P. I. Kovalevsky

Psychiatric sketches from history. Volume 1

JOHN THE TERRIBLE

Part one

Each person represents a certain amount of substance or matter, developing out of itself a corresponding number of force. Thus it will be a unit of matter, giving rise to a known corresponding unit of force as well. This unit of matter, respectively chemical composition of its individual parts, generates both a simple, rough, physical force, as well as a higher, spiritual one, in the form of manifestations of thought and feeling. The amount of matter or substance that each person receives for his body, and the arrangement of its individual parts are so similar to each other that the question of the identity and similarity of people to each other involuntarily arises. With such an identity of the organization of man, the identity of quantity and quality, thoughts are very naturally generated about the identity of the functions of this organization, that is, about the identity of the strength of the physical and mental people.

However, in reality, it turns out that people differ quite sharply from each other both in the external appearance of their organization and in the appearance of the spiritual and physical activity of this organization. What causes this difference?

Two figures create a separate person with his features of bodily organization, spiritual appearance and physical activity - heredity and education.

Being born into the world, a small human being is the bearer of the organization of his parents, therefore, this person, both physically and spiritually, must be a repetition of his parents. But there are two parents: father and mother. Children always look like their parents. It's right. But every child is a combination of traits from both father and mother. It is true that in some cases this offspring bears the predominance of the features of the father, and in another case the features of the mother, nevertheless we rarely see that children bear in themselves exclusively the appearance and character of the father, or the appearance and spiritual organization of the mother. This mixture in the education in children of the properties of the father and mother creates the first principles personal attributes child - his personal isolation, his individualization. On this hereditary property of children to borrow from their parents the traits characteristic of each of them, and combine them in themselves in a new combination in the form of similarity to their two ancestors, the ability of the human race to improve and degenerate is based. As a rule, those traits are inherited from parents by children, which in the parents' organism were the most pronounced and most stable. If the parents were similar in one respect or another, then these traits in the children were combined, intensified and manifested more sharply and distinctly than in each of the parents; if opposite traits exist in one respect or another, the children will approximately inherit the average proportional size of the organization of one or another other feature.

It may happen that parents represent similarities in the features of the organization that contribute to its improvement: a strong body, a great mind, extraordinary energy, etc. The children of these parents are born under very favorable conditions for the existence of their organization, they can also expect to be strong, smart , energetic. In any case, these children have much more evidence of being such than if only one parent had the above properties. Children have other properties if their parents are weak, sickly, apathetic, quarrelsome, etc. Such children are already outlined from birth as a tribute to a tendency to illness and subsequent degeneration.

Thus, heredity predetermines the future of children, depending on the organization and qualities of their parents. It would be sad to see such a picture. human society if heredity played the only and exclusive role in its existence. Then, almost with mathematical precision, we would predict that the Ivanovs should die out, and the Petrovs should take over in society, the Sidorovs should vacillate between life and death. In this case, with all its nakedness, the question natural selection, moreover, parents would have to take care with all their might only to choose strong and strong husbands for their daughters, and all the weak would have to be doomed to death, as in Sparta. This state of affairs is too much like a stable and a horse farm.

Fortunately, in the matter of the physical and spiritual organization of a person, a role equal to heredity plays a role - the second agent is education, reasonable education in itself. broad sense- nutrition of the body and its formation. Education, through exercise, a prudent diet of the organism, and a proper environment in the life of a given young organism, can more or less easily paralyze the unfavorable features of the inherited organization of a given person - it, under the opposite conditions, can also destroy him.

Thus, heredity and education are very important figures in a person's life, not only in the sense of the formation of his individualization, but also in the sense of his existence in general.

What we have said in general about the existence of the human race is quite applicable to its mental health in particular.

The mental health or ill health of people is determined by two main points: heredity and the conditions of life under which a person grows, develops and improves. It may happen that a person is born from perfectly healthy parents and inherits a strong and powerful nervous system - then there is a lot of evidence that this person, under favorable conditions for growth and development, will come out strong, powerful and healthy. But it can also happen that the parents are nervously or mentally ill, then their children will certainly inherit from them a nervous system that is not strong, prone to illness and unable to go, under normal living conditions, to the level with a person who inherited a healthy and powerful nervous system. - an organ of mental activity. Thus, if only one heredity played a role in the creation of mental health or illness, then from the first time we would divide the human race into two halves: into healthy and doomed to disease, into powerful and infirm, into fit for life and unfit, into the clean and the unclean. But one hereditary transmission of vitality nervous system is not of decisive importance for the spiritual life of people. There is still a second agent, which shows a very serious influence in the development of inherited properties and qualities and is no less important than heredity.

Russian education in recent decades has been building a system of spiritual and moral education aimed at the spiritual improvement of society, strengthening the morality of the young generation entering life, the formation of the most important moral categories rooted in domestic traditions; introducing students to the spiritual origins of their traditional culture.

As is known, the issues of spiritual and moral education attracted the attention of scientists of various specialties and directions, and in different years Russia, therefore, we consider it important to refer to the works of Russian scientists who either directly dealt with issues of pedagogy, or came to the issues of education through life quests. From this point of view, it is interesting and case in point Pavel Ivanovich Kovalevsky (1849-1923), psychiatrist, publicist, ideologist of Russian nationalism.

Kovalevsky P.I. - founder of the first Russian psychiatric journal, professor, member of the Russian Assembly, member of the All-Russian National Union. The fate of Professor Pavel Ivanovich Kovalevsky is closely intertwined with science, social activity and political journalism. Pavel Ivanovich Kovalevsky was born in 1849 in the city of Petropavlovsk, Pavlograd district, Yekaterinoslav province, in the family of a priest. He graduated from the theological school, and then the Yekaterinoslav Theological Seminary. Passion for the natural sciences prompted him to choose a different path. In 1874 he graduated from the medical faculty of Kharkov University. In 1877, after defending his dissertation, he became an associate professor, and in 1884 a professor in the department of psychiatry at this university. In 1889 Kovalevsky became the dean of the medical faculty. In 1882 he was appointed to the post of rector of Warsaw University. After a serious illness in 1897, Kovalevsky was forced to leave this post. In the future, Professor P. I. Kovalevsky is engaged in publishing and scientific activities, and also participates in the work of a number of public organizations.

Pavel Ivanovich Kovalevsky

In wide circles of the Russian intelligentsia, the authority of P.I. Kovalevsky was quite high as a historian. His works such as "Peoples of the Caucasus", "Conquest of the Caucasus by Russia", "History of Little Russia", "History of Russia from a national point of view" enjoyed great interest, withstood several editions in pre-revolutionary Russia (in Soviet times they were recognized as reactionary and were not printed ). Despite the fact that P. I. Kovalevsky devoted his whole life to the problems of psychiatry, he paid serious attention to the issues of education, and not just the problems of education, but the problems of Russian national education.

Let us turn to the analysis of some methodological aspects of his position. P. I. Kovalevsky's book "Nationalism and National Education in Russia" belongs to the category of those that have not lost their relevance for many decades. Just as we are discovering today the philosophical works of other Russian thinkers of the early and first half of the twentieth century - those who founded the Russian tradition of social philosophy and kept it from non-existence. So far, citizenship and nationality operate separately. Moreover, citizenship becomes more nationless with higher levels of education. Education, as it has been for the last half century in Russia, creates more reasons for a citizen to slander Russia than to be proud of it. Similar phenomena were seen at the beginning of the 20th century by Professor Kovalevsky, who pointed out that "the school killed God, killed the nationality, killed the statehood, killed the society, killed the family, killed the person."

Just as in our time, liberal education created cosmopolitans from children, just as in our time, the role of teachers, professionally and morally decomposed even on the student bench, is extremely great in the destruction of the nation and the state. For Professor Kovalevsky there was no other formula for the Russian idea, except Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality. Taking a lesson in intellectual honesty and scientific depth from an outstanding thinker and the greatest Russian scientist, we must assimilate this formula and be imbued with it to the very depths of our souls. In order to save Russia from non-existence, which has come so close that many quick death Fatherland and the dissolution of the Russian people in the waves of migration no longer surprises or frightens. We should be afraid only of this - the death of our Motherland, the extinction of the Russian family.

