And now let's see what a new type of man, the creator of the industrial world, was like and whether he was happy. The new society, of course, gave him not only material benefits, but also the feeling of being a free autonomous person: he could choose religion, political views, a profession at his own discretion, he had the right to property, prosperity and a career, regardless of origin. And these numerous rights were firmly protected by laws and democratic institutions.

And at the same time, as many authoritative authors have noted, industrial society seeks to dominate each individual, who, paradoxically, becomes even more unfree than before, despite democracy. In this regard, it is not accidental, but rather natural that totalitarianism has become one of the bitter fruits of industrial civilization. It became possible in the era of belief in the omnipotence of social engineering - a planned, rational restructuring of society, when a person, without noticing it, gradually turned into a part of a production and state machine, losing the ability to independently think and make decisions. Genuine totalitarian regimes, like the Stalinist regime in Russia, are considered by modern sociologists to be undesirable and unproductive, but entirely possible variants of a planned mass society. However, totalitarianism in a softened, veiled form can also be present in the most democratic states. This was pointed out, in particular, by E. Fromm: “We do not notice that we have become victims of a new kind of power. We have turned into robots, but we live under the illusion that we are independent individuals ... The individual lives in a world with which he has lost all true connections, in which everything and everyone is instrumentalized; and he himself became part of a machine of his own making. He knows what thoughts, what feelings, what desires others expect from him, and he thinks, feels and desires in accordance with these expectations, while losing his "I" ... ".

The main criterion for assessing a person in an industrial society is his compliance with the requirements of the system, the ability to perform certain functions. Everything that deviates from the given patterns of behavior is suppressed. Total supervision and "coverage" of a person who appears to society, first of all, as an employee, begins from the school bench and continues on, in all areas of his activity, where he has to constantly prove his suitability and effectiveness. As a result, a person regresses, his soul is “reified”, individuality is emasculated. This is how a “man of the masses” appears, whom G. Marcuse called “one-dimensional”, and D. Riesman called “a man-locator”: he ceases to be himself, lives and acts in accordance with generally accepted standards and, what is saddest, needs to be imposed from outside stereotypes, i.e., in essence, imperceptibly loses freedom and even ceases to need it. Such a person has nothing permanent: no tradition, no culture, no religion, no morality. Goals and values ​​are constantly changing - depending on the people you have to focus on, because the main motto is "I am the way you need me." All that is constant is dependence on others and the search for the approval of society, as well as anxiety, self-doubt, the desire to defeat competitors, restlessness and endless loneliness. All this leads to an identity crisis, to the absence of permanent attachments, a stable "I", to the atrophy of the emotional sphere.

As a result, having received, it would seem, all the opportunities for self-realization, the development of one's creative powers, a person found himself in slavish dependence on his own egoism, embodied in a society where "general consumption" and "entertainment industry" triumphed.

Let us sum up the results of the analysis of industrialism. The industrial society optimally corresponded to the fourth stage of the development of creation. It opened the widest prospects for the realization of all desires of an egoistic nature: physical, bodily - at the expense of technical progress; desires for wealth, fame and power - thanks to democratic freedoms and liberal values; thirst for knowledge - due to the rapid development of science, the attitude towards which has acquired the character of a cult. And, finally, a person got for some time the opportunity to feel like a sovereign master, a “god” in that artificial world that he created with his own hands, and which egoistic perception painted for him. This artificial technological universe was mistaken for the real world, the laws invented by the egoistic consciousness were extrapolated to Nature, although in reality they more and more came into conflict with it. A society built on such fragile and “wrong” foundations could not last long. However, its influence on the world reached enormous proportions, drawing into the fourth stage those countries in which collectivist principles and religious norms still continued to restrain the development of egoism.

The Western model of society penetrated in waves to the most remote corners of the planet. A large role in this process was played by colonial policy: its result was the formation of a capitalist world-system, at the beginning of the 20th century. covering most of the planet. By 1914, Europeans or former European colonies controlled 84% of the land surface. In 1900, the British Empire, on which the sun never set, stretched over 11 million square miles and consisted of 390 million people.

Presentation - Identification

Presentation and identification are two complementary ways of human interaction with modern society.

Identification is a person's attempt to find his place (his Self) within existing institutions, structures, groups. Presentation is the creation and acting out of the image of oneself that a person wants to present to others. Identification and presentation can be different in the same person.

The individual who presents himself in front of others…perhaps wants to make them feel good about himself, or so that they think he has a good opinion of them, or so that they understand what his real feelings are towards them, or so that they do not get any definite impression. ... Therefore, when an individual finds himself in the company of others, he usually also has reasons ... to make a [necessary for him] impression on them. For example, if girlfriends in a college dorm judge a girl's popularity by the number of calls to the phone, it's possible to suspect that some girls will start making such phone calls on purpose.

Hoffman I. 2000. S. 35.

The way politicians are presented depends on the political demand that takes place in a given territory. The rules for fulfilling the role of a public politician are determined by society. Any social action the future deputy requires taking into account all the expectations of other people. And a person strives to play the one for whom they take him.

Kimerling A.S. 2002. S. 34.

"Identity"[as a term] is intended to emphasize the unstable, multifaceted, changeable and fragmented nature of the modern self.

Brubaker R., Cooper F. 2002. P.75.

It may be necessary for a person to identify himself - to characterize, position in relation to already famous people, determine your place in [the world]… In modern conditions facilitating a variety of contacts with people outside the sphere of personal acquaintance, such cases of identification are especially common. They include daily life situations as well as more formal and formal contexts; identification of self and others is fundamentally situational and contextual.

Brubaker R., Cooper F. 2002. P.85.

"Self-understanding" ... [is] a sense of who you are, social belonging and, as a derivative of the first two, a readiness for a certain kind of action.

Brubaker R., Cooper F. 2002. P.89.

