Classicism - (from lat. classicus - exemplary) - a literary trend that has developed in European literature of the 17th century, based on:

1) Recognition of ancient art as the highest model, ideal, and the works of antiquity as an artistic norm.

2) The principle of rationalism and "imitation of nature".

3) The cult of reason.

4) Active appeal to public, civil issues.

5) Emphasized objectivity of the narrative.

6) Strict hierarchy of genres.

High: tragedy, epic, ode (they depict social life, history; heroes, generals, monarchs act). Medium: letters, diaries. Low: comedy, satire, fable (the subject of the image is the daily life of ordinary people). Mixing high and low genres was not allowed. Three works by the Roman poet Virgil, respectively, were considered examples of the simple (low), middle, and high styles: Bucoliki (the hero is a shepherd), Georgics (the hero is a plowman), and Aeneid (the hero is a leader). The authors of the classicist direction were not supposed to leave the circle of images and plots prescribed by the style. The leading genre of cinematography is tragedy.

A literary work of art is organized as an artificial, logically constructed whole, which is characterized by a strict plot and compositional organization and schematism. Human characters are outlined in a straight line; heroes are strictly divided into positive (idealized) and negative. P. Corneille, J.-B. Moliere, J. Racine, theorist - N. Boileau (author of the treatise poem "Poetic Art").

The birth of Russian K. is attributed to the 20-30s. 18th century The features of this trend were most fully manifested in the work of such Russian writers as A.D. Kantemir, V.K. Trediakovsky, A.P. Sumarokov, M.V. Lomonosov, G.R. Derzhavin, D.I. Fonvizin and others.

Sentimentalism - (from French sentiment - feeling, sensitivity) - the literary direction of the second half of XVIII in. - early XIX century, unlike classicism, recognizing the basis of human nature is not reason, but feeling. It arose as a reaction to the rigid framework of classicism. The most important property of S. is the desire to explore the human personality in the movements of the soul, thoughts, feelings, and experiences. Departing from the straightforwardness inherent in classicism, S. turns to the image of private human life. The main themes of S. are love, friendship, suffering, the contradictions of inner life, etc. The hero of S.'s works is a simple person, a representative of the lower classes, endowed with innate moral purity, integrity, and a rich spiritual world. Sentimentalist writers propagated the value of natural feelings, the organic connection between man and nature, idealized the patriarchal way of life. The main genres of S. are a sentimental novel, a story, a diary, a journey, a letter, an elegy, and a message. The English writer J. Thompson (The Four Seasons, 1730) is considered the ancestor of S.; the largest representatives in European literature - L. Stern ("Sentimental Journey through France and Italy"), J.-J. Rousseau ("Julia, or the New Eloise"), S. Richardson ("Ppamela, or Rewarded Virtue", "Clarissa, or the Story of a Young Lady"), I.-V. Goethe ("The Suffering of Young Werther") and others; in Russian literature of the second half of the 18th century. - M.N. Muravyov, N.M. Karamzin, V.V. Kapnist, N.A. Lvov, A.N. Radishchev, early V.A. Zhukovsky. Peculiar calling card and the artistic manifesto of Russian S. was the story of N.M. Karamzin "Poor Lisa". Russian S. is characterized by a pronounced educational character: the presence of a strong didactic attitude, active improvement literary language through the introduction of colloquial forms. S.'s role in the literary process is to affirm the value of the individual human personality, to democratize art, and to bring the literary language closer to the spoken language. In general, S., with his subjective approach to the world around him and man, prepared the emergence of romanticism.