In the Russian idea of ​​Russian thinkers of the early twentieth century, we have a detailed ideological doctrine. Professor P. I. Kovalevsky gave one of the most exhaustive formulations of nationalism: “In a broad sense, nationalism is a spiritual trend, a trend directed in a given people, with the goal and task of raising and improving the good of this nation. It will be mass, party nationalism... But there is nationalism and personal, individual, inherent in the nature of each person. Personal individual nationalism is a manifestation of respect, love and devotion to self-sacrifice in the present, reverence and admiration for the past and the desire for prosperity, glory and success in the future of that nation, the people to which this person belongs... Nationalism can manifest itself in two ways: in the form of a national feeling and in the form of a national consciousness. National feeling is an innate property of the human spirit, inherent in every person from birth and consisting in instinctive inexplicable animal love for a given people, for a given area ... National consciousness is an expression of a definitely expressed view of love for the motherland, its glory, its honor, greatness and strength " .

Investigating the national psychology of the Russian people, Professor P. I. Kovalevsky very accurately defined the nation, nationalism, national feeling and national self-consciousness - concepts so essential for the general worldview. “A nation is a large group of people united among themselves by the unity of origin, the unity of historical destinies and the struggle for existence, the unity of physical and spiritual qualities, - the unity of culture, - the unity of faith, - the unity of language and territory ... Nationalism is a manifestation of respect, love and devotion, to self-sacrifice, in the present, - respect and reverence for the past and the desire for prosperity, glory, power and success in the future - that nation, the people to which a given person belongs ... National feeling is an innate belonging to the physical and mental organization. It is instinctive. It is mandatory. The national feeling is innate in us just like all other feelings: love for parents, love for children, hunger, thirst, etc. National self-consciousness is an act of thinking, by virtue of which a given person recognizes himself as part of the whole, goes under protection and bears himself to protect his native whole, his nation.

Domination of the Russian nation in Russian Empire Professor P.I. Kovalevsky deduced from the right of sacrifices, the right of shed blood for the Fatherland. “Our rights to the possession of this state,” wrote P. I. Kovalevsky, “are the rights of blood arising from the blood shed by our ancestors, property rights arising from the costs of our ancestors, the interest on which we still have to pay, are the rights the historical fate of the motherland, obliging us to keep whole and unharmed the conquered ancestors.

At the same time, the unique work “Pedagogical Reflections. National Education”, where the author's system of Russian national education is built. By national education, the author understands a combination of several characteristics. First, a real education that gives children "accurate and serious knowledge of the nature that is around us and under our feet." This is necessary in order "to be able to use and use for our needs all the nature around us." Because of this, "our children need to be given the knowledge of how to use it, and show in practice these very ways of using it." Secondly, the strictest management of "the features and basic qualities of our nation": "encourage what we find in it valuable and worthy of further cultivation" and "destroy that which is in the nation ... useless and harmful." Thirdly, the introduction into a person of such mental, spiritual and physical qualities that are "inherent and characteristic of this or that nationality." Note: one or another nationality. P. I. Kovalevsky, like other Russian thinkers, approached the issues of national education broadly, not limiting it to the framework of only Russian pedagogical culture.

In the system of national education of P. I. Kovalevsky, a special place is given to the Orthodox religion, which is the beginning that unites Russians into one indivisible whole. AT patriotic education great role of the teacher. Commenting famous saying about the fact that the German teacher defeated the French teacher, P. I. Kovalevsky writes that the German teacher defeated France not because of his education, but because all German teachers "were national and patriotic." A Russian teacher should also be national and patriotic.

Patriotism by P.I. Kovalevsky is placed above education: ignorance, warmed by love for the Motherland, is better than education associated with contempt and disrespect for the nation. Moreover, knowledge can always be replenished, but love, devotion and self-sacrifice to the Motherland are not replenished later. P. I. Kovalevsky’s arguments about the study of history, which he declares to be one of the important school disciplines, are extremely instructive. History should be known to all students. However, not the history of facts, but the history of the spirit of the Russian nation, the course of its development, growth and improvement. To do this, it is necessary to fulfill "two debts". First, to be imbued with all your Russian heart and in the depths of your soul with your country. Secondly, to appreciate the glory and exploits of the ancestors and worthily perpetuate them in word and deed.

P. I. Kovalevsky bitterly writes about the insufficient knowledge of Russian history, their culture, art, etc. He is especially hurt by the fact that Russian children are brought up by “the heroic deeds of the Greeks and Romans, as if we do not have our own heroes , not only not at all fewer heroes foreign, but on the contrary, much more prominent and more worthy of our veneration ... ". What can you say? In our time of virtual heroes like James Bond, even Greco-Roman heroes will seem like their own.

PI Kovalevsky singles out public national education in the structure of national education. It “should consist in putting into practice in all places of the state and in all strata of society the spirit of love, devotion and the good of the Russian nationality and fatherland. The entire state administration, all state and public institutions, the press, literature and all civil aspects of life should serve this.

It doesn’t take much imagination to understand that the above words sound extremely modern and relevant in the conditions of today’s realities of our life, where everything is the other way around: instead of putting into practice the “spirit of love, devotion and the good of the Russian nationality and fatherland”, spiritual castration of our people is carried out and our society. Outwardly, at the level of high politics, a positive line seems to be visible. But for now, it seems that it serves as a kind of fig leaf covering the processes of internal decomposition and disintegration of the Russian (Russian) mentality in an undeclared information-artifact war without a front and rear, penetrating all the pores of our national life. P. I. Kovalevsky’s thoughts about the need for us “to have civil national courage, to openly defend our national dignity against arrogant and open attacks, insults and humiliations…” have not lost their topicality. For (he here recalls the words of N. M. Karamzin), whoever does not respect himself, no doubt, others will not respect him either.

P. I. Kovalevsky was well aware that Russian national education could in no way adversely affect the relationship of Russian people with people representing other nationalities of Russia. Speaking modern language, P. I. Kovalevsky was a supporter of ethnic tolerance in relations between children of different nationalities. At the same time, he does not hide the special cementing role of the Russian people in Russia. In a certain sense, one can speak of the presence in the views of P.I. Kovalevsky of elements of the concept of "big brother". But this is by no means the doctrine of the emphasized superiority of the "white" man over the "native" population, presented, for example, in R. Kipling's book The White Man's Burden. No, this is the idea of ​​a single family of peoples of an immense empire, where, as in any family, there are elders and younger ones, where the elders should take care of the younger ones, protect them, where relations should be built on the basis of mutual respect and mutual assistance.

No matter how we retold P. I. Kovalevsky, it would still be better if we give the floor to him himself: “When preaching, however, people's love and devotion to Russian children, one should never insult the children of other nations that are part of our Motherland. We must treat them with friendship and love, as if we were brothers, and not allow them to notice our victorious rule. They know this well without us. But, knowing this, they should see from our side such relations as exist between brothers of the same family. The future itself must establish a relationship of respect for the stronger and the protector, not a feeling of malice and hatred of the conquered and trampled.

Pavel Ivanovich Kovalevsky(- October 17, Liege) - a famous psychiatrist, publicist and public figure. Rector of Warsaw University (1894-1897).

Biography

This book, combining scientific and popularizing style, using specific examples from the life of John the Terrible, Peter III, the Prophet Mohammed, Joan of Arc, Paul I, the Persian king Cambyses, Ludwig II of Bavaria, Emanuel Swedenborg and others, reveals the dynamics of various mental phenomena, shows the role of the environment and heredity in the formation of personality.

P. I. Kovalevsky was a foreman of the Russian National Club, a member of the Council of the All-Russian National Union and a member of the Russian Assembly.