Cold Friday evening, rainy and windy. You're not dressed for the weather, for a party. Finally, you stood in a long line of people who wanted to get into the club. The bouncer, or as he prefers to be called, the guard closes the way to you and your friends with his hand. He throws a glance at you and remains dissatisfied with your age. All you have is money. But this is not enough (or, more rarely, you do not have the required amount). In everyday situations such as this, a person's identity is at first unclear, but then determined. But identification is not always so simple or so trivial. It can shake the foundations of our lives.

Jenkins R. 2004. P. 1-2.

... a person is determined by the comedies he plays no less than by the sincere impulses of the soul. We are talking about feelings that are inaccessible to us in all depth; but they are partially reflected in actions, in attitudes of consciousness...

Camus A. 189. S. 229.

Karl Radek [in his autobiography] saw himself as a figure of general European significance, was a secretary of the Comintern, and described his life as a series of metamorphoses that faithfully brought him closer to his present state, being the result of conscious work and many insights, but also of luck. The life lived is described ... as a series of changing ethno-cultural identities: a Galician Jew - a reader of German classics - a Polish nationalist and a Catholic - a Swiss student - an Austrian citizen - a German journalist - a Russian emigrant.

Etkind A. 2005. P. 61.

Subculture

A subculture is a stable, independent model of the behavior of a group of people, in its own way embodying the values ​​and norms of an industrial (big) culture.

Subcultures, like social movements, are involved in a confrontation between cultural reproduction, social integration and socialization; they tend to focus on lifestyle, self-actualization, and identity formation.

Hanfler R. 2004. P. 422.

The society that has come to replace the traditional one offers [a person] a large selection of approved careers - official and unofficial. The desire for respect or honor can [realize] both inside and outside the institutional structure of society. Restrictions social status in education, at work or in family life can be offset by active participation ... in subcultures that provide temporary social acceptance.

Heinz W.R., Krüger H. 2001. P. 35.

People "capture" a subculture through the use and display of its corresponding set of artifacts. I use the term "carriers" to refer to those who share a given subculture or part of it. Importantly, these groups are distinguished on the basis of participation in the cultural presentation, [rather than social status].

Enfield N.J. 2000. R. 47.

... subcultures are largely constructed by the media, members of subcultures acquire a sense of freedom from society in the form in which it is presented by the media.

Bennett A. 1999. P. 604.

… this kind of subculture interests us the most. Specific clothing, style, teddy boy, mod, rocker or skinhead issues separate them, on the one hand, from each other, and, on the other hand, from the more general culture of working-class boys as a whole. Through their clothes, actions, lifestyle, they can give different, from the point of view of culture, answers to the problems posed by their social class position. At the same time, participation in one or another subculture does not fence them off from the problems of a more general “parental” culture. Thus, the subculture remains fixed in relation to the mainstream culture.

Hall St., Jefferson T. 2000. p. 151.

To ourselves, we may think that our clothes express ourselves, but in fact, they express at the same time the environment of our environment, like advertising, pop music, light fiction, reading, second-rate films. This is how it happens on a… non-intellectual, purely instinctive level. Clothing style also serves as an indicator of lifestyle and as such refers to subconscious values ​​...

Break M. 2000. S. 152.

Middle class

The middle class is a group of people in an industrial society that most fully expresses its values, norms and ideas. The lifestyle of a middle class person continuing education(training), a permanent, well-paid job, a family, home comforts, entertainment and recreation.

E.O. Wright (Classes, 1985) divides people into classes according to the resources they have or control. The main difference is between those who have property (i.e. sources of income such as factories, government securities, stocks) and those who do not ... in your own small business). The non-owner classes are the working class and the middle classes. Classes of non-owners differ according to whether they control the production process or are engaged in independent, highly skilled activities in the workplace. Those who have at least one of these characteristics belong to the middle classes.

Baum S. 2002. P. 354.

As a result of differences in income, people belonging to the lower and middle classes undoubtedly differ from each other in their views on life, material conditions of life and life experience, but they often do not have a conscious idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthese different views and their class basis.

Mills Ch. 1959. S. 60.

The terms "entrepreneur" and "official" are terms that evoke ideas about people from the middle classes ... When one speaks of a classical type of entrepreneur, it is assumed that in the course of running his enterprise he risks not only his invested money, but his entire career ...

Mills Ch. 1959. S. 155.

The successful middle class is required to master the prestigious status culture; what is provided good knowledge the culture of his company, the culture of the area [in which he lives] and ethnic characteristics. Just as schoolchildren switch codes [behavior] when they run into the classroom from the street, ... middle-class adults learn to "switch culture" when moving from one social environment to another. Such individuals have many styles... but they use them selectively with different people and under different conditions. (A middle-class man married to an office worker should have an understanding of sports and rock music [for conversations] at work; discuss politics and healthy eating with friends of his wife; and to instill admiration for Brahms and Picasso in his son and daughter.)

DiMaggio P. 1987. P. 445.

Outcasts

Outcasts - a group of people who do not belong to stable social and cultural institutions, do not accept / deny common ideals.

If a person finds it very difficult to call himself anyone, he is a nobody, a marginal, without a name and a place in life.

Batygin G.S. 1995, p. 104.

My main hypothesis is that deviant behavior ... can be seen as a symptom of a disconnect between culturally prescribed strivings and socially structured ways of fulfilling these strivings.

Merton R. 1968. P. 188.

The very possibility of a marginal existence in society already indicates that generally accepted meanings are not omnipotent in their coercive power. Even more interesting are those cases when individuals manage to gather a certain number of followers around themselves and force, at least the closest of them, to recognize interpretations of the world around them that are different from those accepted in society.

Berger P. 1996. S. 133.

