, two, second).
Compound numbers consist of two or more words (fifty-five, five tenths, five thousand fifty-fifth).
Compound numbers consist of one word, but have two or more roots (five-hundred, five-and-hundred-thousandth).
Declension of numerals
Changing numerals in cases is called declension.
Numerals one, two change both by cases and by gender: one textbook - one textbook; one book - one book.
The numeral two has two forms:
for masculine and neuter: two (boy, tree) and
for feminine: two girls.
Numerals from 5 (five) to 30 (thirty) change in cases, like nouns of the III declension, and the numeral eight has the variant forms of T. p. - eight and eight.
In numbers from 50 (fifty) to 80 (eighty) and from 200 (two hundred) to 900 (nine hundred), both parts decline. In numbers from 50 (fifty) to 80 (eighty) and from 500 (five hundred) to 900 (nine hundred), a soft sign is written in the middle.
500 to 900
fifty
fifty
fifty
five hundred
two hundred
fifty
fifty
five hundred
two hundred
about fifty
about five hundred
about two hundred
Numerals 40 (forty), 90 (ninety), 100 (one hundred) have only two case forms:
ninety
R.p., D.p., T.p., P.p.
ninety
Quantitative numerals are characterized by special compatibility with nouns.
Integer and collective numerals are combined with nouns as follows: in I. p. (and C. p. with inanimate nouns) the numeral is the main word and controls the noun, requiring it to be set in the R. p. singular (with numerals two, three, four) or plural (with numerals five and beyond). In other cases, the noun is the main one, and the numeral agrees with it, for example:
two (I. p.) tables (R. p. singular) - (o) two (P. p.) tables (P. p. plural)
Fractional cardinal numbers always control the R. p. of a noun, and the number of this noun depends on the meaning of the construction, cf.: one second of candy - one second of candy.
The words thousand, million, billion, etc. have a constant morphological trait kind (the first thousand - female gender, the first million - male gender), change in numbers and cases (first thousand, first thousand-). These words are declined as nouns (a thousand - I declension, a million, etc. - II declension). When combined with nouns, these words always control the noun, requiring it to be set in the form of R. p. pl. numbers:
I. p. thousand tons
R. p. thousand tons
In a sentence, the cardinal number, together with the noun to which it refers, is one member of the sentence:
I bought five books.
Grammar signs ordinal numbers
Grammatically ordinal numbers are similar to relative adjectives. Ordinal numbers change in gender, number, and case, and in all forms agree with the nouns they refer to. In compound ordinal numbers, only the last part is declined:
I. p. two thousand and two
R. p. two thousand and two
D. p. two thousand and two
Words such as half, quarter, third, five, ten, hundred, etc. are not numerals. These are nouns. The words how many, so many, somewhat are referred to as pronouns, the words many, few - to adverbs.
Morphological analysis of the numeral
The numeral is parsed according to the following plan:
I. Part of speech. General value. Initial form (nominative).
II. Morphological features.
Permanent signs: a) lexical and grammatical category (quantitative or ordinal); b) type by structure (simple, complex or compound); c) for quantitative - rank by value (whole, fractional, collective).
Variable signs: a) case; b) number (if any); c) gender (if any).
III. syntactic role.
Sample morphological analysis numerals.
The lieutenant had three sons, Bender noted, two were smart, and the third was a fool (I. Ilf and E. Petrov).
I. Three is a numeral, the initial form is three.
non-permanent signs: I. p.
III. There were (what?) three sons (subject).
I. Two is a numeral, the initial form is two.
II. Constant signs: quantitative, whole, simple,
non-permanent signs: I. p., husband. genus.
III. There were (what?) two (part of the subject).
I. The third is a numeral, the initial form is the third.
II. Constant signs: ordinal, simple,
non-permanent signs: I. p., units. number, male genus.
III. Fool (who?) third (definition).
The use of numerals in speech
Combinations of numerals with nouns
1. There are variant forms of the instrumental case of simple and complex numerals and combinations with them:
a) eight - eight (the second form has a bookish character and a shade of obsolescence); also: eighty - eighty, eight hundred - eight hundred;
b) fifty - fifty, sixty - sixty, etc. (normative for literary language are the first options, the second ones are found in oral speech);
c) with three hundred rubles - with three hundred rubles (the first option, in which the numeral, in accordance with the rule, agrees in case with the noun, is bookish; the second option, in which the complex number two hundred, three hundred, etc., controls the noun in the form genitive case, considered as colloquial);
d) a thousand - a thousand; for example, expenses are calculated in more than one thousand rubles (the word thousand with the preceding numeral one is considered as a noun and governs the genitive case of the next word) - came here with a thousand rubles (as a numeral, a thousand usually agrees with the subsequent noun); it is also possible to have a control connection in the form of a thousand, for example: a thousand expensive knick-knacks (Mamin-Sibiryak); a thousand violent and fiery voices (L. Andreev); a thousand small injections (Korolenko); "The Man with a Thousand Faces" (movie title).