Compositions

• Kovalevsky P.I. Peter the Great and his genius. - St. Petersburg. , edition of the Russian Medical Bulletin: printing house of M. Akinfiev and I. Leontiev, 1900.
• Kovalevsky P.I. The conquest of the Caucasus by Russia. Historical essays. - St. Petersburg. , 1911.
• Kovalevsky P.I. History of Russia from a national point of view. - St. Petersburg. , 1912.
• Kovalevsky P.I. Foundations of Russian nationalism. - St. Petersburg. , 1912.
• Kovalevsky P.I.. - St. Petersburg. , 1912.
• Kovalevsky P.I. History of Little Russia. - St. Petersburg. , 1914.
• Kovalevsky P.I. Psychology of the Russian nation. - St. Petersburg. , 1915.
• Kovalevsky P.I. Psychiatric sketches from history. In two volumes. - M .: Terra, 1995. - ISBN 5-300-00095-7, 5-300-00094-9.
• Kovalevsky P.I. John the Terrible and his state of mind. Psychiatric sketches from history. - M .: Librokom, 2012.
• Kovalevsky P.I.. Forensic psychiatry. St. Petersburg, 1902

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Notes

Literature

• Petryuk P. T. // Mental health. - 2009. - No. 3. - S. 77-87.
• Ivanov A.
• Afanasiev N. I. Contemporaries. Album of biographies. - St. Petersburg, 1909. - T. 1.- S. 133.
• Kotsiubinsky D. A. Russian nationalism at the beginning of the 20th century. The birth and death of the ideology of the All-Russian National Union. - M., 2001.
• Sadivnichy V. Pavlo Kovalevsky - editor and editor of medical periodicals / Volodymyr Sadivnichy // Journalism. - Vip. 11 (36). - 2012. - S. 114-123.
• Saveliev A. N. // Golden Lion. - 2005. - No. 69-70.

Links

• Sidorchuk I.V., Rostovtsev E.A.

An excerpt characterizing Kovalevsky, Pavel Ivanovich

Mavra Kuzminishna offered to bring the wounded man into the house.
“The Lord won’t say anything…” she said. But it was necessary to avoid climbing the stairs, and therefore the wounded man was carried into the wing and laid in the former room of m me Schoss. This wounded man was Prince Andrei Bolkonsky.

The last day of Moscow has come. Was clear cheerful autumn weather. It was Sunday. As on ordinary Sundays, the gospel was announced for mass in all churches. No one, it seemed, could yet understand what awaited Moscow.
Only two indicators of the state of society expressed the situation in which Moscow was: the mob, that is, the class of poor people, and the prices of objects. Factory workers, servants and peasants in a huge crowd, in which officials, seminarians, noblemen got involved, on this day, early in the morning, went to the Three Mountains. After standing there and not waiting for Rostopchin and making sure that Moscow would be surrendered, this crowd scattered around Moscow, to drinking houses and taverns. Prices that day also indicated the state of affairs. The prices of weapons, gold, carts and horses kept going up, while the prices of paper money and city things kept going down, so that in the middle of the day there were cases when cabbies took out expensive goods, like cloth, from the floor, and for a peasant horse paid five hundred rubles; furniture, mirrors, bronzes were given away for free.
In the sedate and old house of the Rostovs, the disintegration of the former living conditions expressed itself very weakly. With regard to people, it was only that three people from a huge household disappeared during the night; but nothing was stolen; and in relation to the prices of things, it turned out that the thirty carts that came from the villages were enormous wealth, which many envied and for which Rostov was offered huge money. Not only did they offer a lot of money for these carts, from the evening and early morning of September 1, orderlies and servants from wounded officers came to the Rostovs' courtyard and dragged the wounded themselves, placed at the Rostovs and in neighboring houses, and begged the Rostovs' people to take care of that they were given carts to leave Moscow. The butler, who was approached with such requests, although he felt sorry for the wounded, resolutely refused, saying that he would not even dare to report this to the count. No matter how pitiful the remaining wounded were, it was obvious that if you gave up one cart, there was no reason not to give up another, that's all - to give up your crews. Thirty carts could not save all the wounded, and in the general disaster it was impossible not to think about yourself and your family. So thought the butler for his master.
Waking up on the morning of the 1st, Count Ilya Andreich quietly left the bedroom, so as not to wake the countess who had just fallen asleep by morning, and in his purple silk dressing gown went out onto the porch. The carts, tied up, stood in the yard. The carriages were at the porch. The butler stood at the entrance, talking to an old batman and a young, pale officer with a bandaged arm. The butler, seeing the count, made a significant and stern sign to the officer and orderly to leave.
- Well, is everything ready, Vasilich? - said the count, rubbing his bald head and looking good-naturedly at the officer and orderly and nodding his head to them. (The count liked new faces.)
- At least harness now, Your Excellency.
- Well, that's nice, the countess will wake up, and with God! What are you, gentlemen? he turned to the officer. - In my house? The officer moved closer. His pale face suddenly flushed bright red.
- Count, do me a favor, let me ... for God's sake ... shelter somewhere on your carts. I don’t have anything with me here ... I don’t care in the cart ... it doesn’t matter ... - The officer had not yet managed to finish, as the batman turned to the count with the same request for his master.
- BUT! yes, yes, yes,” said the count hastily. - I'm very, very happy. Vasilyich, you order, well, clear one or two carts there, well, there ... what ... what is needed ... - with some kind of vague expressions, ordering something, the count said. But at the same moment, the officer's warm expression of gratitude already confirmed what he ordered. The count looked around him: in the yard, at the gate, in the window of the wing, one could see the wounded and orderlies. They all looked at the count and moved towards the porch.
- Please, Your Excellency, to the gallery: what do you want about the paintings there? the butler said. And the count entered the house with him, repeating his order not to refuse the wounded who ask to go.
“Well, then, you can put something together,” he added in a low, mysterious voice, as if afraid that someone would hear him.
At nine o'clock the countess woke up, and Matryona Timofeevna, her former maid, who had acted as chief of the gendarmes in relation to the countess, came to report to her former young lady that Marya Karlovna was very offended and that the young lady's summer dresses should not stay here. When asked by the countess why mme Schoss was offended, it was revealed that her chest had been removed from the cart and all the carts were being untied - they were taking off the good and taking the wounded with them, whom the count, in his simplicity, ordered to take with him. The countess ordered to ask her husband.
- What is it, my friend, I hear things are being filmed again?
“You know, ma chere, this is what I wanted to tell you… ma chere, countess… an officer came to me, asking me to give a few carts for the wounded. After all, this is all a matter of gain; and what it's like for them to stay, think about it! .. Really, in our yard, we ourselves invited them, there are officers here. You know, I think it’s right, ma chere, here, ma chere… let them take them… where is the hurry?.. – The count said this timidly, as he always said when it came to money. The Countess, however, was accustomed to this tone, which always preceded the deed that ruined the children, like some kind of construction of a gallery, a greenhouse, the installation of a home theater or music - and she got used to it, and considered it her duty to always oppose what was expressed in this timid tone.
She assumed her meekly deplorable air and said to her husband:
“Listen, Count, you have brought it to the point that they don’t give anything for the house, and now you want to ruin all of our - children’s fortune. After all, you yourself say that there is a hundred thousand good in the house. I, my friend, disagree and disagree. Your will! There is government on the wounded. They know. Look: over there, at the Lopukhins, everything was taken out clean on the third day. That's how people do it. We alone are fools. Have pity at least not on me, but on the children.
The count waved his hands and, without saying anything, left the room.
- Dad! what are you talking about? Natasha told him, following him into her mother's room.
- About nothing! What do you care! said the Count angrily.
“No, I heard,” Natasha said. Why doesn't mommy want to?
– What is your business? shouted the count. Natasha went to the window and thought.
“Papa, Berg has come to visit us,” she said, looking out the window.

Berg, the son-in-law of the Rostovs, was already a colonel with Vladimir and Anna around his neck, and occupied the same calm and pleasant position of assistant chief of staff, assistant to the first department of the chief of staff of the second corps.
On September 1, he came from the army to Moscow.
He had nothing to do in Moscow; but he noticed that everyone from the army asked to go to Moscow and did something there. He also considered it necessary to take time off for household and family affairs.

Pavel Ivanovich Kovalevsky (1850-1931) - a well-known psychiatrist, publicist and public figure. Rector of Warsaw University (1894-1897). Graduated from the Theological School, and then - Yekaterinoslav Seminary. Nevertheless, he made a professional choice in favor of natural science. In 1869, P. I. Kovalevsky entered the medical faculty of Kharkov University. Already there, he chose the problem of mental illness as a specialization. After graduating from the university in 1874, he was left at the faculty to prepare a doctoral dissertation in psychiatry, which he defended in 1877 on the topic: "On the change in the sensitivity of the skin in melancholics." The scientist combined scientific research with practical work supernumerary intern of the mentally ill department of the Kharkov Zemstvo hospital (the so-called "Saburova dacha"). After defending his doctoral dissertation, Pavel Ivanovich was appointed assistant professor, and then, in 1884, professor at the Department of Psychiatry at Kharkov University.