... the possibilities for the evolution of the "marginal" are not closed, simply because his personality remains unformed. Some of his characteristic personal approaches to the perception of reality are in a primitive form, others can become more meaningful, but ... together they will not create a stable and ordered set, and ... the individual, thus, will remain open to all and sundry influences. In any case, inconsistency is a fundamental feature of his activity.

Thomas W.I., Znaniecki F. 1958. P. 1853, 1855.

If society successfully blocks everything potentially dangerous reactions individual in the process of personality formation, then the result is an individual for whom there will be no problem personal development, no external conflicts that need to be resolved, no internal contradictions to be overcome - it will be a limited, stable, self-satisfied "philistine". If, on the contrary, the suppression is unsuccessful and rebellious reactions gain strength before the individual has formed a system of stabilizing ideas, then the individual is not ready to meet the emerging problems, is not able to distinguish or sublimate them - an inconsistent, non-conformist, "marginal " type of…

Thomas W.I., Znaniecki F. 1958. P. 1871.

The end of the 20th century is characterized by the image of a marginal, close to nature, with a flower in his lips or on a gun (this representation is associated with the events of 1968). But soon he is replaced by another image, corresponding to a dramatically changed situation. Against the backdrop of an inexorably growing economic crisis, the face of the marginal is changing and hardening: now it is an African who has come to work in France. It is he who is branded as the personification of all evils and dangers.

Farzh A. 1989. S. 145.

industrial society

industrial society- a society formed in the process and as a result of industrialization, the development of machine production, the emergence of forms of labor organization adequate to it, the application of the achievements of technical and technological progress. It is characterized by mass, in-line production, mechanization and automation of labor, the development of the market for goods and services, the humanization of economic relations, the growing role of management, and the formation of civil society. .

An industrial society is a society based on industry with flexible dynamic structures, which is characterized by: the division of labor and the growth of its productivity, high level competition, the accelerated development of entrepreneurial resources and human capital, the development of civil society and management systems at all levels, the widespread development of mass media, a high level of urbanization and an increase in the quality of life.

The industrial society emerges from the industrial revolution. There is a redistribution of the labor force: employment in agriculture falls from 70-80% to 10-15%, the share of employment in industry increases to 80-85%, and the urban population is also growing.

Entrepreneurial activity becomes the dominant factor of production. For the first time, the entrepreneurial resource was introduced as a leading development factor by Joseph Schumpeter. As a result of the scientific and technological revolution, the industrial society is being transformed into a post-industrial society.

The essence and concept of the development of an industrial society

The essence of an industrial society reflects the emergence and development of an entrepreneurial resource as a component of human capital, human capital itself, as well as competition - the main factors in the formation and development of the industrial economy and society, drivers of the industrial revolution and the generation of innovations.

The concept of the development of an industrial society is to form and develop a class of entrepreneurs, education, especially special education, science, culture, medicine, to improve the quality of life of the population and the efficiency of the elite, and to form a civil society.

An industrial society and economy began to take shape in the first half of the 19th century. Revolutionary changes took place in the economy and society during this period of time:

Accumulation of creative human capital, knowledge and innovation (in industry);

Industrialization and mechanization of production, the transition from manual to machine labor;

Competitive relations and competitive markets were formed, democracy and civil society were formed;

The level and quality of life of the population increased; culture, education, science were developing, and the basis for the next round of accelerated economic growth, the development of industry and technology was gradually being prepared;

There was a rapid development of human capital due to the priority growth of investments in education, including professional education, science, innovation.

The main driving force behind the development of the industrial economy has been and remains competition.

Features of an industrial society

1. The emergence of a creative class - entrepreneurs (capitalists) and hired workers.
2. Growth and development of special and general education, science, culture, quality of life, infrastructure.
3. Transition to machine production.
4. Movement of population to cities - urbanization.
5. Uneven economic growth and development - stable growth alternates with recessions and crises.
6. Socio-historical progress.
7. Unlimited Exploitation natural resources to the detriment of the environment.
8. The basis of the economy is competitive markets and private property. The right to own the means of production is seen as natural and inalienable.
9. The labor mobility of the population is high, the possibilities of social movements are practically unlimited.
10. Entrepreneurship, diligence, honesty and decency, education, health, ability and willingness to innovate are recognized as the most important values ​​in an industrial society.

An industrial society is characterized by a sharp increase in industrial and agricultural production; the accelerated development of science and technology, means of communication, the invention of newspapers, radio and television; empowerment of educational and educational activities; population growth and increase in life expectancy; a significant increase in the level and quality of life in comparison with previous eras; increased mobility of the population; division of labor not only within individual countries, but also on an international scale; centralized state; smoothing of the horizontal differentiation of the population (its division into castes, estates, classes) and the growth of vertical differentiation (the division of society into nations, "worlds", regions).

Waves of development and technological structures of the industrial economy

The transition from an industrial society to a post-industrial one

Notes

Literature

• Zapariy V.V., Nefedov S.A. History of science and technology. Yekaterinburg, 2003.
• Joseph Alois Schumpeter (1883-1954). Theory of economic development
• Korchagin Yu. A. Human capital as an intensive socio-economic factor in the development of personality, economy, society and statehood, Moscow, HSE, 2011
• Timoshina T.M. Economic history of foreign countries. – M.: Yustitsinform, 2006.
• Glazyev S.Yu. Economic theory of technical development. – M.: Nauka, 1990. – 232 p.
• Glazyev S.Yu. Theory of long-term technical and economic development. – M.: VlaDar, 1993. – 310 p.
• Korchagin Yu.A. Human capital development cycles as drivers of innovation waves. - Voronezh: TSIRE.
• Grinin L. E. Productive forces and the historical process. 3rd ed. M.: KomKniga, 2006.
• Korotaev A. V., Malkov A. S., Khalturina D. A. Laws of history. Mathematical modeling of the development of the World-System. Demography, economy, culture. 2nd ed. - M.: URSS, 2007.

see also

Links

Overview of world history
Historical periods
economic organization
History of regions

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See what "Industrial Society" is in other dictionaries:

The modern stage, or epoch, in the development of mankind. Previous eras: primitive society, ancient agrarian society, medieval agrarian industrial society. In the most developed Western European countries, the transition to acting. has begun… … Philosophical Encyclopedia

- (industrial society) A society with a broad division of labor and reliance on large-scale machine production. Industrial society is considered as a general designation for the capitalist and socialist formations of the recent past. Saint Simon... Political science. Dictionary.