Romanticism - (German Romantik, French romantisme, English romanticism) a creative method in literature and art that developed at the end of the 18th century - early XIX in. and widely used as a direction (flow) in the art and literature of most European countries. The romantic method is based on general principles: the subjective position of the writer in relation to the depicted; the desire not so much to recreate as to recreate reality, which leads to the use of science fiction, grotesque, symbolism, conventions, etc. in R.'s works; nomination as a hero of an exceptional personality ( romantic hero), lonely, dissatisfied with reality, rebellious, rebellious against the world order, endowed with a desire for absolute freedom, for an unattainable ideal, combined with an understanding of the imperfection of the surrounding world; proclaiming the value of the human person, human individuality . R. is characterized not only by the rejection of the real world, from the ordinary, but also by an interest in everything exotic, strong, bright, sublime (the action of the poems by J. Byron and A.S. Pushkin unfolds in southern countries and in the countries of the East, the ballads of V.A. Zhukovsky - in a fantastic, fictional world, often romantic poets transfer the action of their works to the past). The leading feature of R. is a tragic dual world, an experience of discord with reality: the romantic hero is aware of the imperfection of the world and people and at the same time dreams of being understood and accepted by them. Propagation time - late 18th- first half of the 19th century . (J. Byron, P.B. Shelley, V. Hugo, E.T.A. Hoffman); heyday in Russia - 10 - 30s. 19th century (ballads by V.A. Zhukovsky, lyrics and poems by A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, A.A. Bestuzhev, K.F. Ryleev, etc.).

Realism - (from lat. realis - real) - an artistic method in literature and art, following which the writer depicts life in accordance with objective reality; truthful reproduction of "typical characters in typical circumstances" (F. Engels). R. - "a direction in art that most closely depicts reality" (V.P. Rudnev). The focus of R. is not just facts, events, people and things, but those patterns that operate in life, the relationship between man and the environment, the hero and the time in which he lives. At the same time, the writer does not break away from reality, with the greatest accuracy selects the features inherent in life and thereby enriches the reader with knowledge of life. The selection of life phenomena, their assessment, the ability to present them as important, characteristic, typical - all this is connected with the artist's point of view on life, and this depends on his worldview, on the ability to catch the movement of the era. The realistic method is based on historicism of thinking (the vision of a historical perspective, the interaction of the past, present and future), social analysis (the depiction of phenomena in their specific social conditionality), and social typification. In the 19th century develops new type realism - critical R. In the West, its heyday is associated with the names of Stendhal and O. de Balzac in France, C. Dickens and W. Thackeray in England, in Russia - with the names of A.S. Pushkin, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov. K. r. redefine the relationship between man and environment. Human character is revealed primarily in connection with social circumstances. The inner world of a person also becomes the subject of deep analysis - K. r. is simultaneously comprehended as psychological (See psychologism). AT Russia XIX century becomes a period of intensive development of R. In the second half of the 19th century, the artistic achievements of realism bring Russian literature to the international arena, gaining world recognition for it. A special place in the history of Russian R. belongs to L.N. Tolstoy and F.M. Dostoevsky . It is thanks to them that the Russian realistic novel acquired world significance. In the twentieth century the realistic tradition was continued by I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin, V.V. Veresaev and others

Modernism - (from French moderne - modern, latest) -

1) Symbol period of culture of the late nineteenth - mid-twentieth century: a set of non-realistic philosophical and artistic trends in the art of this era, which are united by the idea of ​​renewal, revision of the philosophical foundations, creative principles, the very language of classical art of the nineteenth century. M., just like decadence, in a peculiar way focused and expressed the moods of the "end-beginning of the century."

2) Literary direction of the first half of the 20th century, uniting many schools and trends (in world literature, impressionism and expressionism are considered the largest movements of M., in Russian - symbolism and acmeism). M. is fundamentally opposed to realism as a traditional art: M. is characterized by anti-historic thinking (history is replaced by a certain model of the world in which nothing changes, the mythologization of the past, present and future); interest in a person in general, and not in a person as a product of his era (the specific historical situation in the works of M. does not matter, because "a man, like a horse, always walks with his eyes closed in the same circles" (D. Joyce) ); lack of social typification. M. transforms the world by means of art, seeks to model his own reality. In addition, important features of modernist aesthetics are the principle of synthesis of arts, the fusion of the real and the fantastic, the blurring of the boundaries between reality and art, innovation in the field of form and content, etc.