In 1889, P. I. Kovalevsky became the dean of the medical faculty of Kharkov University, and then the rector of Warsaw University (1895-1897). Subsequently, from 1903 to 1906, he headed the Department of Psychiatry at Kazan University, then taught a course in forensic psychopathology at the Faculty of Law of St. Petersburg University and worked as a senior physician in the psychiatric department of the Nikolaev Military Hospital in St. Petersburg - the most advanced medical institution of that time. At the same time, Pavel Ivanovich was engaged in translating the works of foreign psychiatrists: Philip Pinel, Theodor Meinert, Carl Wernicke and others.
P. I. Kovalevsky wrote over 300 books, brochures, journal articles on various issues of psychiatry, neuropathology. Among them are the books "Guide to the proper care of the mentally ill", "Forensic psychiatry", "Forensic psychiatric analyzes" (3 editions), "Mental illness for doctors and lawyers", "Psychology of sex", "Hygiene and treatment of mental and nervous diseases”, “Fundamentals of the mechanism of mental activity”, “Textbook of psychiatry for students” (4 editions), “Syphilis of the brain and its treatment”, “Puerperal psychoses”, “Migraine and its treatment”. P. I. Kovalevsky published the first domestic manual on psychiatry written by him.

In wide circles of the Russian intelligentsia, the authority of P.I. Kovalevsky was quite high as a historian. His works such as "Peoples of the Caucasus", "Conquest of the Caucasus by Russia", "History of Little Russia", "History of Russia from a national point of view" enjoyed great interest, withstood several editions in pre-revolutionary Russia (in Soviet times they were recognized as reactionary and were not printed ).

P. I. Kovalevsky was one of the first to use historical analysis to compile psychological portrait prominent personalities. Psychiatric sketches from history brought him well-deserved fame (sometimes this book is published under the title Psychiatric sketches from history). In Soviet times, this book was also not published, since it contradicted the Marxist position on the role of the individual in history and the concept of socio-economic determinism.

P. I. Kovalevsky was a foreman of the Russian National Club, a member of the Council of the All-Russian National Union and a member of the Russian Assembly.

Professor Pavel Ivanovich Kovalevsky (1849–1931) - a well-known domestic scientist, psychiatrist, psychologist, publicist, ideologist of Russian nationalism, public figure, who worked for a long time at Saburova Dacha - a former Saburian who belonged to a galaxy of intellectual doctors that formed in the last third of the XIX century and did a lot for the development of domestic psychiatry, including for the Kharkov psychiatric school. P. I. Kovalevsky - Doctor of Medicine, Professor, founder of the first Russian psychiatric journal "Archive of Psychiatry, Neurology and Forensic Psychopathology", author of the original concept on the role of blood circulation and metabolism in the central nervous system, the first national manual on psychiatry, organizer at Kiev University the first independent department of psychiatry in Ukraine and one of the first experimental psychological laboratories, a member of the Russian Assembly, the All-Russian National Club and the All-Russian National Union. Pavel Ivanovich was one of the leading domestic psychiatrists of the early 20th century, his rightly called the best metropolitan psychiatrist and even the "father of Russian psychiatry" .

The name of Pavel Ivanovich is still little known today. As a rule, only historians of medicine know about him, because P. I. Kovalevsky was one of the leading Russian psychiatrists of the early 20th century, and a few experts on the ideology of Russian nationalism, since P. I. Kovalevsky was rightfully considered the ideologist of this direction of Russian thought, actively who took part in such organizations as the All-Russian National Club and the All-Russian National Union 1 . Before the revolution, in right-wing circles, his name was no less famous than the recently returned name of the major nationalist publicist M. O. Menshikov. However, in the following seventy years of Soviet power, these names were deliberately consigned to oblivion. Little by little, the works of patriotic thinkers are beginning to be republished, and special studies are dedicated to their authors. But unlike M. O. Menshikov, about whom a whole monograph has already been written, Pavel Ivanovich was less fortunate - the political biography of this prominent ideologist of Russian national thought, superficially reflected in several small articles dedicated to him, remains essentially unknown.

P. I. Kovalevsky was born in 1849 (according to other sources - in 1850) in the town of Petropavlovka, Pavlograd district, Yekaterinoslav province (now an urban-type settlement in the Dnepropetrovsk region of Ukraine) in the family of a priest. In the sixth week of his life, having lost his father, Pavel grew up with his brother, two sisters and a widowed mother in extremely cramped material conditions - the main source of livelihood for the Kovalevsky family was a ten-ruble annual pension. At the age of nine, following the family tradition, the boy was assigned as a half-boarder to a religious school, in the senior classes of which, through tutoring, “not only earned for himself, but also gave some of this for household use.”

Having successfully completed his studies at the school, P. I. Kovalevsky entered the Yekaterinoslav Theological Seminary, from which he graduated in 1869 as the first student. However, being passionate about natural science, the young man did not follow the spiritual path, but decided to continue his education at the medical faculty of Kharkov University.

In 1869, P. I. Kovalevsky entered the medical faculty of Kharkov University. Already from the second year he has been engaged in scientific research in the laboratory of the Department of General Pathology, led by I. N. Obolensky. The future doctor pays the greatest attention to nervous and mental diseases. After graduating with honors in 1874 from the university and receiving a degree as a doctor and the title of a county doctor, P. I. Kovalevsky, due to his abilities, was left at the faculty to prepare a doctoral dissertation in psychiatry, which he soon successfully defended on the topic “On changes in the sensitivity of the skin in melancholic in 1877.

Pavel Ivanovich, striving to thoroughly study modern methods treatment of mental illness, repeatedly traveled abroad, worked in Kazan with Professor A. U. Frese, who received training from the same teachers as S. S. Korsakov (after the resignation of A. U. Frese, the Department of Psychiatry in Kazan was taken V. M. Bekhterev).

At the same time, the theoretical work of P.I. Kovalevsky was closely intertwined with practical work. The young scientist combined his scientific research with the work of a supernumerary intern in the mentally ill department of the Kharkov provincial zemstvo hospital (Saburova dacha). It is appropriate to note here that before the intervention of Pavel Ivanovich, shocked to the depths of his soul by what he saw in a lunatic asylum, their position in the established system of attitude towards the mentally ill was very painful. Here is how a contemporary describes him: “A guard armed with a whip was placed over the unfortunate. With every disobedience, the deserving one received a reminder of the observance of decency with a full blow of the lash. If the whip did not have the desired effect, the madman was chained, and if this did not calm the brawler, he was simply shackled! .

P. I. Kovalevsky boldly spoke out in defense of the mentally ill, proposing a number of measures to reorganize the institution (an innovation was the idea he embodied of creating workshops for the mentally ill and introducing them to physical labor). Thanks to his work and the work of his students, the painful situation of the patients of the institution came to an end - the chains and shackles disappeared, and the insane got the right to be considered sick.

After defending his doctoral dissertation, Pavel Ivanovich was successively a privatdozent (1877), associate professor (1878), extraordinary (1884) and ordinary (1888) professor of the Department of Psychiatry at Kharkov University, was the initiator of the First Congress of Psychiatrists and Neuropathologists of Russia (1887) .

In 1877, the first independent department of psychiatry and neurology in Ukraine was organized at Kharkov University, headed by Privatdozent P. I. Kovalevsky, a student of A. U. Frese, who began his scientific activity at the Sabur Dacha. Clinical demonstrations were carried out at the beginning in the Kharkiv provincial zemstvo hospital (Saburova dacha), and later in the clinic of I. Ya. Platonov, where a laboratory was organized and, to the extent possible, everything necessary for the most successful teaching was created was outside Kharkov and there was no paved road.

In 1889, P. I. Kovalevsky was appointed dean of the medical faculty of Kharkov University, and then rector of Warsaw University (1892–1897). Unfortunately, a serious illness suffered in the summer of 1896 forced him to leave the university. From 1903 to 1906, he was the head of the department of psychiatry at Kazan University, after which he taught a course in forensic psychopathology at the Faculty of Law of St. Petersburg University and worked as a senior physician in the psychiatric department of the Nikolaev Military Hospital in St. Petersburg, an advanced medical institution of that time. At this time, Pavel Ivanovich continued to publish journals, translated the works of foreign psychiatrists F. Pinel, T. Meinert, K. Wernicke and others, taking an active part in the work of a number of public organizations (Institute of Brothers of Mercy, Committee of the Red Cross, etc.).

