The process of economic strengthening and political isolation. Summary: Feudal fragmentation definition, chronological framework. See the meaning of Political Fragmentation in other dictionaries

- This is a natural process of economic strengthening and political isolation of feudal estates in Russia in the middle of the 12th-13th centuries. (See the scheme "Specific Russia"). Based Kievan Rus by the middle of the twelfth century. there were about 15 lands and principalities, by the beginning of the 13th century. - 50, in the fourteenth century. - 250. Further development Russian lands took place within the framework of the new state formations, the largest of which were: Vladimir-Suzdal Principality, Galicia-Volyn (See the article “Peculiarities of the Development of the Galicia-Volyn Principality in the Period of Political Fragmentation” in the reader) and the Novgorod Boyar Republic, which were politically independent, had their own troops, coins, judicial institutions, etc. meant not the collapse of Russia, but its transformation into a kind of federation of principalities and lands. The Kyiv prince remained the head only nominally. Relations between the princes were regulated by agreements and customs. The goal of feudal strife during the period of fragmentation was different than in a single state: not to seize power throughout the country, but to strengthen their principality, expanding it at the expense of neighbors. During the period of fragmentation, a clear system of feudal hierarchy was formed. On the upper step were the specific princes - the descendants and vassals of the great princes, who, within the limits of their possessions, had the rights of independent sovereigns. They were subordinate to the serving princes - the descendants of the princes, who did not have their own destinies, owned the land on the terms of serving the specific prince. The boyars - the owners of estates, members of the advisory councils under the specific princes, received during this period the right to independent actions in their possessions, were free to choose one or another prince. Needing an obedient and reliable support in the fight against the arbitrariness of the boyars, the princes began to rely on people who in the 12th century began to be called the nobility or "children of the boyars." These were combatants, servants, ryadovichi, tiuns, who performed economic and administrative-judicial functions in the principality and received princely "mercy" for their service - princely lands for temporary use on the terms of the estate. From a general point of view historical development the political fragmentation of Russia is a natural stage on the way to the future centralization of the country and the future economic and political take-off. This is evidenced by the rampant growth of cities and patrimonial economy, and the entry of these practically independent states into the foreign policy arena: Novgorod and Smolensk maintained contacts with the Baltic states and German cities, Galich with Poland, Hungary, Rome. In each of these principalities, the development of the culture of architecture and chronicle writing continued. Prerequisites for political fragmentation in Russia: (See the diagram "Specific Russia"). 1. Social: a) Has become more complicated social structure Russian society, its layers in individual lands and cities became more defined: large boyars, clergy, merchants, artisans, the lower classes of the city, including serfs. Developed dependence on the landowners of rural residents. All this new Russia no longer needed the former early medieval centralization. For the new structure of the economy, other than before, the scale of the state was needed. Huge Russia with its very superficial political cohesion, necessary primarily for defense against an external enemy, for organizing distant aggressive campaigns, now no longer corresponded to the needs of large cities with their branched feudal hierarchy, developed trade and handicraft strata, the needs of patrimonials striving to have power close to their interests - and not in Kyiv, and not even in the form of a Kyiv governor, but their close one, here , in a place that could fully and decisively defend their interests. b) The transition to arable farming contributed to the settled way of life of the rural population and increased the desire of the combatants to own land. Therefore, the transformation of combatants into landowners began (on the basis of a princely award). The squad became less mobile. The warriors were now interested in a permanent stay near their estates and strove for political independence. In this regard, in the 12-13 centuries. the system of immunities became widespread - a system that freed the boyars-landowners from princely administration and court and gave them the right to independent actions in their possessions. That is, the main reason for fragmentation was the natural process of the emergence of private land ownership and the settling of the squad on the ground. 2. Economic: Gradually, individual estates become stronger and begin to produce all products only for their own consumption, and not for the market (subsistence farming). Commodity exchange between individual economic units practically ceases. Those. the formation of a system of subsistence farming contributes to the isolation of individual economic units. 3. Political: The main role in the collapse of the state was played by the local boyars; local princes did not want to share their income with the Grand Prince of Kyiv, and in this they were actively supported by the local boyars, who needed a strong local princely power. 4. Foreign policy: The weakening of Byzantium due to the attacks of the Normans and Seljuks reduced trade on the "route from the Varangians to the Greeks." Crusader campaigns opened a more direct route of communication between Asia and Europe through the eastern coast of the Mediterranean. Trade routes have moved to central Europe. Russia lost the status of a world trade intermediary and a factor that united the Slavic tribes. It completed the collapse united state and contributed to the movement of the political center from the southwest to the northeast to the Vladimir-Suzdal land. Kyiv is away from the main trade routes. Most actively begin to trade: Novgorod with Europe and German cities; Galicia (it's safer here) - with northern Italian cities; Kyiv turns into an outpost of the fight against the Polovtsians. The population moves to safer places: northeast (Vladimir-Suzdal principality and southwest (Galicia-Volyn principality) Consequences of political fragmentation. political entities there was a steady development of the peasant economy, new arable lands were developed, there was an expansion and quantitative multiplication of estates, which for their time became the most progressive form of farming, although this happened at the expense of the labor of the dependent peasant population. 2. Within the framework of the principalities-states, the Russian church was gaining strength, which had a strong influence on culture. 3. The political disintegration of Russia has never been complete: a) The power of the great Kyiv princes, albeit sometimes illusory, but existed. The principality of Kiev, although formally, cemented the whole of Russia b) The all-Russian church retained its influence. The Kyiv metropolitans led the entire church organization. The church opposed civil strife, and the oath on the cross was one of the forms of peace agreements between warring princes. c) A counterbalance to the final disintegration was the constantly existing external danger to the Russian lands from the side of the Polovtsians, respectively, the Kyiv prince acted as the defender of Russia. 4. However, fragmentation contributed to the decline of the military power of the Russian lands. This was most painful in the 13th century, during the Mongol-Tatar invasion.

Watch value Political Fragmentation in other dictionaries

Fragmentation- and (colloquial). Fragmentation, fragmentation, pl. no, w. (book). Distraction noun to fragmented. The fragmentation of the small-peasant economy under capitalism.
Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

Political J. Outdated.- 1. Female. to noun: political (1*).
Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova

fragmentation J.- 1. Distraction. noun by value adj.: fragmented.
Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova

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Agitation Political- - encouragement of an individual or large groups of people to political action with the help of appeals, slogans, appeals. Based on emotional states of people,........
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Feudal fragmentation: definition, causes, consequences, characteristic features, chronological framework.

The reasons:

1) Decline Kyiv principality(loss of central position, movement of world trade routes away from Kyiv).

Was associated with the loss of the significance of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks"

Ancient Russia is losing its role as a participant and mediator in trade relations between the Byzantine, Western European and Eastern worlds.

2) land is the main value.

Land is the main means of paying for the service.

3) One of the reasons for the beginning of feudal fragmentation in Russia. there was (o) ... a significant increase in the country's productive forces.

4) The most important sign of feudal fragmentation of the XII-XIII centuries. was .. subsistence farming.

5) Strengthening of local princes.

6) The boyars turn into feudal landowners, for whom the income received from the estates becomes. main means of subsistence

7) Weakening of defense capability.

8) The weakening of Kyiv and the movement of centers to the outskirts was caused by the pressure of the steppe nomads.

Effects:

1.strengthening local princes

2. the boyars turn into feudal landowners, for whom the income received from the estates becomes the main means of subsistence

3.weakening of defenses

Characteristics:

1) state fragmentation Ancient Russia

2) specific principalities

3) the formation of Russian feudalism

The legalization of the principle of feudal fragmentation was fixed: by the Lyubech princely congress of 1097, “each one keeps his fatherland.”

Feudal fragmentation- a natural process of economic strengthening and political isolation of feudal estates. Feudal fragmentation is most often understood as the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of one state of practically independent from each other, independent state entities that formally had a common supreme ruler(in Russia, the period of the XII - XV centuries).

Already in the word "fragmentation" the political processes of this period are fixed. By the middle of the XII century, there were approximately 15 principalities. By the beginning of the XIII century - about 50. By the XIV century - about 250.