A type of economically developed society in which the predominant sector of the national economy is industry. Industrial society is characterized by the development of the division of labor, mass production of goods, mechanization and ... ... Financial vocabulary

Modern Encyclopedia

- (industrial society), designation of the stage of development of society, replacing the traditional, agrarian (tribal, feudal) society. The term belongs to A. Saint Simon; the concept of an industrial society was widely adopted in 50 60 ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

industrial society- (industrial society), designation of the stage of development of society, replacing the traditional, agrarian (tribal, feudal) society. The term belongs to A. Saint Simon; The concept of an industrial society became widespread in the 50s and 60s ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

Burzh. sociology, and economy, theory of societies. development, directed against the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of social progress in the course of successive societies. economical formations. Formulated in two versions of the French. philosopher R. ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

One of the main categories in which modern philosophers, sociologists, political scientists and economists analyze the trends and features of modern, so-called. "developed" societies, in contrast to "traditional", "agrarian" (tribal, feudal, etc.) ... ... The latest philosophical dictionary

industrial society- The stage of development of society and public relations, which developed after the industrial revolution, when, along with the primary industries, the manufacturing industries (secondary sector of the economy) began to develop as the basis of the economy ... Geography Dictionary

- (industrial society), designation of the stage of development of society, replacing the traditional, agrarian (tribal, feudal) society. The term belongs to A. Saint Simon; the concept of an industrial society was widely adopted in 50 60 ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

Books

• Almanac of German History. To the 100th anniversary of the birth of Lev Kopelev. Industrial society in Germany and its development. The Germans and the "Department", Ishchenko V.V. , "Almanac" continues the traditions of the "Yearbook of German History", published at the Institute of World History of the Russian Academy of Sciences. The first issue presents articles by Russian and German historians,… Category: Scientific publications, theories, monographs, articles, lectures Series: Publisher: URSS,
• Historical sociology in 3 parts. Part 3. Industrial and post-industrial society. Textbook for undergraduate and graduate studies,

Research related to a large range of problems that relate to the social structure of society, social groups of social relations in it, is called upon to deal with such sociological theory as to the theory of social structure (or the sociology of social structure.

Currently, there are two influential theories of the social structure of society developed. K. Marx and. M. Weber. The ideas of these researchers have become a great contribution to its further development.

according to ideas. Carla. Marx, classes are large groups of people who are directly related to the means of production with which they provide for their lives. Long before the advent of industry, the means of production directly consisted of land and tools (tools).

In pre-industrial society, there were two classes: aristocrats and nobles; slave owners who had land and slaves; classes that actively used the land in production, but did not own it - slaves and free peasants.

In an industrial society, two new classes appear: those who own the means of production - the industrialists or capitalists, and those who sell their labor - the working class or, for that matter. Marx, proletarians a.

Marx showed that the relationship between them is based on exploitation. In a feudal society, exploitation takes the form of direct dependence of some people on others. In capitalist society, the sources of exploitation are less obvious. Marx pays great attention to describing their nature, revealing the essence of inequality that exists under capitalism.

In addition to the two main classes - the one who owns the means of production, and the one who does not possess them. Marx sometimes refers to the peasantry as a third, intermediate class. This class has remained from the previous type of production.

Marx pays attention to stratification within classes. Examples of this bundle are:

a) conflicts within the upper class between bankers-financiers and industrialists-capitalists;

b) the difference of interests between representatives of small businesses and owners of large corporations (both of these groups belong to the class of capitalists, although the policy pursued by large businessmen does not always correspond to the interests of small businesses)

) within the working class there are differences in the living conditions of the majority of workers and those who have not had a job for a long time, etc.

Marx's concept of classes was basically reduced to an objective structural economic inequality in society.

Opinions. Max. Weber were formed under the influence of theory. K. Marx, but their views differ in their approach to class theory. Although. Weber agreed with. Marx that the basis for the division of societies into classes is objective economic conditions, he considers much more economic factors influencing the formation of classes. According to. Weber, the division into classes exists not only due to the mastery of property by a person or the exercise of full or partial control over the means of production, but also due to economic differences * not directly related to property. Such, for example, are skills and qualifications that determine the type of worker's activity. Qualifications, the presence of a diploma, the skills and abilities of an employee are also the basis for dividing society into classes.

Max. Weber also considers two other foundations of the stratification system. This is the status of a person and his party affiliation. Status reveals the difference between social groups or individuals according to their social prestige in society. Differences of people in status differ from differences in their belonging to one class or another. The privileged groups by their status include people who sit in a prestigious place in the social structure.

Ownership of property leads, of course, to a higher social status of a person, but there are many exceptions. If a person's belonging to a class depends on objective factors, then the status of a person depends on subjective ones. These include: level and type of education, qualifications, specific lifestyle of an individual or group, etc.

Belonging to a particular status group is also determined by the adoption of appropriate values ​​and beliefs, observance of customs and rules of conduct that emphasize the difference between this society and others. Class differences depend on economic factors: ownership of property and earnings.

An important aspect of power, according to. Max. Weber, perform in modern society parties. They affect social stratification regardless of class and status of a person.

A party is a group of individuals that has common goals and interests and conducts joint activities.