The implementation of the innovations that have matured in psychiatry, and the attraction of wide public attention to them, gave rise to the need to create a special press organ in Russia. In 1893, P. I. Kovalevsky became the founder and editor of the first psychiatric journal in Russian, called the Archive of Psychiatry, Neurology and Forensic Psychopathology (the journal ceased to exist in 1896). The name of the publication reflected the versatile aspirations of the editor, who announced that the journal "will pursue the study of abnormalities in the nervous life of a person, diseases, crimes, the conditions for their development and the means to eradicate them." He published a number of foreign monographs and manuals on the most important issues of psychoneurology. Domestic psychiatrists owe him an acquaintance with the clinical lectures of T. Meinert, whose ideas were especially close to P. I. Kovalevsky, the lectures of J. M. Charcot, the books of W. R. Gowers, O. L. Bienswanger, Ch. Richet and others. In addition, he published the Journal of Medicine and Hygiene, Russian Medical Bulletin, Bulletin of Idiocy and Epilepsy, Bulletin of Mental Diseases, and for 15 years he was co-editor of the European Psychiatric Journal published in Germany. Pavel Ivanovich rightly called the best metropolitan psychiatrist and even the "father of Russian psychiatry"- he is the author of many scientific works on various issues of psychiatry, including forensic psychiatry, psychology, neurology and a large number translations of works of foreign psychiatrists.

In their scientific research Pavel Ivanovich, relying on the anatomical and physiological knowledge of that time, in particular, on the reflex theory of I. M. Sechenov, developed materialistic ideas about the essence of mental phenomena in normal and pathological conditions. He created an original concept of the role of blood circulation and metabolism in the central nervous system, believing that the basis of any mental illness is a violation of the nutrition of nerve elements and that the degree of their anatomical destruction depends on the duration of this violation. In the etiology of psychosis great importance P.I. Kovalevsky attributed the combination of hereditary factors with disease-causing external agents of both somatogenic and psychogenic character. A number of his works are devoted to the study of syphilitic lesions of the nervous system, issues of forensic psychiatry, childhood neuropathology, etc. Pavel Ivanovich created a classification of mental illness, where he took the predominance of disorders in one or another area of ​​mental activity as the basis for division.

During his half-century medical activity, P. I. Kovalevsky wrote over 300 books, brochures, journal articles on various issues of psychiatry, neuropathology and psychology. Among them are the books "Psychiatry", "General Psychopathology", "A Guide to Proper Care of the Mentally Ill", "Forensic Psychiatry", "Forensic Psychiatric Analysis" (3 editions), "Primary Insanity", "Mental Illness for Physicians and lawyers”, “Psychology of sex”, “Psychology of woman”, “Degeneration and rebirth. The criminal and the fight against crime: Socio-psychological sketches, The psychology of the criminal (there is also a French edition), Hygiene and the treatment of mental and nervous diseases, Fundamentals of the mechanism of mental activity, Fundamentals of human psychology, Drunkenness, its causes and treatment", "Textbook of psychiatry for students" (4 editions), "Syphilis of the brain and its treatment", "Puerperal psychoses", "Migraine and its treatment". Professor I. A. Polishchuk (1976) appropriately emphasized that Pavel Ivanovich published what he wrote the first domestic guide to psychiatry.

In addition to scientific and teaching activities, P. I. Kovalevsky was an active participant in the national-monarchist movement. For some time he was a member of the oldest St. Petersburg elite monarchist organization "Russian Assembly", participated in the activities of the Russian outlying society that arose on the basis of the Assembly, which aimed to study the national outskirts of the Russian Empire and fight against outlying separatism. With the formation of the All-Russian National Union (VNS) in 1908, Pavel Ivanovich became one of its leading ideologists. He also took an active part in the activities of the All-Russian National Club (VNK) - a cultural, educational and political organization created to promote the ideas of Russian nationalism. Within the framework of the VNK, P. I. Kovalevsky repeatedly made presentations, was a member of the editorial board of the Izvestia of the All-Russian National Club, and for some time was the chairman of the VNK publishing commission.

According to P. I. Kovalevsky, the VNS was called upon to “warm up national feeling among the masses of the dark people” and “destroy the depraved indifference and denationalism” of the educated classes. At the same time, Pavel Ivanovich saw the composition of the National Assembly as quite broad, although not unlimited: “The National Party will only be national when it is popular. It will include ... the intelligentsia and the people - the basis of the nation - as well as other nationalities ... this party will be followed not only by the Orthodox, but also by Catholics, Mohammedans - and Russians, and Poles, and Armenians, and Tatars ... ". He also emphasized that the Russian people have the right to “be proud of our nation within their own state”, “because we can boldly say to the eyes of all our subjects that we defeated them, but did not destroy them. We have preserved their religion, their language, their manners and customs.” The view of P. I. Kovalevsky on the revolution of 1905 was also very characteristic: the Russian revolution, he emphasized, “is not Russian, but foreign, because this revolution is nothing but a revolt of foreigners ... against Russia and the Russian people”.

Soon, P. I. Kovalevsky established himself as a recognized theorist of Russian nationalism, who gave the most exhaustive formulations of the basic concepts of this ideology. In his opinion, the nation (from the love of which healthy nationalism actually follows) is a phenomenon of a common language, faith and destiny. And such a community, the scientist believed, was formed among the Russians by the end of the 9th century. And although Tatar yoke called into question the sovereignty of the Russian nation, and the Time of Troubles threatened the complete elimination of the Russian state, the Russian nation was reborn in early XVII century and occupied a leading position among the most prominent nations of the world. At the same time, Pavel Ivanovich emphasized that it is necessary to distinguish between the existence of a nation and its formation, to see the historical conditioning of the features of a nation.

Thus, the scientist wrote, a nation is "a certain group of people, united by a single territory, a single faith, a single language, common physical and mental properties, one culture and one destinies." However, P. I. Kovalevsky believed, among the listed conditions that make up a nation, some are mandatory, while others are conditional. It is quite characteristic that, like many nationalists of the early 20th century, Pavel Ivanovich believed that optional the conditions for the formation of a nation are territory, religion and language, while he believed the physical and mental properties of the people, their culture and historical destinies to be the conditions obligatory.

As for such a concept as “nationality”, it was interpreted by P. I. Kovalevsky as “a collection of properties and qualities inherent in a particular nation”, and distinguishing it from other nations. But to determine the relationship between the concepts of "nation" and "people" P. I. Kovalevsky, unfortunately, did not really succeed. As the modern researcher D. A. Kotsyubinsky rightly notes, the interpretation proposed by Pavel Ivanovich was internally contradictory and logically indigestible. According to his interpretation, “it is the people, their mass, that gives the essence and basis of the nation, for the intelligentsia and the enlightened part of the Russian people are more than half made up of foreigners of the non-Russian nation”, therefore, the characteristic features of the nation are given by the common people, and if the nation is a “military institution”, “founded by the sword and living by the sword” of peasants and soldiers, then the people are the state.

As noted by a modern researcher of the work of P. I. Kovalevsky, a well-known patriot politician A. N. Savelyev, Russian nationalism according to P. I. Kovalevsky is “a saving means of reuniting nationality and citizenship, a means of becoming a modern political nation, in which patriotism must give way Russian nationalism, and the parochial "nationalism" of the non-Russian indigenous peoples of Russia - develop into Russian patriotism. For the existence of Russia, a general civil understanding is important that Russia was created by Russian people, and Russian nationalism is the nationalism of a great nation, which, of course, must be educated and ascend to higher forms, outliving the dark element of the people. Other nationalisms in Russia may be worthy of respect if combined with loyalty and fidelity to the Russian state. From here arises the formula and hierarchy of the empire, which is an alliance of friendly nationalisms under the primacy, leadership and patronage of Russian nationalists. Not only the Russian, but also the Slavic community can exist only under Russian leadership. For for the world and world history, Slavdom is perceived only through Russians and Russian history ... Russian nationalism opposes Russian solidarity to the vile undertakings of the liberals, which draws into its orbit all the patriots of Russia - even if they are non-Russian by blood.