How to evaluate this process? But is there a problem here? The unified state broke up and was relatively easily conquered by the Mongols-Tatars. And before that, there were bloody strife between princes, from which ordinary people, peasants and artisans suffered.

Indeed, approximately such a stereotype was formed until recently when reading scientific and journalistic literature, and even some scientific papers. True, these works also spoke of the pattern of fragmentation of Russian lands, the growth of cities, the development of trade and handicrafts. All this is true, however, the smoke of the conflagrations in which Russian cities disappeared during the years of the Batu invasion, and today many people obscure their eyes. But can the significance of one event be measured by the tragic consequences of another? "If not for the invasion, Russia would have survived."

But after all, the Mongol-Tatars also conquered huge empires, such as, for example, China. The battle with the countless armies of Batu was a much more difficult undertaking than the victorious campaign against Constantinople, the defeat of Khazaria, or the successful military operations of the Russian princes in the Polovtsian steppes. For example, the forces of only one of the Russian lands - Novgorod - turned out to be enough to defeat the German, Swedish and Danish invaders by Alexander Nevsky. In the face of the Mongol-Tatars, there was a collision with a qualitatively different enemy. So if we put the question in the subjunctive mood, we can ask in another way: could the Russian early feudal state resist the Tatars? Who dares to answer it in the affirmative? And the most important thing. The success of the invasion cannot be attributed to fragmentation.

There is no direct causal relationship between them. Fragmentation is the result of progressive internal development Ancient Russia. The invasion is an external influence that is tragic in its consequences. Therefore, to say: "Fragmentation is bad because the Mongols conquered Russia" - it makes no sense.

Thus, fragmentation differs from the times of state unity not by the presence of strife, but by fundamentally different goals of the warring parties.

The main dates of the period of feudal fragmentation in Russia:

1097 Lubeck congress of princes.

1132 Death of Mstislav I the Great and political collapse Kievan Rus.

1169 The capture of Kyiv by Andrei Bogolyubsky and the sack of the city by his troops, which testified to the socio-political and ethno-cultural isolation of certain lands of Kievan Rus.

1212 Death of Vsevolod "Big Nest" - the last autocrat of Kievan Rus.

1240 Defeat of Kyiv by the Mongol-Tatars.

1252 Presentation of the label for the great reign to Alexander Nevsky.

1328 Presentation of a label for a great reign to Prince Ivan Kalita of Moscow.

1389 Battle of Kulikovo.

1471 Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod the Great.

1478 Inclusion of Novgorod into the Muscovy.

1485 Inclusion of the Tver Principality into the Muscovite State.

1510 Inclusion of the Pskov land into the Muscovy.

1521 Inclusion of the Ryazan Principality into the Muscovite State.

Causes of feudal fragmentation.

The formation of feudal landownership: the old tribal nobility, once pushed into the shadow of the capital's military service nobility, turned into zemstvo boyars and formed a corporation of landowners together with other categories of feudal lords (boyar landownership was formed). Gradually, the tables turn into hereditary in princely families (princely land tenure). "Settling" on the ground, the ability to do without the help of Kyiv led to the desire to "arrangement" on the ground.

Development Agriculture: 40 types of rural agricultural and fishing equipment. Steam (two- and three-field) crop rotation system. The practice of fertilizing the earth with manure. The peasant population often moves to "free" (free lands). The bulk of the peasants are personally free, they farm on the lands of the princes.

decisive role in the enslavement of the peasants, the direct violence of the feudal lords played. Along with this, economic enslavement was also used: mainly food rent, and to a lesser extent, working off.

Development of crafts and cities. In the middle of the XIII century, according to the chronicles in Kievan Rus, there were over 300 cities, in which there were almost 60 handicraft specialties. The degree of specialization in the field of metal processing technology was especially high. In Kievan Rus, the formation domestic market, but the priority still remains with the external market. "Detintsy" - trade and craft settlements from runaway serfs. The bulk of the urban population - smaller people, bonded "hiremen" and declassed "wretched people", servants who lived in the courtyards of the feudal lords. The urban feudal nobility also lives in the cities and a trade and craft elite is formed. XII - XIII centuries. in Russia - this is the heyday of veche meetings.

The main reason for feudal fragmentation is the change in the nature of relations between the Grand Duke and his combatants as a result of the latter settling on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other requisitions. As the combatants received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that the income from military robbery booty is less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the XI century, the process of "settlement" of the squad on the ground intensified. And from the first half of the XII century in Kievan Rus, the votchina became the predominant form of ownership, the owner of which could dispose of it at his own discretion. And although the possession of a fiefdom imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to perform military service, his economic dependence on the Grand Duke was significantly weakened. The incomes of the former combatants-feudal lords depended more on the mercy of the prince. They made their own existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence also weakens.

Thus, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. Of great importance in this process was the introduction of the institution of heredity on the earth and the people inhabiting it. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between the local principalities and Kyiv also changed. Service dependence is being replaced by relations of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.

All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This disintegration, as it happened in Western Europe, was accompanied internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: Vladimir-Suzdal principality ( Northeast Russia), Galicia-Volyn principality (South-Western Russia) and Novgorod land (North-Western Russia). Both within these principalities and between them, fierce clashes took place for a long time, destructive wars that weakened the power of Russia, led to destruction of cities and villages.

The boyars were the main divisive force. Based on his power, the local princes managed to establish their power in every land. However, later between the strong boyars and the local princes, contradictions and a struggle for power arose. Causes of feudal fragmentation

Foreign policy. The Polovtsian raids on Russia contributed in many respects to the consolidation of the Russian princes to repel external danger. The weakening of the onslaught from the south broke the alliance of the Russian princes, who, in civil strife, themselves more than once brought Polovtsian troops to Russia.

Economic. Marxist historiography brought economic causes to the fore. The period of feudal fragmentation was seen as a natural stage in the development of feudalism. The dominance of natural economy did not contribute to the establishment of strong economic ties between the regions and led to isolation.

The emergence of a feudal patrimony with the exploitation of a dependent population required strong power in the localities, and not in the center. The growth of cities, the colonization and development of new lands led to the emergence of new large centers of Russia, loosely connected with Kyiv.

Feudal fragmentation: the historiography of the problem.

Chronologically, the historical tradition considers the beginning of the period of fragmentation to be the year 1132 - the death of Mstislav the Great - "and the whole Russian land was torn apart" into separate principalities, as the chronicler wrote.

The great Russian historian S. M. Solovyov dated the beginning of the period of fragmentation to 1169 - 1174, when the Suzdal prince Andrey Bogolyubsky captured Kyiv, but did not stay in it, but, on the contrary, gave it to his troops for plunder as a foreign enemy city, which testified, according to according to the historian, about the isolation of Russian lands.

Until that time, the grand duke's power had not experienced serious problems from the side of local separatism, since the most important political and socio-economic levers of control were assigned to it: the army, the vicegerency system, tax policy, the priority of the grand duke's power in foreign policy.

Both the causes and the nature of feudal fragmentation in historiography in different time revealed differently.

The dominance of a closed subsistence economy is the lack of interest among direct producers in the development of market commodity-money relations. It was believed that the natural isolation of individual lands made it possible to better use the local potential.

The development of a feudal patrimony in Kievan Rus, which played an organizing role in the development of agricultural production due to higher opportunities than peasant farms to conduct a diversified economy.

The selection of these causes from the complex cause-and-effect complex was associated with the tradition of Soviet historiography to unify Russian history with the history of Western Europe.