There are differences of opinion on this issue. K. Marx and. M. Weber. Marx tries to explain both differences in a person's status and his party affiliation in terms of the class to which he belongs.

Weber, on the other hand, believes that parties can include people from different classes of society, that is, they can be based, for example, on religious, nationalist and other ideals.

Opinions. M. Weber on the theory of stratification are extremely important in methodological terms, since they show that in addition to class differences, other types of social features also influence the life and activities of people.

With a certain amount of modifications of the idea. K. Marx and. M. Weber are used in sociology today. Each of them has its own followers, their ideas have both certain points of contact and differences.

American sociologist. E. Wright, developing the provisions. Marx, also refers to theory. Weber. From point of view. E. Wright, in modern capitalist production, there are the following types of control over economic resources, which makes it possible to define classes: control over money capital, control over the physical means of production (land, factories, etc.), control over the power of workers.

E. Wright believes that the class of capitalists includes people who exercise control over the entire system of production. The working class does not exercise any control. Between these two classes there is an intermediate class whose representatives are able to influence only some aspects of production, but are deprived of the right to exercise control over other areas of production activity. For example, the lifestyle of employees or professional managers similar image the lives of people engaged in physical labor. At the same time, they exercise much greater control over the means of production and the labor process than do the wage-earning class. This is a class whose representatives are neither capitalists nor manual laborers, although they have common features with both those and others.

Opinions of the famous British sociologist. F. Parkin closer to the views. M. Weber than. K. Marx. He agrees that ownership of the means of production is the main feature of the class structure of Wa societies. However,. Parkin believes that property is only one of the forms of social obstacle, which he defines as a process in which certain social groups try to gain total control over the means of production, limiting access to them. In addition to property, the social barrier includes differences in the status of a person, as well as ethnic, linguistic, religious differences.

Class is a concept used in sociology in several signs:

to designate social strata that make up a special, "open" system of social stratification characteristic of an industrial society. For it, in contrast to the "closed" caste and class systems of stratification, it is characterized by a predominantly achievable status, "open" social boundaries and a high level of social mobility;

as the most general term in theories of social stratification to designate a certain position in the system of hierarchical differences (upper, lower and middle classes);

as a theoretical (analytical) concept that underlies the class theories of society. There are two influential class theories in classical and modern sociology - Marxist and Weberian.

In Marxism, class is used as the most general concept characterizing the place of individuals and social groups in the social system, primarily in the system of social production. The main criterion for the type of division of classes is the ownership of the means of productiona.

All class systems are characterized by the presence of two main classes - the exploiter and the exploited. The relationship between them is antagonistic. The class struggle is the decisive active nickname of the social media.

The main classes of capitalist society are the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx singled out the concepts of "class in itself" - this is a class whose members have not yet realized their common class interests, and "class for itself" - a class that has produced class self-consciousness.

Thus, in Marxism, classes are not just descriptive concepts, but real social communities and real social forces that can change society. The Marxist tradition of class analysis remains one of the most influential to this day.

Weberian class theory is an alternative to Marxist. Weber considered classes as social groups that are distinguished in the economic hierarchical structure, i.e. like u. Marx, classes at. Weber is "economic classes" However, the attitude to property in Weber's concept becomes a private criterion, the main role is given to differences in market positions.

There is a tendency in modern sociology to overestimate the central importance of classes. Classes and the class type of social stratification are seen as having a limited historical significance- only in a so-participant industrial society, formerly a capitalist one, does division into classes constitute the main basis of social organization and the central source of the dynamics of society.

A post-industrial society is often defined as "post-class", emphasizing the fact that classes cease to determine the type of social stratification characteristic of it, and a high level of social mobility reduces the influence of class affiliation on an individual's career. However, despite the calls of some theorists to do away with classes, both versions of class analysis continue to exist and develop.

Belonging to a class generates differences in life chances in the commodity market and the labor market. class, by Weber, there is a category of people who share similar "life opportunities", primarily the prospects for social mobility, the possibility of promotion to higher statuses.

One of the bases of a market position is capital, the other is qualification and education. Accordingly to this. Weber singled out four "economic classes" - the class of owners; the class of intellectuals, administrators and managers; the petty-bourgeois class of small businessmen and proprietors; working class. According to. Weber, class conflict can arise between any of these groups, and not just between workers and kaliste. In addition to economic factors. Weber singled out other factors that lead to social inequality in particular, as the most important he noted power and prestige. Therefore, in addition to the "economic classes" and the class structure, it is possible to have an account. Anna in a society of other hierarchical structures (political, socio-cultural, etc.) and social groups identified in these hierarchical structures.

There is a close relationship between life opportunities and social class. People are divided into groups according to the social position they occupy in society.

There are certain things that some people cannot do just because they are not allowed to because of their social position; to other people, on the contrary, it can be feasible, since they occupy a more advantageous position in the social hierarchy.

Social inequality leads to different life opportunities. Social inequality is a structured and systematic phenomenon that affects people from different social classes throughout their life social stratification as fixed in society, inequality determines the life opportunities of people.

Thus, life opportunities are certain favorable opportunities that individuals have (or do not have) to participate in a certain social activities, to achieve certain goals and realize their interests and needs. For example, some people are born into very wealthy families and therefore have the opportunity to study in the best private schools. Other children with the same intellectual ability, who were born into poor families, do not have the opportunity to study in such schools, because their parents are not able to pay tuition.

The intellectual abilities of the former are fully developed, while the abilities of the latter may not be developed due to the low level of teaching quality of the schools in which they study. A child from a wealthy family thus has greater opportunities than a child from a poor family, although they have the same natural gifts. They start life with different life chances just because their families occupy different positions in the social structure of society. So, some researchers are inclined to consider different life opportunities as a consequence of social stratification.