“Nationalism,” wrote P. I. Kovalevsky in one of his works, “is a manifestation of respect, love and devotion to self-sacrifice, in the present - respect and reverence for the past and the desire for prosperity, glory, power and success in the future - that nation, the people to which the person belongs. And in the book “The Significance of Nationalism in the Modern Movement of the Balkan Slavs” (1913), he developed the concept of nationalism as follows: “Nationalism is the essence of the life of a nation - it is a manifestation of that inner being of a nation, by virtue of which its individual members gravitate towards each other, help each other friend, carry their lives for the benefit of their community and live in its glory and greatness.

P. I. Kovalevsky, speaking of nationalism, noted that the latter consists of national consciousness and national feeling. Under national feeling the scientist understood the "unconscious attraction and heartfelt attraction of people of one nation to each other," that is, an unconscious, instinctive, and therefore organic phenomenon. National identity However, Pavel Ivanovich emphasized, “there is an act of thinking, by virtue of which a given person recognizes himself as a part of his native whole, goes under his protection and carries himself to the defense of his native, whole, his nation.” And if the national feeling is a “lower, animal manifestation,” then national self-consciousness is a “higher, spiritual, intelligent” manifestation.

At the same time, being aware that nationalism as an ideology was borrowed from the West (which many nationalists did not hide, noting that the growing popularity of nationalism is a phenomenon of the latest European development), P. I. Kovalevsky was in a hurry, in order to avoid reproaches in " Westernism” and imitation, to make a reservation that Russian nationalism has its own specifics. Pavel Ivanovich saw the main difference between Russian nationalism and its European "brother" in the more active role of the government, led by P. A. Stolypin, in the development and implementation of the national idea: i.e. as in Europe - allocated by A. Ivanov), but from top to bottom"; thanks to which, wrote P. I. Kovalevsky, Russian nationalism should be qualified not as mechanically imitative "Westernism", but as "a living, natural phenomenon." Proving the “genuine progressiveness” of nationalism, Pavel Ivanovich nevertheless emphasized that nationalism is still a kind of conservatism, but “healthy” conservatism, that is, providing creative activity.

Analyzing in detail in his works such concepts as “nationalism”, “nation”, “national feeling”, “national self-consciousness”, P. I. Kovalevsky could not help but dwell on the phrase “Russian nationalists”, already vilified by the “progressive public” .

"Russian nationalists" are cannibals... that's what foreigners who hate Russia and wish her harm say. So say some Russians or those who sold their souls to the enemies of the fatherland, or people who are uneducated, stupid, ”wrote Pavel Ivanovich in one of his most famous works “Russian Nationalism and National Education”. “Russian nationalists” are people who truly love their homeland and their nation with all their hearts, respect its past and wish it glory, power and greatness in the future.” At the same time, P. I. Kovalevsky noted further, “these were purely Russians and Russians from foreigners, like Tsitsianov, Chavchavadze and many others. They devoted their entire lives to the service of the motherland and belonged undividedly to it. But only such Russians have the right to be called Russians, sons of Great Russia, and enjoy all the rights of Russian citizens. Those Russians who dare to slander their mother Russia, who wish her harm, who decide, while living in her, to act to her detriment - these are no longer Russians. These are the enemies of Russia ... Russia is for Russians - in the broadest sense of the word.

Defending further the priority rights of Russians (in the broad sense of the word) in the Russian state, P. I. Kovalevsky noted that they stem from the “right of blood” shed by our ancestors; property rights, "arising from the costs of our ancestors" and "the rights of the historical fate of the motherland ...".

It should be noted that in the broad circles of the Russian intelligentsia, the authority of Kovalevsky the historian was quite high. His historical and journalistic works, such as "Peoples of the Caucasus", "Conquest of the Caucasus by Russia", "History of Little Russia", "History of Russia from a national point of view", "Russian nationalism and national education in Russia", "Fundamentals of Russian nationalism", " Science, Christ and His Teaching”, “John the Terrible and His State of Mind”, “Psychology of the Russian Nation. Youth education. Alexander III - Tsar-Nationalist" enjoyed great reader interest and withstood more than one edition in pre-revolutionary Russia. At the same time, Pavel Ivanovich was one of the first to use historical analysis for the development of practical psychiatry. His famous "Psychiatric sketches from history", combining the rigor and reliability of analysis, ease of style, originality and imagery of presentation, using specific examples from the life of Ivan the Terrible, Peter III, Mohammed, Joan of Arc, Paul I, Napoleon, Cambyses, Ludwig II, Emanuel Swedenborg and others reveal the dynamics of various mental states, show the role of the environment and heredity in the genesis and clinical course of diseases. It should be emphasized that the essays written by P. I. Kovalevsky at the beginning of the 20th century are still relevant today. Very often the fate of a people, a state depends on the will and character of the leader who is at the head of this people or state.

But of particular interest in the context of this article is the work of P. I. Kovalevsky "History of Russia from a national point of view." Although this work of a psychiatrist does not pretend to be a serious scientific work, it is notable for the fact that P.I. Kovalevsky, in contrast to the indifference to his native past that was gaining strength, tried to consider its history with love for his people. “I don’t dare at all,” he wrote in the preface to the book, “to write new story Russia. My desire is to try to consider the events of our history from a national point of view. The final conclusion of P. I. Kovalevsky’s “History ...” is also noteworthy: “The main essence of the Russian people is that the Russians are Slavs, a completely original and original people. His being is completely different from that of the Western peoples. It is united by a mutual national connection, ancestral and natural, saving each other and all together, connected in times of adversity and hard times. His faith is the Orthodox faith, for it is in his spirit, in his being, in his Slavic nature. This people must inevitably have at its head a tsar, a tsar of one faith with the people, a tsar-father who rules in this great Slavic family like a good father in any family, a master tsar, guardian of the integrity of the entire Russian state, the entire Russian family. Orthodoxy, autocracy and monocracy there are the main features, the foundations of the life of the Russian people. It should be clarified that by “monocracy” the scientist understood the confession of the idea “that the Russian land under no circumstances can be divided, reduced in volume, or dissected into its component parts from which it originated” .

For P.I. Kovalevsky, the ideal of the Russian tsar was Emperor Alexander III, whose main merit was that “he was the father of his people. This tsar knew his people, understood their spirit, lived according to their needs and loved them… He was truly a Russian people’s tsar, a nationalist tsar.” "He was flesh from the flesh of the Slavic people and blood from the blood of the Slavic nation".

As can be seen from the above quotes, P. I. Kovalevsky represented a kind of integral Slavic nation, with the development of which he linked his hopes for a happy future for all of Europe, if not all of humanity. So, in one of his works, a nationalist professor wrote: “Now the European peoples hate us. They surpass us with their knowledge, their technical and other improvements. But true perfection consists in the development of the greatest morality, the crown of which is: love, mercy, compassion and self-sacrifice - but, - P.I. Kovalevsky noted further, - I believe that the moment will come when all European peoples will achieve this degree of moral perfection. Then they will understand us. Then they will see that the Slavs, who carried in their lives the great and heavy cross, a symbol of suffering and redemption, a symbol of the teachings of the God-man, shed their blood not because of material benefits, but in the name of their national morality. And then the second prophecy will be fulfilled. The Slavs will conquer the world. And then all human national streams will merge into the Slavic sea. And the Slavs will win not with fire and sword, but with love, mercy, compassion and self-sacrifice. Then freedom, equality and fraternity will reign under Slavic symbol Cross, the symbol of the Divine Teacher Christ.

However, although P. I. Kovalevsky was a consistent defender of the famous triad of Count S. S. Uvarov "Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality", the idea of ​​a nationality-nation, as for most Russian nationalists (not to be confused with the Black Hundreds monarchists, who looked at the nationalists as "heretics" who cover up Western nationalist ideas with monarchist and Orthodox ideology) stood in his main place. “... Outside the nationality, there is no art, no truth, no life, there is nothing!”, - considered P. I. Kovalevsky. From the above quotes, it is clear that Orthodoxy and monarchy were understood by Pavel Ivanovich not as values ​​in themselves, but as forms of faith and power that were most suitable for the Russian people. That is, P. I. Kovalevsky considered them through the prism of nationalism, believing that they stem from the national properties of the Russian people, and not vice versa. At the same time, the very value of the institution of an autocratic monarchy seemed to Pavel Ivanovich rather arbitrary: “A unified autocratic power in Russia follows directly from the nature of the national properties of the Russian people. From the organic inability of the Slavs to unite in themselves and self-government. “Autocracy in Russia is an organic national need, without which Russia cannot exist. for the time being", - he noted in one of his works.