Kievan Rus came out as a result of a decline in passionary tension in the system of the Old Russian ethnos. He saw manifestations of this decline in the weakening of public and domestic ties, due to the victory of selfish interests and consumer psychology, when the state organization was perceived by the inhabitants as a burden, and not as a guarantee of survival, stability and protection. During the XI and at the beginning of the XII centuries. Russia's military clashes with its neighbors did not outgrow the scope of military conflicts. Relative security has become familiar to the Russian people. For the thinking part of ancient Russian society, fragmentation was a negative phenomenon (for example, "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" in 1185). The negative consequences of fragmentation were not long in coming. At the end of the XII century, the onslaught of the Polovtsy intensified. The Polovtsy, together with internal strife, led the country to decline. The population of southern Russia began its migration to the North-East of Russia (colonization of the Vladimir-Suzdal land). Against the background of the decline of Kyiv, the relative rise of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, Smolensk and Novgorod the Great was manifested. However, this rise at that time could not yet lead to the creation of an all-Russian center capable of uniting Russia and fulfilling strategic tasks. In the second half of the 13th century, Russia faced a severe test, when the Mongols attacked from the east, and Germans, Lithuanians, Swedes, Danes, Poles and Hungarians from the west. The Russian principalities, weakened by strife, failed to unite to repulse and resist the enemy.

general characteristics period of fragmentation

With the establishment of feudal fragmentation in Russia, specific order finally triumphed. (Destiny - princely possession.) "The princes ruled the free population of their principalities as sovereigns and owned their territories as private owners, with all the rights of disposal arising from such property" (V.O. Klyuchevsky). With the cessation of the movement of princes among principalities in order of seniority, all-Russian interests are replaced by private interests: increasing one's principality at the expense of neighbors, dividing it among his sons at the behest of his father.

With the change in the position of the prince, the position of the rest of the population also changes. The service of the prince for a free person has always been a voluntary matter. Now the boyars and boyar children get the opportunity to choose which prince to serve, which was recorded in the so-called right of departure. While retaining their land holdings, they had to pay tribute to the prince in whose principality their estates were located.

Positive:

Growth of cities, crafts and trade;

Cultural and economic development of individual lands.

Negative:

Weak central government;

Independence of local princes and boyars;

The collapse of the state into separate principalities and lands;

Vulnerability to external enemies.

Since the 15th century, a new form of service has appeared - local. Estate - land, the owner of which had to perform compulsory service in favor of the prince and did not use the right to leave. Such possession is called conditional, since the owner of the estate was not its owner in full. He owned it only as long as it was in service. The prince could transfer the estate to another, take it away completely, retain possession under the condition of service of the sons of the landowner ..

All the land of the principality was divided into state ("black"), palace (belonging personally to the prince), boyars (estates) and church. Principality lands

Free community members lived on the land, who, like the boyars, had the right to transfer from one landowner to another. This right was not used only by personally dependent people - plowed serfs, purchases, servants.

Political history of Kievan Rus in the period of feudal fragmentation

Thanks to the generally recognized authority of Monomakh, after his death in 1125, the Kyiv throne was taken by his eldest son, Mstislav (1125-1132), although he was not the eldest among the remaining princes. He was born around 1075 and for a long time was a prince in Novgorod, fought wars with the Chud and defended the Suzdal land from the princes Oleg and Yaroslav Svyatoslavich. Having become the Grand Duke, Mstislav continued the policy of his father: he kept the specific princes in strict obedience and did not allow them to start internecine wars. In 1128, Mstislav took possession of the Principality of Polotsk and gave it to his son Izyaslav. The princes of Polotsk were forced to go into exile in Byzantium. In 1132 Mstislav fought against Lithuania and died the same year.

Mstislav was succeeded by his brother Yaropolk (1132-1139). Under Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son, Mstislav, unity Old Russian state was restored. However, under Yaropolk Vladimirovich, strife began again between the heirs of Monomakh. The sons of Oleg Svyatoslavich also joined the fight for Kyiv. Polotsk princes also used strife and again occupied Polotsk.

After the death of Yaropolk, the eldest son of Oleg Svyatoslavich, Vsevolod, expelled the son of Vladimir Monomakh Vyacheslav from Kyiv and became the Grand Duke (1139 - 1146). Vsevolod wanted to succeed his brother Igor. But the people of Kiev did not like the Olegovichs and called Izyaslav Mstislavich (1146-1154) as prince, and Igor was killed. Having occupied Kyiv, Izyaslav violated the right of seniority of his uncle Yuri Dolgoruky, the son of Vladimir Monomakh. A war broke out between them, in which other Russian princes, as well as Hungarians and Polovtsy, took part. The war went on with varying success. Yuri expelled Izyaslav from Kyiv twice, but in 1151 he was defeated by him and took the Kyiv throne only in 1154, after the death of Izyaslav. Yuri Dolgoruky (1154-1157) was the youngest son of Vladimir Monomakh by his second wife. Born around 1090. Since childhood, he lived without a break in his father's places - Rostov the Great, Suzdal, Vladimir. Monomakh gave him this inheritance with intent - even the youngest son strengthens Russia here and makes his wealth. Yuri justified the hopes of his father.

Mongol-Tatar yoke.

The system of rule of the Mongol-Tatar feudal lords over Russian lands in the 13th-15th centuries, which aimed at the regular exploitation of the conquered country through various extortions and predatory raids. M.-t. and. was established as a result of the Mongol conquests in the 13th century (See Mongol conquests in the 13th century).

The Russian principalities did not directly become part of the Mongol feudal empire and retained the local princely administration, whose activities were controlled by the Baskaks and other representatives of the Mongol-Tatar khans. Russian princes were tributaries of the Mongol-Tatar khans and received from them labels for the possession of their principalities. On the territory of Russia there was no permanent Mongol-Tatar army. M.-t. and. supported by punitive campaigns and repressions against recalcitrant princes. Until the beginning of the 60s. 13th c. Russia was under the rule of the great Mongol khans, and then - the khans of the Golden Horde.

M.-t. and. It was formally established in 1243, when the father of Alexander Nevsky, Prince Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, received a label from the Mongol-Tatars for the Grand Duchy of Vladimir and was recognized by them as "an aging prince in the Russian language." The regular exploitation of Russian lands by collecting tribute began after the census of 1257-59, conducted by the Mongol "numerals" under the leadership of Kitat, a relative of the great khan. The units of taxation were: in the cities - the yard, in rural areas - the farm ("village", "plow", "plow"). Only the clergy were exempt from tribute, which the conquerors tried to use to strengthen their power. There are 14 types of "Horde hardships" known, of which the main ones were: "exit", or "tsar's tribute", a tax directly for the Mongol khan; trading fees ("myt", "tamka"); transport duties ("pits", "carts"); the content of the khan's ambassadors ("fodder"); various "gifts" and "honours" to the khan, his relatives and close associates, etc. Every year, a huge amount of silver left the Russian lands in the form of tribute. "Moscow Exit" was 5-7 thousand rubles. silver, "Novgorod exit" - 1.5 thousand. Periodically collected large "requests" for military and other needs. In addition, the Russian princes were obliged, by order of the khan, to send soldiers to participate in campaigns and in battue hunts (“catchers”). "Horde hardships" exhausted the economy of Russia, hindered the development of commodity-money relations. Gradual weakening of M.-t. and. was the result of the heroic struggle of the Russian people and other peoples of Eastern Europe against the conquerors.

In the late 50s - early 60s. 13th c. tribute from the Russian principalities was collected by Muslim merchants - "besermen", who bought this right from the great Mongol khan. Most of the tribute went to Mongolia, to the great khan. As a result of the popular uprisings of 1262 in Russian cities, the "besermen" were expelled. The obligation to collect tribute passed to the local princes. For M.'s maintenance - t. and. Khans of the Golden Horde repeatedly made incursions into Russian lands. Only in the 70s and 90s. 13th c. they organized 14 campaigns. However, the struggle of Russia for independence continued. In 1285 Grand Duke Dmitry, the son of Alexander Nevsky, defeated and expelled the punitive army of the "Horde prince". At the end of the 13th - 1st quarter of the 14th centuries. repeated "veche" performances in Russian cities (in Rostov - 1289 and 1320, in Tver - 1293 and 1327) led to the elimination of the Basque system. With the strengthening of the Moscow principality, M.-t. and. gradually weakens. Moscow prince Ivan I Danilovich Kalita (reigned in 1325-40) won the right to collect "exit" from all Russian principalities. From the middle of the 14th century the orders of the khans of the Golden Horde, not supported by real military force, were no longer carried out by the Russian princes. The Moscow prince Dmitry Ivanovich Donskoy (1359-89) did not obey the khan's labels issued to his rivals, and by force captured the Grand Duchy of Vladimir. In 1378 he defeated the punitive Mongol-Tatar army on the river. Vozhe (in the Ryazan land), and in 1380 he won the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 over the ruler of the Golden Horde Mamai (See Mamai). However, after the campaign of Tokhtamysh and the capture of Moscow in 1382, Russia was forced to again recognize the power of the Mongol-Tatar khans and pay tribute, but already the Moscow prince Vasily I Dmitrievich (1389-1425) received a great reign without a khan's label, as "his fatherland." With him, M.-t. and. was nominal. Tribute was paid irregularly, the Russian princes pursued a largely independent policy. An attempt by the head of the Golden Horde, Edigei (See Edigei) (1408), to completely restore power over Russia ended in failure: he failed to take Moscow. The strife that began in the Golden Horde called into question the further preservation of M.-t. and.