symbolism	acmeism	futurism
(fr. symbolisme< от греч. symbolon - знак, опознавательная примета) - явление художественной культуры последней трети XIX - нач. ХХ вв., противопоставившее себя реализму (в частности, натурализму) и сделавшее основой своей художественной системы философскую концепцию о принципиальной непознаваемости мира и человека средствами научного опыта, логического анализа и реалистического изображения. Syvolist artists recognized only intuitive knowledge- artistic intuition, capable of discovering the ideal (spiritual) essence of the world, lost as a result of the tragic gap between the visible and the existing, the material and the spiritual, the revealed and the hidden, helping the poet (artist) to guess or feel the deep state of the environment. Born in France in the 70s. 19th century as a trend that develops achievements impressionism in the field of language and style, S. began to be recognized as an independent direction, which opened up fundamentally new ways of comprehending reality. At the heart of S.'s philosophy is the idea of ​​the German philosopher F. Nietzsche that life is an endless process of creativity that has no purpose other than aesthetic (art for art's sake): "The existence of the world can only be justified as an aesthetic phenomenon." The Symbolists made Art God, and the creative act was perceived as a religious and mystical act, connecting the artist with true reality - other worlds. The key concept in S.'s philosophy is the rethought romantic idea of ​​two worlds (see romanticism): the imperfect real world is only a reflection of the ideal world. The connecting link, the bridge between the two worlds becomes symbol , just as in Ancient Greece two parts of the plate (symbol), converging into a whole along the fault line, were a conventional sign that allows strangers involved in some common cause or secret, to know each other. Thus, the symbolists see in art a universal way of connecting the mysterious (ideal) world with reality, and the poet (artist), far from the social problems of our time, is thought of as the chosen one (theurgist, "god of the mysterious world"), endowed with the highest knowledge of eternal Beauty and realizing this knowledge in an updated poetic word. The influence of the word, in turn, is likened to the influence of music as a universal (that is, non-national, capable of being understood without words) art: the Symbolists are striving to ensure that the word does not “speak”, but inspires, enchants, evokes (literally, according to Fet: “Oh , if without a word // It was possible to speak with the soul!" and "What you can’t express with words - // With a sound on the soul"). S. actively developed in countries Western Europe: the work of many poets is associated with it (Sch. Baudelaire, P. Verlaine, A. Rimbaud, S. Mallarme, R.M. Rilke and others, playwrights (G. Ibsen, M. Maeterlinck, E. Rostand, etc.) , prose writers (G. Mann, F. Kafka, G. Hesse, etc.) In Russia, S. declared himself in the late 80s of the XIX century in the poetry of N. Minsky, K. Ldov and etc., philosophical works and lyrics V.S. Solovyov(primarily in the doctrine of the "soul of the world"), and in the last decade of the century - in the work of the senior symbolists D.S. Merezhkovsky, Z.N. Gippius, V.Ya. Bryusova, Vyach. Ivanov and others, at the turn of the century - the younger symbolists A.A. Blok, A. Bely, S.M. Soloviev.	