As regards the teaching Orthodox Church P. I. Kovalevsky allowed himself free judgments and interpretations bordering on heresy. In particular, for the views on the Old Testament he set out in the brochure “The Bible and Morality” (1906), the scientist almost turned out to be an exiled settler - the censorship committee recognized the book as criminal, and put its author on trial for “blasphemy and insulting the shrine”. The court, however, acquitted P. I. Kovalevsky, not finding sacrilege in the essay, and the pamphlet subsequently withstood as many as 14 editions. However, as regards the decision of the court to release the pamphlet from arrest, and not to sanction the author, it does not at all speak of the “impartiality, intelligence and honesty of our judges”, as Pavel Ivanovich himself believed, but rather indicates that “those who tried him brochure, lawyers, armed with knowledge of the laws ... [were] completely ignorant of the relationship between the Old and New Testaments, accidentally turned out to be indifferent people and as ignorant in these matters as the professor himself. In this essay, P. I. Kovalevsky sharply criticized Old Testament, considering it sacred only for the Jews, and allowed himself attacks unacceptable for a Christian against the God of Israel and the Old Testament prophets. The conclusion of the pamphlet was that Jehovah and Christ are two different Gods, and the Sacred History of the Old Testament is not Sacred History for Christians. Based on this, a political conclusion was made: “ A people whose religion sanctifies and encourages theft and fraud has no right to expect equal rights with peoples whose religion considers these acts to be crimes.» . We believe that there is no need to dwell on this opus of Pavel Ivanovich, because almost every quote from it will border on blasphemy, although the professor himself, who considered himself a Christian, apparently did not understand this. He set aside for himself New Testament from the Old and in exaltation of the teachings of Christ, he began to criticize all the deeds of God the Father, whom he considered too far from the ideal of the Christian God, and the Old Testament Jewish people, including Moses, King David and other righteous people. “I always thought,” P.I. Kovalevsky wrote, “that there is nothing sacred in it (the Holy History of the Old Testament) - its examples are not worthy of imitation, - you can read it only in order not to do as it is written there, - and reading the Bible is immoral and corrupting.

We should recall the words of the authoritative church and monarchist figure, Archbishop Nikon (Rozhdestvensky), who revealed in his article “The Word of Truth to Our Anti-Semitic Patriots” this misconception so common in the patriotic environment: “For a long time, conscience demanded to say a word of truth to our venerable patriots in defense of the holy Bible ... Yes, you have to not just say, but shout to some of them: “Do not touch the Bible, do not touch our Holy Scriptures, in which we believers see and know only the word of God! ... Our patriots do not spare even Abraham, whom the Apostle calls" friend of God,” nor David, whom the Church calls the “Godfather,” that is, the forefather of the Lord Jesus Christ Himself, nor other great patriarchs and holy men of the Old Testament, whom our zealous anti-Semites do not hesitate to put on a par with modern “Kids” and attribute to them the same qualities that are observed in modern, God-rejected Jews. To tell the truth: it becomes scary for these respectable people who embark on a sea of ​​interpretation of the Scriptures without a helmsman and allow themselves to boldly treat the Holy Scriptures as with the most ordinary book ... Unfortunately ... our patriots do not write random articles in newspapers, they only show it in speeches such a frivolous attitude to the Bible, but they write entire books ... All this happens because they do not want to put a sharp line, set by God himself, between the Old Testament Jew and the modern Jew, a descendant of the crucifiers and the sworn enemy of our Lord Jesus Christ.

It should be noted that it was the Black Hundreds who gave a rebuke to the pamphlet of P.I. Kovalevsky. The Moscow monarchist newspaper Kolokol, published by the prominent church missionary V. M. Skvortsov, published a special pamphlet by a certain Elizabeth Geptner, containing criticism of the religious views of P. I. Kovalevsky. As the pamphlet rightly noted, "the sympathy of many even well-meaning people enjoys the fashionable delusion and extremely seductive tendency that a Christian does not need to believe in the sacred books of the Jewish people", and that it is a mistake to believe that the books of the Old Testament "are created by the national Jewish genius and can be considered as national Jewish books. Based further on the interpretation of the Old Testament by the authoritative Church Fathers, the author easily smashed all the arguments of P. I. Kovalevsky and, not without reason, accused the scientist (by the way, who graduated from the seminary with honors in his time) of “self-conceit and proud self-delusion”. Therefore, when modern authors, carried away, write that “for Professor P. I. Kovalevsky there was no other formula for the Russian idea, except Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality", it must be remembered that P.I. Kovalevsky's view of the first for a member of the Uvarov triad was peculiar and differed from the views of orthodox Russian monarchists.

"Russia for the Russians" - this formula of Alexander III in the works of Professor P.I. Kovalevsky is revealed and substantiated. To the chagrin of slanderers who are looking for a reason to accuse the Russian national movement of all sins, “Russia for Russians” acts as the most promising formula for statehood not only for Russians themselves (we share P. I. Kovalevsky’s confidence that Russians are a trinity of Great Russians, Little Russians and Belarusians ), but also for the non-Russian peoples of Russia, connected with the Russians by a common destiny. Pavel Ivanovich perfectly saw the diversity of “Russianness”, which today we sometimes stop noticing, reducing Russian exclusively to generic characteristics. In "Russianness" there is unity in the Orthodox faith, there is unity in the memory of the greatness of Russia, there is unity in the Russian language and Russian culture, in love for the Fatherland, there is a connection of Russians in the space of the Russian world - not only holders of citizenship Russian Federation but also compatriots.

For Professor P. I. Kovalevsky there was no other formula for the Russian idea, except Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationality. Taking a lesson in intellectual honesty and scientific depth from an outstanding thinker and the greatest Russian scientist, we must assimilate this formula and be imbued with it to the very depths of our souls. To save Russia from non-existence, which has come so close that the imminent death of the Fatherland and the dissolution of the Russian people in the waves of migration no longer surprise or frighten many. We should be afraid only of this - the death of our Motherland, the extinction of the Russian family. In the Russian idea of ​​Russian thinkers of the early 20th century, we have a detailed ideological doctrine with which we will save Russia and continue our race until the end of time.

The best national qualities of the people can be strengthened through the awareness of the unity of language, faith, traditions, beliefs, the unity of physical and mental qualities and culture, as well as a common historical destiny. Reading the works of P. I. Kovalevsky and projecting them to the present day, you understand that the main conditions for the revival of the deformed Russian soul are the restoration of its dignity, catholicity and unity, the elimination of feelings of inferiority, enlightened nationalism and patriotism. Standing up for enlightened healthy nationalism, P. I. Kovalevsky, as noted above, argues: “Nationalism is a manifestation of respect, love and devotion to self-sacrifice in the present, respect and reverence for the past and the desire for prosperity, glory, power in the future of that nation the people to which the person belongs. Speaking about the dignity of Russia and Russians, Pavel Ivanovich raises the question of national equality and the national infringement and subsequent humiliation of Russians that was planned in the 20th century: “... Russia is a great and powerful state, and Russians are its worthy sons with honor ... Russia - its subjects. They can be equal to us only insofar as they deserve it with their devotion and readiness to serve Russia, as her real, true children.

It is rightly noted that P. I. Kovalevsky, a classic of Russian ethno-political science, distinguishes between the concepts of “nationalism” and “patriotism”: “It is clear: nationalism and patriotism are not the same thing. Rather, patriotism is a more general concept, while nationalism is a more particular concept. In each state there can be only one patriotism and several nationalisms. One of the cornerstone internal foundations on which the strength is based, the vitality of the state is also growing stronger, one of the powerful strongholds that preserve its integrity and well-being is the people's love for their Fatherland, people's patriotism. At the same time, Pavel Ivanovich distinguishes between different types of nationalism (folk, bureaucratic, Christian, which has an industrial-labor, production character, etc.).

A great place in the works of P. I. Kovalevsky is occupied by reflections on the education of patriotism, which should begin with instilling love for one's village, one's land on the basis of studying their traditions and culture. Patriotic feelings and beliefs are reinforced by knowledge native history, her victories, outstanding figures and heroes. Moreover, the history of Russian and Russian heroes, which will protect Russia from foreignness and admiration for the West.