In the years feudal war in Russia in the middle of the 15th century, weakening the military forces of the Russian principalities, the Mongol-Tatar feudal lords organized a series of devastating invasions (1439, 1445 1448, 1450, 1451, 1455, 1459), but they were no longer able to restore their dominion over Russia. The political unification of the Russian lands around Moscow created the conditions for the liquidation of M.-t. and. The Grand Duke of Moscow Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505) in 1476 refused to pay tribute. In 1480, after the unsuccessful campaign of the Khan of the Great Horde, Akhmat, and the so-called. "Standing on the Ugra 1480" M.-t. and. was finally overthrown.

M.-t. and. had negative, deeply regressive consequences for the economic, political and cultural development of the Russian lands, was a brake on the growth of the productive forces of Russia, which were at a higher socio-economic level compared to the productive forces of the Mongol-Tatars. It artificially preserved for a long time the purely feudal natural character of the economy. Politically, the consequences of M.-t. and. manifested themselves in violation of the process of state consolidation of Rus. lands, in the artificial maintenance of feudal fragmentation. M.-t. and. led to the intensification of the feudal exploitation of the Russian people, who found themselves under the double yoke of their own and the Mongol-Tatar feudal lords. M.-t. and., which lasted about 240 years, was one of the main reasons for the lagging behind of Russia from some Western European countries.

Horde dominion for a long time separated Russia from Western Europe. In addition, the formation of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania on its western borders increased the external isolation of the Russian principalities. Approval in the XV century. Catholicism in Lithuania and much earlier in Poland made them the conductors of Western influence on Russian civilization. Part of the Russian principalities entered the state of Lithuania, where the Russian language was widespread, and the Orthodox Church was not persecuted for a long time. Galicia was included in Poland, which expanded its possessions at the expense of the southwestern Russian lands. Under these conditions, the ancient Russian population is divided into three branches: Russians, Belarusians and Ukrainians. Russian nationality develops in the central, eastern and northern regions of Russia. Belarusian and Ukrainian nationalities are formed on the territory of the Lithuanian principality and the Polish kingdom.

In general, the foreign yoke depleted the people's strength, the development of the East Slavic peoples slowed down sharply, there was also a significant backlog in the field of the economy, public relations and cultural level from Western European civilization.

Chronology of the invasion of the Golden Horde:

Southern Siberia

1215 North China conquest of Korea

1221 conquest of Central Asia

1223 Battle of the Kalka

Volga Bulgaria repulsed the blow

Ryazan (a story about the ruin of Ryazan by Batu)

1241 conquest of Russia.

Vladimir-on-Klyazma (north-eastern Russia lost its capital, a symbol of political independence)

Kozelsk ("evil city") Torzhok

Volodymyr-not-Volhynia

1236 conquest of Volga Bulgaria

1237-1238 the Ryazan and Vladimir principalities were defeated (about 20 cities)

1239-1240 fell Chernigov, Pereyaslav, Kiev, Galicia-Volyn principality

1241 campaign in Europe.

Indeed, approximately such a stereotype was formed until recently when reading scientific and journalistic literature, and even some scientific works. True, these works also spoke of the pattern of fragmentation of Russian lands, the growth of cities, the development of trade and handicrafts. All this is true, however, the smoke of the conflagrations in which Russian cities disappeared during the years of the Batu invasion, and today many people obscure their eyes. But can the significance of one event be measured by the tragic consequences of another? "If not for the invasion, Russia would have survived."

There is no direct causal relationship between them. Fragmentation is the result of the progressive internal development of Ancient Russia. The invasion is an external influence that is tragic in its consequences. Therefore, to say: "Fragmentation is bad because the Mongols conquered Russia" - it makes no sense.

It is also wrong to exaggerate the role of feudal strife. In the joint work of N. I. Pavlenko, V. B. Kobrin and V. A. Fedorov "History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861" they write: "You cannot imagine feudal fragmentation as some kind of feudal anarchy. Moreover, princely strife in a single state, when it came to the struggle for power, for the throne of the grand duke or these or those rich principalities and cities, were sometimes more bloody than in the period of feudal fragmentation.It was not the collapse of the ancient Russian state, but its transformation into a kind of federation of principalities headed by prince of Kyiv, although his power was weakening all the time and was rather nominal ... The goal of strife during the period of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not to seize power throughout the country, but to strengthen its own principality, expanding its borders at the expense of neighbors.

Thus, fragmentation differs from the times of state unity not by the presence of strife, but by fundamentally different goals of the warring parties.

Feudal fragmentation: definition, chronological framework.

Feudal fragmentation is a natural process of economic strengthening and political isolation of feudal estates. Feudal fragmentation is most often understood as the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of one state of practically independent from each other, independent state entities that formally had a common supreme ruler (in Russia, the period of the 12th - 15th centuries).

It is also wrong to exaggerate the role of feudal strife. In the joint work of N. I. Pavlenko, V. B. Kobrin and V. A. Fedorov “History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861” they write: “You cannot imagine feudal fragmentation as some kind of feudal anarchy. Moreover, princely strife in a single state, when it came to the struggle for power, for the grand princely throne, or for certain rich principalities and cities, were sometimes more bloody than during the period of feudal fragmentation. What happened was not the collapse of the ancient Russian state, but its transformation into a kind of federation of principalities headed by the Grand Duke of Kyiv, although his power was weakening all the time and was rather nominal ... The goal of strife during the period of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: country, but strengthening their own principality, expanding its borders at the expense of neighbors.

Thus, fragmentation differs from the times of state unity not by the presence of strife, but by fundamentally different goals of the warring parties.

The main dates of the period of feudal fragmentation in Russia: Date Event

1097 Lubeck congress of princes.

1132 Death of Mstislav I the Great and political collapse of Kievan Rus.

1169 The capture of Kyiv by Andrei Bogolyubsky and the sack of the city by his troops, which testified to the socio-political and ethno-cultural isolation of certain lands of Kievan Rus.

1212 Death of Vsevolod "Big Nest" - the last autocrat of Kievan Rus.

1240 Defeat of Kyiv by the Mongol-Tatars.

1252 Presentation of the label for the great reign to Alexander Nevsky.

1328 Presentation of a label for a great reign to Prince Ivan Kalita of Moscow.

1389 Battle of Kulikovo.

1471 Ivan III's campaign against Novgorod the Great.

1478 Inclusion of Novgorod into the Muscovy.

1485 Inclusion of the Tver Principality into the Muscovite State.

1510 Inclusion of the Pskov land into the Muscovy.

1521 Inclusion of the Ryazan Principality into the Muscovite State.

Causes of feudal fragmentation

Development of agriculture: 40 types of rural agricultural and fishing equipment. Steam (two- and three-field) crop rotation system. The practice of fertilizing the earth with manure. The peasant population often moves to "free" (free lands). The bulk of the peasants are personally free, they farm on the lands of the princes. The decisive role in the enslavement of the peasants was played by the direct violence of the feudal lords. Along with this, economic enslavement was also used: mainly food rent, and to a lesser extent, working off.

Development of crafts and cities. In the middle of the XIII century, according to the chronicles in Kievan Rus, there were over 300 cities, in which there were almost 60 handicraft specialties. The degree of specialization in the field of metal processing technology was especially high. In Kievan Rus, the formation of an internal market is taking place, but the priority still remains with the external market. "Detintsy" - trade and craft settlements from runaway serfs. The bulk of the urban population - smaller people, bonded "hiremen" and declassed "wretched people", the servants who lived in the courtyards of the feudal lords. The urban feudal nobility also lives in the cities and a trade and craft elite is formed. XII - XIII centuries. in Russia - this is the heyday of veche meetings.