Acmeism ("Adamism") (from the Greek. άκμη - " highest degree, top, flowering, blooming time") - a literary movement that opposes symbolism and arose at the beginning of the 20th century in Russia. Acmeists proclaimed materiality, objectivity of themes and images, the accuracy of the word. The formation of acmeism is closely connected with the activities of the "Workshop of Poets", the central figures of which were the founders of acmeism N. S. Gumilyov, A. Akhmatova (who was his secretary and active participant) and S. M. Gorodetsky. Contemporaries gave the term other interpretations: Vladimir Pyast saw its origins in the pseudonym of Anna Akhmatova, which sounds like “akmatus” in Latin, some pointed to its connection with the Greek “akme” - “point”. The term "acmeism" was proposed in 1912 by N. Gumilyov and S. M. Gorodetsky: in their opinion, symbolism in crisis is being replaced by a direction that generalizes the experience of predecessors and leads the poet to new peaks of creative achievements. The name for the literary movement, according to A. Bely, was chosen in the heat of controversy and was not entirely justified: Vyacheslav Ivanov jokingly spoke about "Acmeism" and "Adamism", Nikolai Gumilyov picked up accidentally thrown words and dubbed the group of poets close to him Acmeists . Acmeism was based on preference for the description of real, earthly life, but it was perceived extra-socially and extra-historically. Described the little things of life, the objective world. The gifted and ambitious organizer of acmeism dreamed of creating a "direction of directions" - a literary movement that reflects the appearance of all contemporary Russian poetry. Acmeism has established itself in the theoretical works and artistic practice of N. S. Gumilyov (article "The Legacy of Symbolism and Acmeism" 1913), S. M. Gorodetsky (“Some currents in modern Russian poetry” 1913), O.E. Mandelstam (article "Morning of acmeism", publ. in 1919), A. A. Akhmatova, M. A. Zenkevich, G. V. Ivanov, E. Yu. Kuzmina-Karavaeva.	(from lat. futurum - future) - avant-garde (see avant-gardism) trend in art and literature of the twentieth century, which originated in Italy ("Futurist Manifesto" 1909) and became widespread in many European countries, primarily in Russia. Representatives of this revolutionary trend in art are characterized by: 1) A demonstrative break with traditional culture, rejection of the classical (see classics) heritage (Russian futurists called for Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy to be "thrown off the Steamship of Modernity"). "laughers, smart" by V. Khlebnikov, etc.) 3) shocking the public and often literary hooliganism (the manifesto of Russian futurists was called "A slap in the face of public taste", collections - "The Garden of Judges", "The Milkers of Exhausted Toads", "The Dead Moon", "Roaring Parnassus", etc.). Russian F. was represented by four associations of poets: the group of Moscow "budetlyans" (from the word "future" - a neologism belongs to V. Khlebnikov) "Gilea" included D. and N. Burliuks, V.V. Mayakovsky, A. Kruchenykh, V. Kamensky, E. Guro (in the future they began to call themselves cubo-futurists and promote the ideas of dissonance in poetic speech, the use of reduced vocabulary, violations language norms etc.); St. Petersburg egofuturists (I. Severyanin's term: from Latin ego - I, literally I - the future) included I. Severyanin, G.V. Ivanov, P. Shirokov and others; the Moscow association of ego-futurists "Poetry Mezzanine" is represented by the names of V.G. Shershenevich, R. Ivnev, B.A. Lavreneva and others; the successors of the St. Petersburg F. were members of the Centrifuge group B.L. Pasternak, N.N. Aseev and others. It is believed that Russian F. has exhausted itself by about 1915.