The students of P. I. Kovalevsky were: E. I. Andruzsky, Z. V. Gutnikov, M. N. Popov (professor in Tomsk), N. I. Mukhin (professor in Warsaw, Kharkov), D. B. Frank ( professor in Dnepropetrovsk), I. Ya. Platonov, Ya. Ya. Trutovsky, N. V. Krainsky (professor in Warsaw, Belgrade), A. I. Yushchenko (professor in Warsaw, Vinnitsa, St. on-Don, Kharkov, later Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR), A. A. Govseev and many others.

A student of Pavel Ivanovich, Professor N. V. Krainsky rightly writes in the introduction to his work “Corruption, hysterics and possessed” warm words addressed to Pavel Ivanovich: “I dedicate this clinical essay to my dear and highly respected teacher, Professor Pavel Ivanovich Kovalevsky, on day 25 -year anniversary of his scientific and practical activities. At the same time, I consider it my duty to declare that I, like most of the numerous students of Pavel Ivanovich, scattered throughout Russia and serving in Russian psychiatry in the departments of universities, in government and zemstvo hospitals, are deeply convinced that in everything that I will be able to do on For the benefit of science and for the benefit of the many mentally ill people passing through my hands, I am wholly indebted to those strictly scientific and humane principles which we have always heard from our teacher. With deep respect and gratitude, I remember that strict scientific discipline which has always been hallmark school of Pavel Ivanovich, and his unconditional, devoid of any indulgence demand from his students to fulfill their duty, while not allowing any compromises with their convictions and conscience, greatly facilitates his students the difficult task of fighting in the practical activities and life of Russian psychiatrists.

As a student of Pavel Ivanovich; I - ten years after he left the position where the best years of his activity passed, where the personality of Pavel Ivanovich developed and formed as a figure and scientist - I had the honor to enter this psychiatric institution as a doctor, and later to hold the position of my teacher. Here I could see how colossally fruitful was the work and energy that Pavel Ivanovich put into the business. Despite all sorts of perversions to which everything done by Pavel Ivanovich was subjected, despite the most unsightly distortions of his activities by some individuals, even the ten-year anarchy of the Saburova dacha did not smooth his ideas and principles (emphasis added by the author - P.P.). The same Saburova dacha convinced me that sooner or later a true assessment of the activity will not be long in coming, and I publicly affirm that, 12 years after Pavel Ivanovich left the Saburova dacha, I heard words of justice and honor addressed to his activities from his side personal enemies and enemies, and the highest praise is difficult to achieve. I do not grieve that Russian life, society - everything except the impartial field of science - lost Pavel Ivanovich too early, as an energetic figure in the struggle of life. This is the common lot of major figures in public life.. Pure science and practical psychiatry, in the person of Pavel Ivanovich's numerous students, will show Russian society that his principles and teachings will not be stifled by the thorns with which Russian, especially Zemstvo, psychiatric activity is so full. I think that if we weigh the successes that Russian psychiatry is obliged to P. I. Kovalevsky, who was one of the first to remove the chains from the insane in Russia, - from the impossible clinical Saburova dacha, he set up, although temporarily, an exemplary institution, founded the first Russian psychiatric journal, created in a short time a numerous school of students, and until recently, with his brilliant lectures, attracts recruits to the ranks of Russian psychiatrists - moreover, he did all this completely alone, without help, rather with interference from many, then you will have to recognize the situation, "that there is one warrior in the field."

I am glad that at present, Pavel Ivanovich, far from the struggle of life, will continue to lead Russian psychiatry for a long time to come, devoting all his time to pure science and, like an ideal clinician, will supplement us with his brilliant compositions that his students used to hear through the living words in the clinic. If the official Fatherland does not always appreciate its leaders, then you just need to remember whether there can be the highest award for a scientist and clinician, when he is no longer in his former toga of the rector and state dignitary, but in the form of a modest private person - he sees every week at his lectures in the solemn hall of the university - a large crowd, honest, alien to extraneous considerations and, nevertheless, the most severe judges. In this, and not in the toga of a state dignitary, I see that highest award and crown with which the anniversary of the 25-year scientific activity of my dear teacher is crowned.

It should be emphasized that zemstvo medicine played a significant role in the development of medical deontology in our country. From the very beginning of its development, zemstvo psychiatry had a clinical basis and a social orientation. This orientation allows us to say that the emergence of social psychiatry and the rehabilitation of the mentally ill began in our country as early as late XIX century. At the same time, attention is drawn to the combination of a truly humane attitude towards the fate of the patient, the invariable respect for the dignity of his personality and the desire to use the remaining mental abilities for the highest possible social readaptation. An example is the statements of P. I. Kovalevsky, who is rightfully considered an outstanding humanist doctor. In the repeatedly reprinted Guide to the Proper Care of the Mentally Ill, he wrote: “The treatment of patients in the hospital should always be humane, gentle, meek and patient. First of all, it is necessary to gain the confidence of your patients; but they acquire it only by warm participation, patience, affectionate treatment, fulfillment of reasonable desires, readiness to do good and strict justice in relation to all patients. Lies, deceit and cunning have no place in dealing with these patients. They are too sensitive even to artificiality and really dislike a person who pretends to be only kind..

Pavel Ivanovich's instructions, made by him long before the very concept of "medical deontology" appeared, can serve as excellent illustrations of the proper medical attitude towards patients in psychiatry. In the same Handbook, he wrote: “Just as a good surgeon probes a wound only as a last resort, so a good psychiatrist should touch the patient’s mental wound only in the name of research”. P. I. Kovalevsky emphasized that “the main task in this case is to give this person the means of subsistence, restore his independence, inspire him with the trust of the society in whose environment he enters as a member.” The cited "Guide" provides for almost everything that doctors need to do, realizing the care that the patient can more easily and fully return to life outside the hospital: from how to feed and clothe him, and to how to simplify the resolution of administrative and legal issues arising after discharge from the hospital, and provide the necessary social and medical assistance to the patient.

It is noteworthy that the organizing committee for the preparations for the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the Kharkiv City Clinical Psychiatric Hospital No. 15 (Saburova Dacha), with the full approval of the scientific and practical psychiatric community of the region, decided to make a bas-relief depicting a portrait of Professor P. I. Kovalevsky on one side of the commemorative jubilee medal dedicated to the aforementioned significant event in the history of Ukrainian medicine, which was done.

On the eve of the revolution, P. I. Kovalevsky taught a course in forensic psychopathology at the law faculty of Petrograd University. About how he took the February, and then October revolution ideologue of Russian nationalism, we do not know. It is only known that after the revolution, the elderly professor P. I. Kovalevsky, as a highly qualified physician, was mobilized into the Red Army as the chief doctor of a military detachment (already in exile, in a private letter to a former fellow party member, Metropolitan Evlogy (Georgievsky), P. I. Kovalevsky wrote that the Reds forced him to this cooperation). After the end of the Civil War until 1924, the scientist worked, as mentioned above, as a senior doctor in the psychiatric and nervous department of the Nikolaev hospital in Petrograd and even consulted the seriously ill V. I. Lenin, who was the first to determine his progressive paralysis.

This moment became a turning point in his life. In 1924, Pavel Ivanovich almost died as a result of persecution from Soviet authorities, but in December 1924, having somehow received permission to travel abroad, P.I. Kovalevsky left the USSR. The rest of his life he lived in the small Belgian resort town of Spa, in the province of Liege in Wallonia, continuing to engage in scientific and journalistic activities. In 1925, the professor wrote to Metropolitan Evlogy with a proposal to read a course in psychology at the St. Sergius Orthodox Theological Institute in Paris, but, apparently, Pavel Ivanovich did not have to return to teaching. The emigrant period of P. I. Kovalevsky’s life is very little known, and this letter allows researchers to expand the knowledge of researchers about the author’s stay in Belgium. This outstanding scientist, an outstanding psychiatrist, publicist, public figure, a staunch Russian nationalist and, without any doubt, a patriot who wished his Fatherland and people only good, died on October 17, 1931 in Liege (Belgium).

Thus, P. I. Kovalevsky made a significant contribution to the development of domestic scientific and practical psychiatry, including the Kharkov psychiatric school, and other disciplines. Without a doubt, the biography and scientific heritage of Pavel Ivanovich need further careful study, especially his Ukrainian period of life and scientific work.

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Note

1. The author, being a psychiatrist by profession, did not aim in this work to assess the political views of the hero of the day, but only cites his works on this issue and cites critical statements on some of them by other researchers.