A significant role in the process of feudal fragmentation in Russia was played by the developing institution of feudal immunity, which provides for a certain level of sovereignty of the feudal lord within the boundaries of his fiefdom. In this territory, the feudal lord had the rights of the head of state. The Grand Duke and his authorities did not have the right to act in this territory. The feudal lord himself collected taxes, duties, and administered court. As a result, a state apparatus, a squad, courts, prisons, etc., are formed in independent principalities-patrimonies, and specific princes begin to dispose of communal lands, transfer them on their own behalf to boyars and monasteries. Thus, local princely dynasties are formed, and local feudal lords make up the court and squad of this dynasty. Of great importance in this process was the introduction of the institution of heredity on the earth and the people inhabiting it. Under the influence of all these processes, the nature of relations between the local principalities and Kyiv also changed. Service dependence is being replaced by relations of political partners, sometimes in the form of equal allies, sometimes suzerain and vassal.

All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This disintegration, as it was in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars. On the territory of Kievan Rus, three most influential states were formed: the Vladimir-Suzdal principality (North-Eastern Russia), the Galicia-Volyn principality (South-Western Russia) and Novgorod land(North-Western Russia). Both within these principalities and between them, for a long time there were fierce clashes, destructive wars that weakened the power of Russia, led to the destruction of cities and villages.

Domestic political. A single Russian state did not already exist under the sons of Yaroslav the Wise, and unity was supported rather by family ties and common interests in defense against the steppe nomads. The movement of the princes through the cities along the "Row of Yaroslav" created instability. The decision of the Lyubech Congress eliminated this established rule, finally fragmenting the state. The descendants of Yaroslav were more interested not in the struggle for seniority, but in increasing their own possessions at the expense of their neighbors. Foreign policy. The Polovtsian raids on Russia contributed in many respects to the consolidation of the Russian princes to repel external danger. The weakening of the onslaught from the south broke the alliance of the Russian princes, who, in civil strife, themselves more than once brought Polovtsian troops to Russia. Economic. Marxist historiography brought economic causes to the fore. The period of feudal fragmentation was seen as a natural stage in the development of feudalism. The dominance of natural economy did not contribute to the establishment of strong economic ties between the regions and led to isolation. The emergence of a feudal patrimony with the exploitation of a dependent population required strong power in the localities, and not in the center. The growth of cities, the colonization and development of new lands led to the emergence of new large centers of Russia, loosely connected with Kyiv.

Feudal fragmentation: the historiography of the problem.

Chronologically, the historical tradition considers the beginning of the period of fragmentation to be the year 1132 - the death of Mstislav the Great - “and the whole Russian land was torn apart” into separate principalities, as the chronicler wrote.

Until that time, the grand ducal power did not experience serious problems from local separatism, since the most important political and socio-economic levers of control were assigned to it: the army, the governorship system, tax policy, and the priority of the grand ducal power in foreign policy.

Both the causes and the nature of feudal fragmentation were revealed in different ways in historiography at different times.

Within the framework of the formation-class approach in historiography, fragmentation was defined as feudal. The historical school of M. N. Pokrovsky considered feudal fragmentation as a natural stage in the progressive development of productive forces. According to the formation scheme, feudalism is the isolation of economic and political structures. At the same time, fragmentation is interpreted as a form of state organization, and the main reasons for fragmentation are reduced to economic, so-called "basic" ones:

The selection of these causes from the complex cause-and-effect complex was connected with the tradition of Soviet historiography to unify Russian history with the history of Western Europe.

With the development of Soviet historical science, the study of many phenomena inevitably deepened. national history, including fragmentation, which, however, did not interfere with the vitality of stereotypes. The duality in the assessments also concerned fragmentation. The historian Leontiev in 1975 assessed this phenomenon as follows: “Feudal fragmentation was a new, higher stage in the development feudal society and states. At the same time, the loss of the state unity of Russia, accompanied by civil strife, weakened its strength in the face of the growing threat of external aggression.

References to the dialectical approach cannot obscure the fact that the threat of external aggression called into question the very existence of Russia, regardless of the level of development of society and feudal relations. Under more high level The development of society implied, first of all, the increased opportunities for realizing local economic potentials. In practice, however, such implementation was often hampered by many unfavorable factors: political instability, cut-off of many regions from resources, etc.

With an objective approach to the study of this problem, it would be logical to abandon the traditional unification of the processes of fragmentation in Russia with Western European feudalism. The development of ancient Russian land relations was largely influenced by such factors as the presence of communal land use and a huge fund of free land.

Historians Dumin and Tugarinov openly admit that according to the written sources of the Kyiv time (XI - the first half of the XIII century), the process of feudalization of land ownership can be traced poorly. Of course, one cannot completely deny the tendencies of the feudalization of ancient Russian society. AT this case we are talking about the fact that one should not simplify the mechanism of interaction between the base and the superstructure. The political, cultural and socio-psychological aspects of the problem require great attention. The unsettled order of the princely succession to the throne, the strife within the princely ruling dynasty, the separatism of the local landed nobility reflected the destabilization of the political situation in the country. The clash and struggle of centripetal and centrifugal factors determined the course both before and after the fragmentation of Kievan Rus.

The vast majority of pre-Soviet historians spoke not of feudal, but of the state fragmentation of the ancient Russian state.

Pre-October historiography showed that in the XIII - XIV centuries. Russian peasants were free tenants of privately owned lands, and quitrent was a kind of rent. The class of landowners was heterogeneous and, the boundaries between its various categories were constantly blurred. There is a structure social hierarchy, which in itself did not yet imply the fragmentation of the state. According to N. M. Karamzin and S. M. Solovyov, this period was a kind of turmoil. The concept of "feudal fragmentation" representatives public school in relation to Kievan Rus did not use.

V. O. Klyuchevsky spoke not about fragmentation, but about the specific system, calling this period “specific centuries”. His terminology implied, first of all, state decentralization due to the implementation of the principle of hereditary division of power within the princely family of Rurikovich. The concept of "feudalism" V. O. Klyuchevsky used only in relation to Western Europe. The period of fragmentation according to Klyuchevsky was a time of severe trials for Russia, but it had its own historical meaning as a transitional period from Kievan Rus to Muscovite Rus. V. O. Klyuchevsky believes that in the specific period, despite the fragmentation, integrating trends persisted in Russia. Despite the crisis of the central government, there was a process of ethnic consolidation of the population of North-Eastern Russia. The “general earthly feeling” of Russians was reinforced by the unity of language, traditions, and mentality. The Orthodox Church was also a force that held the ancient Russian ethnos together. The unity of Kievan Rus was also seen in the system of relations within the princely house of Rurikovich. The princes "wandered" around more prestigious destinies, while in the West the feudal lords firmly grew into their fiefs.

L. N. Gumilyov came up with an original explanation of the fragmentation of Kievan Rus. In his opinion, it was the result of a decline in passionary tension in the system of the Old Russian ethnos. He saw manifestations of this decline in the weakening of public and domestic ties, due to the victory of selfish interests and consumer psychology, when the state organization was perceived by the inhabitants as a burden, and not as a guarantee of survival, stability and protection. During the XI and at the beginning of the XII centuries. Russia's military clashes with its neighbors did not outgrow the scope of military conflicts. Relative security has become familiar to the Russian people. For the thinking part of ancient Russian society, fragmentation was a negative phenomenon (for example, The Tale of Igor's Campaign, 1185). The negative consequences of fragmentation were not long in coming. At the end of the XII century, the onslaught of the Polovtsy intensified. The Polovtsy, together with internal strife, led the country to decline. The population of southern Russia began its migration to the North-East of Russia (colonization of the Vladimir-Suzdal land). Against the background of the decline of Kyiv, the relative rise of Vladimir-Suzdal Rus, Smolensk and Novgorod the Great was manifested. However, this rise at that time could not yet lead to the creation of an all-Russian center capable of uniting Russia and fulfilling strategic tasks. In the second half of the 13th century, Russia faced a severe test, when the Mongols attacked from the east, and Germans, Lithuanians, Swedes, Danes, Poles and Hungarians from the west. The Russian principalities, weakened by strife, failed to unite to repulse and resist the enemy.