The social class is made up of people who have approximately the same living conditions, life chances and opportunities. American sociologist. L. Warner cites, for example, the following characteristics of a class: occupation, source and amount of profit, area of ​​residence, type of life.

There are various models of class division of society. Most often, three or nine-class models are used. The tri-class model divides society into upper, middle, and lower classes.

According to most sociologists, the middle class has a complex structure, since it unites both businessmen and people of hired labor (intelligentsia, managers, etc.), this may be three-quarters of the entire population. The growth of the middle class is most often associated with the development of education. At the same time, traditionally the growth of the middle class is seen as a source of stability and flourishing of society. In the nine-class model, each main class is in turn divided into three subclasses: superior, middle, and inferior. The three-class model of society more clearly than the nine-class model shows the social inequality between people we are based on different life opportunities; at the same time, the nine-class model has the advantage of detecting nuances in the position held by people of a particular social class. For example, in. The USA is excellent in the profits of a person who belongs to the lower subclass of the middle class, and a person who is included in the upper subclass of the same class, can be 50 thousand dollars in re per river.

In the three-class model, they can be classified as people who belong to the middle class. But the man who has an extra $50,000 annually is better able to meet his baby needs and interests than the first man. The nine-class model of society is able to detect such a difference in people's capabilities and consider their potential significance.

What are the main signs of social stratification?

Social stratification is determined by many features, each of which can affect a person's position in society, which makes him advantageous or disadvantageous compared to others.

This situation is not a consequence of a change in any one sign, it completely determines the position of a person in social hierarchy rather, it is an individual combination of factors, their special combination in each specific case, which determines the social position of a person, his belonging to a certain social class.

Some traits that characterize us are under our control, over others we have much less power or should not have it at all. The first type of traits is attributed to the reached rice, the second is called the contributed traits.

Main attributed social stratifiers: gender, race or ethnic group (origin), age

Floor. We cannot decide who to be born, we cannot choose the male or female sex of our own free will, although this factor will significantly affect our lives compared to humans, women in bagagatoh respects are in a less advantageous position in society than a man. On average, women earn less than men. The unemployment rate is also almost always higher among women.

Most women work in those areas of public activity that are not well paid enough, have little career opportunities; few women have such a job, it gives good earnings, prestige, social protection and career opportunities.

Racial and ethnic background. This factor is also beyond the control of individuals, although racial origin plays a large role in their lives and social status.

Social class boundaries are (largely) drawn on the basis of racial characteristics. For example, in. In the United States, the level of education among African Americans is, on average, much lower than among whites. The unemployment rate is also higher among black Americans; compared with whites, they have lower earnings and, accordingly, a lower standard of living.

Age. We cannot control our age, as it is a biological process independent of a person, but it also significantly affects a person's life. As a rule, people of mature age (30-40 years old) have some advantage. People under the age of 30 in many societies enjoy less respect and trust precisely because of their age, that is, because they lack life experience and confidence in their strengths.

In many cases, for young people and teenagers, this means that they must work to the maximum in order to achieve social recognition. At the same time, society puts the speech of middle-aged or elderly people (about 45 years and older) into more complex minds. Although we value middle-aged people no less on the basis of their competence, we very often say that "their time is past."

A clear trend towards age discrimination is the attitude towards older people (65 years and older). Very often their experience, knowledge and skills are not recognized by younger people.

achieved stratifiers are called signs that, firstly, affect the position in the social hierarchy, and secondly, over which we have a certain control. There are many such signs, but there are three main ones that are considered important in people's lives: education, marital status, criminal record.

Education. Not all people have the same opportunities in getting an education, first of all, a higher one, but this factor is largely controllable for almost every one of us. For example, each of us can independently decide whether to attend classes or not, how much time to devote independent work, completing tasks, etc. (and all these factors affect the level of education we receive). Research indicates that education is closely related to the future employment and income that people will be able to receive. The education received thus becomes a source of social stratification.

Family status. Stratification is quite often the result of sticking "labels" based on marital status. In some social circles it is considered unacceptable or undesirable to be unmarried

It is believed that married people are more responsible than unmarried people. For example, in. USA in some modern corporations it is also believed that all promising employees must be married

Criminal experience. Its presence or absence is also achieved by the stratifier. The fact of a criminal record is very often given the meaning that sociologists call the main status. The main status is the "jarl face", which includes such an active subtext, it begins to prevail over other qualities of a person and affects people's attitude towards him. A person who has received such a label as a criminal is perceived precisely as a local who cannot be trusted.

Social prestige - public assessment of the position of an individual or social group in a social system

Different status positions in society are endowed with different social prestige, showing an assessment of the attractiveness of certain positions. On the basis of social prestige, for example, the choice of a profession takes place.

If during the period of industrial development the professions of an engineer, doctor and teacher were prestigious in our country, now they are a banker, an entrepreneur, a manager. Therefore, social prestige is an important indicator of social stratification. It symbolically shapes and reinforces the polarization of society, mutual assessments, claims and expectations of social groups, and becomes a mechanism for the conservation of new relations. Weber considers av prestige as an indicator of social reputation, a "special kind of resource" that endows certain status groupies with social significance.

in modern sociology. P. Bourdieu expressed this problem in the idea of ​​"symbolic capital", which, together with economic, cultural and social capital, determines the position and influence of its bearer in society

According to the theory of social stratification (E. Durkheim, M. Weber, T. Parsons), the upper class is determined by its dominant position regarding the distribution of wealth, power and prestige

The distinction between the upper class, on the one hand, and the middle and working class, on the other, can be drawn on the basis of such criteria as wealth, cohesion, access to the resources of power.

The real power can be obtained by the upper class due to a significant number of various interrelated factors that influence the position of the elite. Those in leadership positions in business, politics, social services, church, and the military tend to have a well-rounded education that provides the right outlook and intensity of personal contact.