2. In the normative form of the type with six hundred and seventy-two rubles (in the compound numeral, all the parts that form it decline; this provision is obligatory for book and written speech), there is a simplified construction “with six hundred and seventy-two rubles” in oral and colloquial speech, in which only the last word (sometimes also the first: “with two thousand six hundred and seventy-two rubles”, which is explained for the first words by the influence of the preposition, and for the last - by agreement with the subsequent noun).
3. When connecting a compound number ending in two, three, four (22, 23, 24, 32, 33, 34 ... 102, 103, 104, etc.), with nouns that have only plural forms ( day, sleigh, scissors), syntactic incompatibility arises: one cannot say either “twenty-two days”, or “twenty-two days”, or “twenty-two days”. In such cases, depending on the context, either lexical editing is carried out (replacing a word, inserting another word), or grammatical restructuring of the sentence (replacing one construction with another).
For example: instead of “22 days”, you can say: twenty-two days (if the text is not related to the terminological use of the word day, for example, in a medical history), within twenty-two days, etc. AT business style: twenty-two pieces of scissors; purchase a sleigh in the amount of twenty-two pieces.
4. In normative speech, the use of the words both and both in all cases is strictly distinguished: both brothers - both sisters; therefore: on both sides, on both sides, etc.
The combinations “at both gates”, “at both hours”, which do not meet the grammatical norm, have a colloquial character, since the form of the indirect case is formed from a non-existent initial form (there is no nominative case “both - both gates”, “both - both hours” in due to the absence of the category of gender in nouns that are used only in the plural form). Possible editing: at those and at other gates, hours.
5. The use of the word couple in the meaning of "two" is inherent in colloquial speech, for example: buy a couple of apples, a couple of pears. The use of the specified word in the meaning of “several” has the same character, for example: a couple of days, a couple of trifles, a couple of words, a couple of lines.
6. In combinations two (three, four) or more ... the controlled noun is placed in genitive case singular: two or more options, three or more difficult forms, four or more valuable sentences, i.e. the noun is made dependent on the numerals two, three, four, and not on the word more (cf. the possibility of permutation: two options and more).
7. The preposition according to the so-called distributive meaning governs the dative and accusative case of the numeral.
For example,
a) one ruble, one thousand books, one million inhabitants, one billion rubles (with numerals one, one thousand, one million, one billion);
b) two pencils, three notebooks, four sheets of paper; two scissors; one hundred tickets, three hundred rubles each (with numerals two, three, four, two, three, four, one hundred, two hundred, three hundred, four hundred).
The remaining quantitative numbers (five, six ... ten, eleven, twelve ... twenty, thirty, forty, fifty ...) allow two forms in the construction under consideration: with the dative case (book version) and with the accusative case (colloquial version), for example: ten once - ten times, forty places - forty places, for seventy rubles - for seventy rubles.
The same options are possible with compound numerals: twenty-five rubles each - twenty-five rubles each, etc. But if the compound numeral contains the words two, three, four, two hundred, three hundred, four hundred, then the entire counting combination is put in the form of an accusative case, for example: two hundred thirty-five rubles each.
It should be noted that constructions with the accusative case are becoming more widespread: combinations such as fifty kilometers per hour, twelve hours a day, two tickets for thirty-five thousand rubles, etc., are becoming predominant.
This is especially true for the numerals five hundred - nine hundred, in which, in combination with the preposition on, not the usual form of the dative case (five hundred) is formed, but a special one - five hundred each (the first part compound word stands in the form of the dative case - five, and the second retains the initial form - -hundred); it brings together possible options, and the form of five hundred, six hundred, seven hundred, etc. clearly dominates.
8. The correct constructions are 35.5 percent (not: ... percent), 12.6 kilometers (not: ... kilometers), i.e. with a mixed number, the noun is controlled by a fraction, not an integer. Also: 45.0 (forty-five and zero tenths) seconds, 6 7/8 (six and seven-eighths) meters, etc.
9. Paired with one and a half dozen people - with a dozen and a half people, the first construction is normative: the numeral one and a half in all cases, except for the nominative and accusative, is combined with the plural form of the subsequent noun.
The correct design is one and a half kilometers from the regional center (not “a hundred and fifty kilometers ...”); the numeral one and a half hundred is combined with nouns in the same way as one and a half, that is, it agrees in all cases, except for the nominative and accusative (cf .: one and a half kilometers).