General characteristics of the fragmentation period

Service people

Military servants with the right of departure Servants without the right of departure

Feudal fragmentation as a natural stage of historical development human society characterized by the following factors:

Positive:

Growth of cities, crafts and trade;

Cultural and economic development of individual lands.

Negative:

Weak central government;

Independence of local princes and boyars;

The collapse of the state into separate principalities and lands;

Vulnerability to external enemies.

All the land of the principality was divided into state ("black"), palace (belonging personally to the prince), boyars (estates) and church. Principality lands

State lands Palace lands Private boyar lands Church lands

Political history of Kievan Rus in the period of feudal fragmentation

Mstislav was succeeded by his brother Yaropolk (1132-1139). Under Vladimir Monomakh and his eldest son, Mstislav, the unity of the Old Russian state was restored. However, under Yaropolk Vladimirovich, strife began again between the heirs of Monomakh. The sons of Oleg Svyatoslavich also joined the fight for Kyiv. The princes of Polotsk also took advantage of the strife and occupied Polotsk again.

“Prince Yuri “Long Hands,” narrates D. I. Eremin, “year after year, in any way, expanded his lands ... He seemed to lay down on them from Murom to Torzhok, from Vologda to the Moscow River, and raked everything, raked under themselves neighboring and no man's lands, destroying the weakest, making friends and bargaining with those who were stronger. Secret thoughts and the strong hands of the prince stretched far: to Kyiv, to Ryazan, beyond Unzha, Sukhon, Vetluga. They were drawn to the rich Zavolochye, and to the Mordovians, and to the Bulgars across the Volga, and to the peaceful peoples of the Mari, and to the riches of Novgorod. No wonder he was nicknamed Dolgoruky... In a number of unknown places, just in case, he set up and fortified cities, naming them after his children. In those cities he built large houses and churches. They called him the "city builder". And he built a church near the mouth of the Nerl, Yuryev, Mozhaisk, Konyatin and Kostroma, Pereyaslavl and Dimitrov grew up through his efforts, and after them - Moscow ... ".

The very fact of the founding of Moscow by Yuri Dolgoruky does not raise any doubts, if only because in those years when Moscow was first mentioned, no one except Prince Yuri could own that land. However, historians write differently about the individual details of this event. Since we are talking about our capital, here are the most interesting statements from three different sources. Sergei Mikhailovich Solovyov in his “History of Russia from Ancient Times” reports: “... for the first time Moscow is mentioned in 1147, on the occasion of Dolgoruky’s meeting with Svyatoslav Seversky. Moscow lies on the river of the same name, which flows between the Volga, the Oka and the Upper Dnieper The Moscow River flows into the Oka, just like the Klyazma, with the difference, however, that the Klyazma flows into the Oka where it belonged to the Finnish northeast, while the Moscow flows exactly at the place where the Oka, turning to east, transferred to Moscow the obligation to serve as a connection for the northern and southern Russian regions ... The region of the Moscow River was the original region of the Moscow principality, and in the first activity of the Moscow princes, we notice the desire to get the entire course of the river into their power. , therefore, the region of the Moscow principality was closed at both ends: the upper reaches of the river were in the power of the princes of Mozhai and Smolensk, the mouth was in the power of the princes of Ryazan - here they was the city of Kolomna. From this it is clear why the first conquests of Moscow were Mozhaisk and Kolomna ... ".

In the “Course of Russian History” by Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky we read: “It is curious that this town (Moscow) appears for the first time in an annalistic story with the meaning of a border point between the northern Suzdal and southern Chernigov-Seversky regions. Here in 1147, Yuri Dolgoruky invited his ally Prince Svyatoslav Olgovich of Novgorod-Seversky to a meeting, sending him to say: “Come to me, brother, to Moscow” ... From the story of the same chronicle, it is clear that Moscow also had a different, earlier name - Kutskov. She received this name from the local patrimony, the boyar and, according to legend, the Suzdal thousandth Stepan Kutsk or Kuchka, who owned the surrounding villages and villages ... ".

The greatest attention of historians was attracted by those legends about the beginning of Moscow, according to which Moscow before Yuri Dolgoruky belonged to "a certain boyar, a rich being, named Kuchko Stefan Ivanov." What made researchers single out this particular legend from other legends about the beginning of Moscow? The fact is that the chronicles, telling about the murder in 1174 of the son of Yuri Dolgoruky Andrei Bogolyubsky, claim that Yakim Kuchkovich and Peter, Kuchkov's son-in-law, were at the head of the boyars' conspiracy against Andrei. In another place, the chronicler calls Moscow Kuchkov. For Russian people in the XII century. and two or three centuries later, Kuchka was a very real person. If written sources do not mention Kuchka himself, then they know his children and his son-in-law, his field and even his possession - Kuchkovo, that is, Moscow. All these facts, taken together, establish a connection folk tales with reality.

The latest in time and most complete in content message about the founding of Moscow can be read in the History of Moscow: "... the legend that existed in the first half of the 17th century could seem more likely to contemporaries. following. Once upon a time, Prince Yuri Vladimirovich Dolgoruky, returning from Kyiv to Vladimir, stopped in a place where there were villages belonging to the boyar Kuchka Ivanovich. The swaggering boyar did not show due honor to the prince, for which he was executed by him. Yuri Dolgoruky married his son Andrei to Kuchka's daughter , and took his sons to his court. In the place of the villages he loved, which belonged to Kuchka, Yuri Dolgoruky ordered "to make a small city of drevyan. And nicknamed (it) the title of Moscow City by the name of the river flowing under it "". The "Tale", clothed in a romantic form, attracted the attention of readers.

It is known that in the XII century. Moscow had a second name - Kuchkovo, and the area near modern Chistye Prudy and Sretensky Gates in the 15th century. called the Kuchkov field. The boyar Kuchka himself is a person not known to ancient sources, but his son-in-law Peter and the children (Kuchkovichi) really plotted in 1174 and killed Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. Finally, according to the chronicle, it was Prince Yuri Dolgoruky who built the Kremlin in Moscow (the word “Kremlin”, according to academician M.N. Tikhomirov, meant strengthening). Legend of the 17th century had, therefore, at its basis some reliable facts. But can we assume that Moscow was created on the site of the "red villages" of the semi-mythical Kuchka and that Yuri Dolgoruky was its creator?

Already at the turn of the XI-XII centuries. there was a settlement on the territory of the future Kremlin. Perhaps it was the castle of a local feudal lord, built where the Vyatichi had previously settled. The settlement occupied the southwestern corner of the modern Kremlin (up to the Grand Kremlin Palace) and was originally surrounded by a low rampart. A palisade was built on the rampart, and a ditch was dug in front of the outer edge of the rampart. So, even before the written sources known to us mentioned Moscow, in its place there was a settlement close to the urban type.

In the middle of the XII century. The energetic and far-sighted Suzdal prince Yuri Dolgoruky founded a number of fortress cities to protect the western borders of his principality. In 1156, he, according to the chronicle, “laid Moscow at the mouth of the Neglinna, above the Yauza River”, that is, it was about the construction of new wooden city fortifications.

Directing his eyes most of all to Kyiv, Dolgoruky simultaneously made claims to Novgorod and because of this had a number of clashes with the Novgorodians (1134-1135). Yuri Dolgoruky was married three times. In particular, his second marriage dates back to 1107. At that time, a strong Polovtsian kingdom of Desht-i-Kipchak grew up in the steppe between Russia and the Surozh Sea. Grand Duke Monomakh himself chose a bride for his son - the daughter of the Polovtsian Khan Aepa. Polovchanka gave birth to Yuri a daughter and three sons - Andrei, Rostislav and Gleb. She herself died on a hunt as a result of an attack by a wild boar. AT Last year of his life, Monomakh married Yuri for the third time, to the daughter of the Byzantine emperor. In all respects, it was beneficial for the Suzdal inheritance to intermarry with the imperial house of Byzantium. There sat the patriarch Orthodox Church, there was a center of science and culture, as well as trade. Considering all this, the far-sighted Monomakh sent his son to Tsargrad for a bride. Yuri arrived with Princess Elena, first to Kyiv, then to Suzdal. He lived with his third wife for over 20 years. Compared to the Polovtsy, Elena was calmer, but also more cunning - her thoughts all the time rushed from the Russian forests to Tsargrad. No wonder the son of Yuri Andrei, more powerful in character, sent his stepmother Elena to Byzantium as soon as he became the Grand Duke.