The middle class is a layer in the system of social stratification, which is located between the upper and lower (or working) class. The concept is used as descriptive to indicate the position of the system of hierarchical excellence.

As for the theoretical definition of the middle class, the general position has not been developed and various criteria for its selection and definition are used.

The most economic criterion is the average level of current profit for a given society, as well as accumulated wealth ("standard" property set in the form of a house or apartment, car, long-term use, etc.), which together determines the level of general material security.

As polls of the population show, it is this criterion that is used as the basis for referring to the middle class. In developed countries, the bulk of the population (60-70%) has a general level of material security close to the average, the number of poor and rich is relatively small.

Ukraine is characterized by a different scheme - a deep polarization of society in terms of income and material security in general. However, subjectively, more than 40% of Ukrainians consider themselves to be in the middle class, evaluating their financial situation as an average.

From the point of view of class criteria (relation to the means of production and the nature and content of labor), the middle class includes owners of small ownership of the means of production - small and medium enterprises, merchants, artisans, etc. This is the so-called "old middle class" This also includes people engaged in mental work, in the hierarchy of statuses it was recognized as more prestigious and provided a relatively favorable market position for "white collars".

However, now the positions of various groups of knowledge workers have significantly differentiated, and "white-collar workers" without higher education are losing prestige in the labor market (they are now referred to as the "lower middle class")) The "upper middle class" is made up mainly of representatives of the so-called "new middle class". ", which is growing rapidly and reaches 20-25% in Western countries.

The main criterion for its selection is the level of education and qualifications. It includes specialists from higher education- professionals. Sometimes groups of professionals are combined with managers and administrative workers ("service class") The "new middle class" is associated with the formation of a post-industrial, information society, new technologies. Therefore, in terms of the totality of market, labor and status positions and, in terms of the level of prestige, he occupies a stable "middle" position in society - different from the elite, but also from the lower layers.

From the point of view of socio-political characteristics, the middle class is usually seen as the guarantor of stability in society, the bearer of centrist political views, the support evolutionary development society.

Topic: Economic development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. The problem of corruption in the country.
Lesson Objectives:
-To form an idea about the features of the economic development of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century, to characterize the specifics Russian type modernization, manifestations of corruption in the country in this period of development.
-Find out the causes and forms of manifestation of state intervention in the economy; the influence of foreign capital on the development of Russian industry; features of Russian monopoly capitalism; the role of pre-capitalist forms of production in the Russian economy; features of the development of agriculture at the beginning of the 20th century
-Work on the concepts of "diversified economy", "monopoly capitalism", "syndicate", "trust", "cartel".
-Economic and anti-corruption education.

During the classes:
I. Organizing time. Introduction to lesson objectives and plan.
II. Checking homework.

1. Work with concepts, dictation.
1. A large group of people in an industrial society, differing from each other in occupation, income, power and influence in society. 2. The process of transition from a traditional society to an industrial one. 3. Socio-legal groups, each of which was distinguished by its position, certain rights and obligations and duties in society. 4. The process of creating a large industry based on machine labor. 5. Everything was concentrated in his hands supreme power in the Russian empire. 6. The right that Finland had to independently exercise state power. 7. Strengthening the influence and role of cities in the economic and cultural life of both the nearby district and the state as a whole.
Answers.
1 class. 2. Modernization. 3. Estate. 4. Industrialization.5 Emperor. 6. Autonomy. 7.Urbanization.

2nd task. Continue with suggestions.
1. The advisory body under the king was called ... ( State Council).
2. Royal regalia consisted of ... (crown, scepter and orb).
3. State symbols consisted of ... (state emblem, banner, anthem).
4. The most numerous class Russian Empire it was ... (peasantry).
5. Financial support for artists, composers, scientists is called ... (philanthropy).
6. The privileged estates included ... (the nobility and the clergy).
7. The main problem of agriculture in the Russian Empire was ... (peasant land shortage).
8. The central executive bodies of the Russian Empire were (Committee of Ministers and Ministries).
9. The correct functioning of the judiciary was monitored by ... (Senate).
10. Give a definition. The bourgeoisie is ... (the social stratum of the Russian Empire, which owned the ownership of the means of production, that is, factories and factories).
3rd task. front poll.
What territories were part of the Russian empire? (Finland, Poland, the Baltic States, Transcaucasia, Central Asia) What religions did the inhabitants of Russia profess? (Christianity, Islam, Buddhism) What is the peculiarity of the country's modernization? Modernization in the country affected mainly heavy industry.) List the main classes of the population of Russia? (Nobility, clergy, merchants, philistinism, peasantry, Cossacks) What changes took place in the social structure? (Class partitions are being destroyed, the classes of the bourgeoisie and the proletariat are growing)

III. Learning new material.
- Russia was a moderately developed country with significant economic potential. At the same time, its economic development had a number of features, which will be discussed in the lesson.