Postmodernism - a direction in literature, aesthetics, philosophy of the 20th century (its origin is attributed to the 30s - 40s of the 20th century, its heyday - to the 80s). A characteristic feature of Russian postmodern literature is its opposition to realistic art, primarily socialist realism, which was considered an official trend in Russia until the end of the 1970s. XX century: postmodernists consciously reject the norms, rules and restrictions developed by the previous cultural tradition, reject authorities (including the authority of modernism) or ironically rethink them. P. declares cultural pluralism (freedom to choose topics, genres, etc.), blurring the boundaries between high and low, reality and fiction, art and reality, etc. The most important element postmodern text are irony and self-irony, a language game. The style of postmodern texts is also characterized by a conscious combination in one work of themes, problems, motives, artistic techniques, styles of works of different eras, peoples, cultures, which inevitably leads to stylistic eclecticism, quotation (L. Losev writes: I'm pinching, // I'm carrying something alien"). Quotation, often brought to centonicity (see centone), has become one of the principles of P. However, in a postmodern text, a quote taken out of the context of the source begins to live independent life, including in a new context, for example:

A special place in P.'s poetics is occupied by travesty (that is, parodically lowered) quotes: "... and then Dantes in chain mail // From his Paris // like a bullet to the singing of a blizzard // into the body of our everything!" (Goal); "How now the soul says goodbye to the body. // To say goodbye, to know, the time has come. // She is still, really, where she is good. // It is old and tired" (L. Losev). The language itself in P.'s work turns from a tool for describing the world into an object of study, and a poet, writer - into a tool of language. P. also actively uses allegories, reminiscences, associations, mythologemes and ideologemes, symbols. The leading postulate of P. becomes the principle of "the world as a text" (see intertextuality). At the same time, P. proclaims the conditions for creating a text free movement meanings that do not form a single semantic center, an arbitrary combination of elements, in other words, the creation of a kind of cultural collage, a text that does not reflect reality, but creates a new or many new realities. Representatives of painting in modern Russian literature include Sasha Sokolov, V. Sorokin, T. Kibirov, V. Strochkov, A. Levin, and others. The most striking currents of Russian painting are social art and conceptualism.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical-literary HISTORICAL-LITERARY analysis considers a work of art as a component of an autonomous historical-literary series, that is, as an element of a diachronic text. HISTORICAL AND LITERARY analysis considers a work of art as a component of an autonomous historical and literary series, that is, as an element of a diachronic text.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. The context of analysis is the literary process itself: The context of analysis is the literary process itself: the internal laws of the domestic or world literary process, the internal laws of the domestic or world literary process, the place of the writer in the history of literature (counterpoint of tradition and innovation in his work are perceived by the researcher as factors that determined the appearance, problematics and poetics of a work of art). the place of the writer in the history of literature (the counterpoint of tradition and innovation in his work is perceived by the researcher as factors that determined the appearance, problematics and poetics of a work of art).

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary “... the first task of the future researcher of the origin of Turgenev's novel is to find out the size and nature of Pushkin's legacy in it, and then the nature and reasons for Turgenev's deviation from Pushkin's norm. These are special questions. Nevertheless, we allow ourselves to point out, on the second question, to the enormous role (noted by contemporaries) of the novel by J. Sand in the composition of Turgenev's novel. But the novels of J. Sand, that is, those that are relevant to our question, belong to the literary offspring of "Adolf" and represent the development and expansion of the constant roman d "analyse" (L. Pumpyansky) "... the first task of the future researcher of the origin of Turgenev's novel - to find out the size and nature of Pushkin's heritage in it, and then the nature and reasons for Turgenev's deviation from Pushkin's norm. These are special questions. Nevertheless, we allow ourselves to point out, on the second question, to the enormous (noted by contemporaries) role of the novel by J. Sand in the composition of Turgenev's novel But the novels of J. Sand, that is, those that are relevant to our question, belong to the literary offspring of "Adolf" and represent the development and expansion of the constant roman d "analyse" (L. Pumpyansky)

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary "... the form of poetry depends on the nature of the artistic genius of that other people: the hexameter of the Homeric epic is nothing but the prosody of the chants of the Greek people" "... the form of poetry depends on the nature of the artistic genius of that other people: the hexameter of the Homeric epic is nothing more than the prosody of chants Greek people” I. Herder. I. Herder.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary A brief and very important signal of loneliness: A brief and very important signal of loneliness: I go out alone on the road. I go out alone on the road. Opposition: "I'm leaving" and "on the road." The road (as a rule) of Russian and world poetry, they, as a rule, mean: the changing connections of the traveler with people and the world, set the expectation of communication and meetings, Opposition: "I'm leaving" and "on the road." The road (as a rule) of Russian and world poetry, they, as a rule, mean: the changing connections of the traveler with people and the world, set the expectation of communication and meetings, but in this case this expectation does not come true: one, but in this case this expectation does not come true: alone, so the contrast between the signal of loneliness and neighboring words, symbols of future communication, emphasizes the bleak state of the hero. therefore, the contrast between the signal of loneliness and neighboring words, symbols of future communication, emphasizes the desolate state of the hero.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical-literary Desperate state: in the next line there is a subtle, but completely real presence of sadness: A desolate state: in the next line there is a subtle, but completely real presence of sadness: Through the fog, the flinty path shines ... Through the fog, the flinty path shines .. "Silicon", i.e. strewn with small stones, stony, "Silicon", i.e. strewn with small stones, stony, which evokes the idea of ​​​​a difficult and harsh path, and this association, significant in itself, is enriched with a sense of sorrow , which is inspired by the lunar landscape (the path in the night, of course, shines only in the light of the moon, and the epithet “sad” is inseparable from it). which evokes the idea of ​​a difficult and harsh path, and this association, significant in itself, is enriched by a sense of sorrow, which is inspired by the lunar landscape (the path in the night, of course, shines only in the light of the moon, and the epithet “sad” is inseparable from it).