Yuri Dolgoruky occupied the Kyiv table for only three years. He died at the age of 66. It is possible that he was poisoned as a result of a conspiracy of the boyars. After the death of Yuri Dolgoruky, Kyiv more than once passed from the hands of one prince to the hands of another. Finally, in 1169, it was taken by storm and plundered by Dolgoruky's son Andrei Bogolyubsky. From that time on, Kyiv lost the championship in the Russian land to Vladimir-on-Klyazma.

After 1169, it is no longer necessary to talk about the history of Kievan Rus as a single state. Since that time, we can talk about the history of individual Russian lands.

Feudal fragmentation - a natural process of economic strengthening and political isolation of feudal estates. Feudal fragmentation is most often understood as the political and economic decentralization of the state, the creation on the territory of one state of practically independent independent state entities that formally had a common supreme ruler (in Russia, the period of the 12th - 15th centuries).

With the establishment of feudal fragmentation in Russia, specific order finally triumphed. (Destiny - princely possession.) The princes ruled the free population of their principalities as sovereigns and owned their territories as private owners, with all the rights of disposal arising from such ownership. With the cessation of the movement of princes among principalities in order of seniority, all-Russian interests are replaced by private interests: increasing one's principality at the expense of neighbors, dividing it among his sons at the behest of his father.

Feudal fragmentation as a natural stage in the historical development of human society is characterized by the following factors:

- positive(growth of cities, crafts and trade; cultural and economic development of individual lands);
- negative(weak central authority; independence of local princes and boyars; disintegration of the state into separate principalities and lands; vulnerability to external enemies).

Since the 15th century, a new form of service has appeared - local. Estate - land, the owner of which had to perform compulsory service in favor of the prince and did not use the right to leave. Such possession is called conditional, since the owner of the estate was not its owner in full. He owned it only as long as it was in service. The prince could transfer the estate to another, take away completely, keep possession under the condition of service of the sons of the landowner.

All the land of the principality was divided into state ("black"), palace (belonging personally to the prince), boyars (estates) and church.

Causes of feudal fragmentation:

1. The formation of feudal landownership: the old tribal nobility, once pushed into the shadow of the capital's military service nobility, turned into zemstvo boyars and formed, together with other categories of feudal lords, a corporation of landowners (boyar landownership was formed). Gradually, the tables turn into hereditary in princely families (princely land tenure). "Settling" on the ground, the ability to do without the help of Kyiv led to the desire to "arrangement" on the ground.
2. Development of agriculture: 40 types of rural agricultural and fishing equipment. Steam (two- and three-field) crop rotation system. The practice of fertilizing the earth with manure. The peasant population often moves to "free" (free lands). The bulk of the peasants are personally free, they farm on the lands of the princes. The decisive role in the enslavement of the peasants was played by the direct violence of the feudal lords. Along with this, economic enslavement was also used: mainly food rent, and to a lesser extent, working off.
3. Development of crafts and cities. In the middle of the XIII century, according to the chronicles in Kievan Rus, there were over 300 cities, in which there were almost 60 handicraft specialties. The degree of specialization in the field of metal processing technology was especially high. In Kievan Rus, the formation of an internal market is taking place, but the priority still remains with the external market. "Detintsy" - trade and craft settlements from runaway serfs. The bulk of the urban population - smaller people, bonded "hiremen" and declassed "wretched people", servants who lived in the courtyards of the feudal lords. The urban feudal nobility also lives in the cities and a trade and craft elite is formed. XII - XIII centuries. in Russia - this is the heyday of veche meetings.

The main reason for feudal fragmentation is the change in the nature of relations between the Grand Duke and his combatants as a result of the latter settling on the ground. In the first century and a half of the existence of Kievan Rus, the squad was completely supported by the prince. The prince, as well as his state apparatus, collected tribute and other requisitions. As the combatants received land and received from the prince the right to collect taxes and duties themselves, they came to the conclusion that the income from military robbery booty is less reliable than fees from peasants and townspeople. In the XI century, the process of "settlement" of the squad on the ground intensified. And from the first half of the XII century in Kievan Rus, the votchina became the predominant form of ownership, the owner of which could dispose of it at his own discretion. And although the possession of a fiefdom imposed on the feudal lord the obligation to perform military service, his economic dependence on the Grand Duke was significantly weakened. The incomes of the former feudal combatants no longer depended on the mercy of the prince. They made their own existence. With the weakening of economic dependence on the Grand Duke, political dependence also weakens.

All these economic and political processes in political terms meant the fragmentation of power, the collapse of the former centralized statehood of Kievan Rus. This disintegration, as it was in Western Europe, was accompanied by internecine wars. Three most influential states were formed on the territory of Kievan Rus: Vladimir-Suzdal principality (North-Eastern Rus), Galicia-Volyn principality (South-Western Rus) and Novgorod land (North-Western Rus). Both within these principalities and between them, fierce clashes and destructive wars took place for a long time, which weakened the power of Russia, led to the destruction of cities and villages.

The fight against the crusaders and the raid of the Horde

The fight against the aggression of the crusaders

The coast from the Vistula to the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea was inhabited by Slavic, Baltic (Lithuanian and Latvian) and Finno-Ugric (Ests, Karelians, etc.) tribes. At the end of the XII - beginning of the XIII centuries. the peoples of the Baltic states are completing the process of disintegration of the primitive communal system and the formation of an early class society and statehood. These processes were most intense among the Lithuanian tribes. The Russian lands (Novgorod and Polotsk) exerted a significant influence on their western neighbors, who did not yet have a developed state of their own and church institutions (the peoples of the Baltic were pagans).

The attack on Russian lands was part of the predatory doctrine of the German chivalry "Drang nach Osten" (onslaught to the East). In the XII century. it began the seizure of lands belonging to the Slavs beyond the Oder and in the Baltic Pomerania. At the same time, an offensive was carried out on the lands of the Baltic peoples. The invasion of the crusaders into the lands of the Baltic states and North-Western Russia was sanctioned by the pope and German Emperor Frederick II. German, Danish, Norwegian knights and hosts from other northern European countries also took part in the crusade.

In order to conquer the lands of the Estonians and Latvians, the knightly Order of the Sword-bearers was created in 1202 from the Crusaders defeated in Asia Minor. The knights wore clothes with the image of a sword and a cross. They pursued an aggressive policy under the slogan of Christianization: "Whoever does not want to be baptized must die." Back in 1201, the knights landed at the mouth of the Western Dvina (Daugava) River and founded the city of Riga on the site of the Latvian settlement as a stronghold for subjugating the Baltic lands. In 1219, the Danish knights captured part of the Baltic coast, founding the city of Revel (Tallinn) on the site of an Estonian settlement.

In 1224 the crusaders took Yuriev (Tartu). To conquer the lands of Lithuania (Prussians) and the southern Russian lands in 1226, the knights of the Teutonic Order arrived, founded in 1198 in Syria during crusades. Knights - members of the order wore white cloaks with a black cross on the left shoulder. In 1234, the Swordsmen were defeated by the Novgorod-Suzdal troops, and two years later, by the Lithuanians and Semigallians. This forced the crusaders to join forces. In 1237, the swordsmen united with the Teutons, forming a branch of the Teutonic Order - the Livonian Order, named after the territory inhabited by the Liv tribe, which was captured by the crusaders.

The offensive of the knights especially intensified due to the weakening of Russia, which bled in the fight against the Mongol conquerors.

In July 1240 plight Russia tried to take advantage of the Swedish feudal lords. The Swedish fleet with an army on board entered the mouth of the Neva. Having risen along the Neva to the confluence of the Izhora River, the knightly cavalry landed on the shore. The Swedes wanted to capture the city of Staraya Ladoga, and then Novgorod.

Prince Alexander Yaroslavich, who was 20 years old at that time, with his retinue quickly rushed to the landing site. Covertly approaching the Swedes' camp, Alexander and his warriors struck at them, and a small militia led by Misha from Novgorod cut off the Swedes' path along which they could flee to their ships.