Plan:
1. Russian economy at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries.
2. The role of the state in the Russian economy.
3. The problem of corruption in the country at the beginning of the 20th century
4. Foreign capital and the development of Russian industry.
5. Education of monopolies in Russia.
6.Agriculture.
Task: find out what are the features of Russia's economic development at the beginning of the 20th century?
1. Work on the map. Look carefully at the map legend and answer the questions.
- What industries were actively developing in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century?
- What cities were the centers of development of the metalworking industry?
- Name the centers of development of the food industry.
- What cities were the centers of development of the textile industry?
- What minerals were mined in Russia?
- How were the communications between the main industrial centers of the country carried out?
- who owned railways?
- What new phenomena in the development of industry do these maps indicate?
1. The Russian economy at the turn of the 19th - 20th centuries.
- How did the reform of 1861 affect the development of Russia?
- What consequences did it have?
On the one hand, capitalist relations are developing, on the other hand, the old feudal relations are preserved. Thus, Russia was doomed to a constant struggle between the old and the new. This determined the features of the Russian economy at the beginning of the 20th century.
The rapid development of capitalism began in Russia only after the abolition of serfdom. Russia is a medium-developed country of the second echelon of the economy. Its economy was catching up. From the 1890s Russia has entered a period of industrial growth. There was an increase industrial production, new industrial areas took shape, intensive railway construction was going on, cities and the urban population were growing rapidly. it strengths.
Weaknesses include: Russia remained an agrarian country, there was low labor productivity, a low level of production per capita, a lack of capital, foreign trade turnover was inferior to that of the leading countries.
Notebook entry: relatively late entry into the path of industrial development.
2. The role of the state in the Russian economy.
- Work with the textbook - page 13 - 14.
Task: to find out the role of the state in the Russian economy at the beginning of the 20th century.
- What is the difference between public enterprises and private ones?
- Which states were owned by the state?
- In what ways did the state influence the activities of private enterprises?
- What is the role of the state in the Russian economy at the beginning of the century?
Writing in a notebook: the huge role of the public sector of the economy.
3. The problem of corruption in the country at the beginning of the 20th century.
In 1903, the Criminal Code was introduced, which, in terms of the fight against corruption, was much more developed than the Penal Code that was in force before that. The Criminal Code, in particular, divided the concepts of "bribery" and "extortion". After 1903, in Russia, as well as throughout the world, there was an increase in corruption (in Russia, unlike in Europe and the United States, there was only grassroots corruption, top officials in Russia still did not take bribes.
The growth of bribery since the beginning of the 20th century in Russia (as well as in other countries of the top five) has taken place in connection with both the increase in the number of officials, and with supplies and military orders, real estate transactions, the foundation of new cooperative societies, obtaining land plots with minerals and other transactions at the beginning of the 20th century. In Russia, especially during the period of the Russo-Japanese and then the First World War, the growth of corruption necessitated both strengthening the responsibility for taking bribes and abandoning impunity for bribery. The tsarist government reacted quickly to a surge in corruption at the very beginning. Russo-Japanese War and toughened the attitude towards her; ever new attempts were made to curb bribery and extortion. This is evidenced, in particular, by the fact that the mercies (amnesty) granted by the Most Merciful Manifesto of August 11, 1904 were not extended to the persons who committed them. In particular, they could not have their sentences set by the court reduced by two-thirds (like many other convicts under criminal articles), they could not be released from trial and punishment in cases where they were prosecuted or followed by a court decision or a decision not enforced until August 11, 1904, etc.
3. Foreign capital and the development of Russian industry.
Working with a historical document - page 14. "From the report of the Minister of Finance Witte"
- How does Witte justify the need for an influx of foreign capital into Russia?
- In what regions of the country did foreigners invest their capital?
- Why was it more profitable to produce products with the money of foreign enterprises in Russia than to sell the same products in finished form?
Domestic production was largely based on foreign capital, since Russia, with its inexhaustible reserves of raw materials and cheap labor, attracted Western European representatives of the bourgeoisie. In addition, foreign investment was strongly encouraged by the Russian government. As a result, in the key industries (mining, metalworking, machine-building) foreign investments exceeded Russian ones.
The task of students is to find the positive and negative consequences of foreign investment.
The role of foreign capital was ambiguous:
- investments helped to develop Russian industry;
- brought huge profits;
- Russia did not fall into complete dependence on Western European capital
- curtailed the possibility of free competition
- entrenched technical and economic backwardness of the country
- increased tax burden
- increased exploitation of workers.
Effects:
The profit that foreigners received went abroad, and at the expense of this profit the social problems of their country were solved:
- shorter working hours
- Created a pension system.
1) the Russian bourgeoisie is deprived of such an opportunity; thus the social problem grew: the working class was oppressed and open to revolutionary agitation.
2) all this deprived the bourgeoisie of freedom of maneuver and made it even more cautious in the struggle for change political system in Russia, since the revolutionary-minded working class was more terrible for her than the autocracy.
Notebook entry: lack of domestic capital, attraction of foreign investors.
4. Formation of monopolies in Russia.
The next trend in the development of the Russian economy was the formation of monopolies.
Notebook entry: a monopoly is a large economic association that has concentrated in its hands most of the production and marketing of any product.
In the process of monopolization in Russia, historians distinguish several stages:
1) in 80 - 90 - her years. 19th century The first cartels arose on the basis of temporary agreements on joint prices and the division of the sales market. There was a strengthening of banks;
2) in 1900 - 1908. in times of crisis and depression, large syndicates are created that unite the sale of goods, but already to a certain extent interfere in the development of the production of their enterprises.
Subsequently, such forms of monopolies as trusts and concerns arise.
But in Russia syndicates have become the main form of monopolies.
5. Agriculture.
Work with the textbook.
-What is a community? What role did she play in the Russian countryside? What are the positive and negative aspects of the community?
An entry in a notebook: the preservation of landownership, the large role of the community, the lack of land of the peasants.
IV. Consolidation.
What are the features of Russia's economic development at the beginning of the 20th century?

The special role of the state, which acts as the initiator of economic reforms and finances industry and railway construction.
- Lack of domestic capital for industrialization, attraction of foreign investors, creation of mixed companies.
- Protectionism and active customs policy in order to protect domestic producers.
- Diversified industry, uneven development of its branches.
- Lack of colonies, limited sales of goods.
- Preservation of landownership, lack of land of the peasants.
- The acuteness of social problems, the presence of socially disadvantaged strata of the urban poor and landless peasantry.
V. Summing up.
What are the features of the Russian economy at the beginning of the 20th century? How does the government influence the economy? What are the positive and negative features of the development of the country's economy in your opinion.

VI. Homework. Paragraph. 2.