Alexander Yaroslavich was nicknamed Nevsky by the Russian people for the victory on the Neva. The significance of this victory is that it stopped the Swedish aggression to the east for a long time, retained Russia's access to the Baltic coast.

In the summer of the same 1240, the Livonian Order, as well as Danish and German knights, attacked Russia and captured the city of Izborsk. Soon, due to the betrayal of the posadnik Tverdila and part of the boyars, Pskov was taken (1241). Strife and strife led to the fact that Novgorod did not help its neighbors. And the struggle between the boyars and the prince in Novgorod itself ended with the expulsion of Alexander Nevsky from the city. In these conditions separate detachments Crusaders were 30 km from the walls of Novgorod. At the request of the veche, Alexander Nevsky returned to the city. Together with his retinue, Alexander liberated Pskov, Izborsk and other captured cities with a sudden blow. Having received the news that the main forces of the Order were coming at him, Alexander Nevsky blocked the way for the knights, placing his troops on the ice of Lake Peipsi. Alexander deployed troops under the cover of a steep bank on the ice of the lake, eliminating the possibility of enemy reconnaissance of his forces and depriving the enemy of freedom of maneuver. Taking into account the construction of the knights as a "pig" (in the form of a trapezoid with a sharp wedge in front, which was heavily armed cavalry), Alexander Nevsky arranged his regiments in the form of a triangle, with a tip resting on the shore. Before the battle, part of the Russian soldiers were equipped with special hooks to pull the knights off their horses. On April 5, 1242, a battle took place on the ice of Lake Peipsi, which was called the Battle of the Ice. The knight's wedge broke through the center of the Russian position and hit the shore. The flank strikes of the Russian regiments decided the outcome of the battle: like pincers, they crushed the knightly "pig". The knights, unable to withstand the blow, fled in panic. The Novgorodians drove them for seven versts across the ice, which by the spring had become weak in many places and collapsed under heavily armed soldiers. The Russians pursued the enemy, "flashed, rushing after him, as if through air," the chronicler wrote. According to the Novgorod chronicle, "400 Germans died in the battle, and 50 were taken prisoner" (German chronicles estimate the death toll at 25 knights). The captured knights were led in disgrace through the streets of the Lord Veliky Novgorod.

The significance of this victory lies in the fact that the military power was weakened Livonian Order. response to Battle on the Ice was the growth of the liberation struggle in the Baltic. However, relying on the help of the Roman Catholic Church, the knights at the end of the XIII century. captured a significant part of the Baltic lands.

Russian lands under the rule of the Golden Horde

In the middle of the XIII century. one of the grandsons of Genghis Khan, Khubulai moved his headquarters to Beijing, founding the Yuan dynasty. The rest of the Mongol state was nominally subordinate to the great khan in Karakorum. One of the sons of Genghis Khan - Chagatai (Jagatai) received the lands of most of Central Asia, and the grandson of Genghis Khan Zulagu owned the territory of Iran, part of Western and Central Asia and Transcaucasia. This ulus, singled out in 1265, is called the Hulaguid state after the name of the dynasty. Another grandson of Genghis Khan from his eldest son Jochi - Batu founded the state of the Golden Horde.

The Golden Horde covered a vast territory from the Danube to the Irtysh (Crimea, the North Caucasus, part of the lands of Russia located in the steppe, former lands Volga Bulgaria and nomadic peoples, Western Siberia and part of Central Asia). The capital of the Golden Horde was the city of Sarai, located in the lower reaches of the Volga (a shed in Russian means a palace). It was a state consisting of semi-independent uluses, united under the rule of the khan. They were ruled by the Batu brothers and the local aristocracy.

The role of a kind of aristocratic council was played by the "Divan", where military and financial issues were resolved. Being surrounded by the Turkic-speaking population, the Mongols adopted the Turkic language. The local Turkic-speaking ethnic group assimilated the newcomers-Mongols. A new people was formed - the Tatars. In the first decades of the existence of the Golden Horde, its religion was paganism.

The Golden Horde was one of the largest states of its time. AT early XIV centuries, she could put up a 300,000th army. The heyday of the Golden Horde falls on the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342). In this era (1312), Islam became the state religion of the Golden Horde. Then, just like other medieval states, the Horde experienced a period of fragmentation. Already in the XIV century. the Central Asian possessions of the Golden Horde separated, and in the 15th century. the Kazan (1438), Crimean (1443), Astrakhan (mid-15th century) and Siberian (end of the 15th century) khanates stood out.

The Russian lands devastated by the Mongols were forced to recognize vassal dependence on the Golden Horde. The unceasing struggle waged by the Russian people against the invaders forced the Mongol-Tatars to abandon the creation of their own administrative authorities in Russia. Russia retained its statehood. This was facilitated by the presence in Russia of its own administration and church organization. In addition, the lands of Russia were unsuitable for nomadic cattle breeding, in contrast, for example, to Central Asia, the Caspian Sea, and the Black Sea region.

In 1243, Yaroslav Vsevolodovich (1238-1246), the brother of the Grand Prince of Vladimir, killed on the Sit River, was called to the Khan's headquarters. Yaroslav recognized vassal dependence on the Golden Horde and received a label (letter) for the great reign of Vladimir and a golden plaque ("paydzu"), a kind of pass through the Horde territory. Following him, other princes reached out to the Horde.

To control the Russian lands, the institution of Baskak governors was created - the leaders of the military detachments of the Mongol-Tatars, who monitored the activities of the Russian princes. The denunciation of the Baskaks to the Horde inevitably ended either with the summoning of the prince to Sarai (often he lost his label, and even his life), or with a punitive campaign in the unruly land. Suffice it to say that only in the last quarter of the XIII century. 14 similar campaigns were organized in Russian lands.

Some Russian princes, in an effort to quickly get rid of vassal dependence on the Horde, took the path of open armed resistance. However, the forces to overthrow the power of the invaders were still not enough. So, for example, in 1252 the regiments of the Vladimir and Galician-Volyn princes were defeated. This was well understood by Alexander Nevsky, from 1252 to 1263 the Grand Duke of Vladimir. He set a course for the restoration and recovery of the economy of the Russian lands. The policy of Alexander Nevsky was also supported by the Russian Church, which saw a great danger in Catholic expansion, and not in the tolerant rulers of the Golden Horde.

In 1257, the Mongol-Tatars undertook a census of the population - "recording in number." Besermens (Muslim merchants) were sent to the cities, to whom the collection of tribute was given. The size of the tribute ("exit") was very large, only the "royal tribute", i.e. tribute in favor of the khan, which was first collected in kind, and then in money, amounted to 1300 kg of silver per year. The constant tribute was supplemented by "requests" - one-time requisitions in favor of the khan. In addition, deductions from trade duties, taxes for "feeding" the khan's officials, etc. went to the khan's treasury. In total there were 14 types of tributes in favor of the Tatars.

Census of the population in the 50-60s of the XIII century. marked by numerous uprisings of Russian people against the Baskaks, Khan's ambassadors, tribute collectors, scribes. In 1262, the inhabitants of Rostov, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Suzdal, and Ustyug dealt with the tribute collectors, the Besermen. This led to the fact that the collection of tribute from the end of the XIII century. was handed over to the Russian princes.

The Mongol invasion and the Golden Horde yoke became one of the reasons for the Russian lands lagging behind the developed countries of Western Europe. Huge damage was done to the economic, political and cultural development of Russia. Tens of thousands of people died in battle or were driven into slavery. A significant part of the income in the form of tribute went to the Horde.

The old agricultural centers and the once developed territories were abandoned and fell into decay. The border of agriculture moved to the north, the southern fertile soils were called the "Wild Field". Russian cities were subjected to mass ruin and destruction. Many crafts were simplified and sometimes even disappeared, which hampered the creation of small-scale production and ultimately delayed economic development.

The Mongol conquest preserved political fragmentation. It weakened the ties between the various parts of the state. Traditional political and trade ties with other countries were disrupted. Russian vector foreign policy, passing along the line "south - north" (the fight against the nomadic danger, stable ties with Byzantium and through the Baltic with Europe) radically changed its focus to the "west - east". The pace of cultural development of the Russian lands slowed down.

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