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. The historical and literary “Sad Moon” is a cultural symbol that is universally significant for world poetry, among poets it is always associated with the image of painful sadness, a sad thought (A.N. Afanasiev); The “sad moon” is a cultural symbol that is universally significant for world poetry, among poets it is always associated with the image of painful sadness, a sad thought (A.N. Afanasiev); exceptions are observed in parodic texts: exceptions are observed in parodic texts: She is round, red in face, Round, she is red in face, Like this stupid moon Like this stupid moon On this stupid sky - On this stupid sky - "Eugene Onegin" "Eugene Onegin"

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. The historical and literary Fog and any diminution of light (for example, an eclipse) are correlated in the mythological views of the Slavs with bad omens, a premonition of loss and damage (A.N. Afanasiev). Fog and any diminution of light (for example, an eclipse) are correlated in the mythological views of the Slavs with bad omens, a premonition of loss and damage (A.N. Afanasyev). These associations, generated by the context of Russian, world poetry, already at the very beginning of the poem entail an atmosphere of sadness. These associations, generated by the context of Russian, world poetry, already at the very beginning of the poem entail an atmosphere of sadness.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary Third and fourth verse: Third and fourth verse: the gloomy, mournfully preoccupied mood is opposed to the peace of the Universe, where everything is in harmony, in harmony with each other (“The night is quiet. The desert listens to God, and the star speaks to the star”), the gloomy, mournfully preoccupied mood is opposed by the peace of the Universe, where everything is in harmony, in harmony with each other (“The night is quiet. The desert listens to God, and the star speaks to the star”), and where the Lermontov man is not involved in anything and does not belong to anything. His inner alienation to the environment is reinforced by the word "desert": a deserted space in which any connection between one and the other is impossible. and where Lermontov's man is not involved in anything and does not belong to anything. His inner alienation to the environment is reinforced by the word "desert": a deserted space in which any connection between one and the other is impossible.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary However, the “desert” itself is inseparable from a single whole, the cosmos, or the Universe, for it “listens to God”, and therefore the loneliness of the hero, as if forced out of the vast world or torn out of ties with it, acquires a limitless, universal, and therefore , a true romantic character. However, the “desert” itself is inseparable from a single whole, the cosmos, or the Universe, for it “listens to God”, and therefore the loneliness of the hero, as if forced out of the vast world or torn out of ties with it, acquires a limitless, universal, and therefore truly romantic character.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. The feeling of loneliness is also confirmed by the initial verses of the second stanza: The feeling of loneliness is also confirmed by the initial verses of the second stanza: “It is solemn and wonderful in heaven ...” - this is a look up, from the earth, “In heaven it is solemn and wonderful ...” - this is a look up, from the earth, But: “The earth is sleeping in a blue radiance ...” - The lyrical hero sees the earth as if in its entirety, in a halo of blue radiance (again, a look up?): romantic space No: “The earth is sleeping in a blue radiance ... "- The lyrical hero sees the earth as if it were all in its entirety, in a halo of blue radiance (looking up again?): romantic space

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary The opposition of points of view in the fifth and sixth verses (one from above, the other from below) creates the impression that Lermontov’s person feels himself to be a kind of center around which the rest of the world is located: romantic egocentrism The opposition of points of view in the fifth and sixth verses (one - from a height, the other - from below) creates the impression that a Lermontovian person feels himself to be a kind of center around which the rest of the world is located: romantic egocentrism

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary Like the Demon, Lermontov's man, he does not belong to earth or heaven, "homeless" both on earth and in heaven, torn away from the heavenly paradise, where "solemnly and wonderfully", and cannot accept the earthly vale. Like the Demon, Lermontov's man, he does not belong to earth or heaven, "homeless" both on earth and in heaven, torn away from the heavenly paradise, where it is "solemn and wonderful", and cannot accept the earthly vale. Thus, the whole measure of restlessness and tragedy is revealed. lyrical hero, which raises a painful question in him: This is how the whole measure of restlessness and tragedy of the lyrical hero is revealed, which raises a painful question in him: Why is it so painful and so difficult for me? Why is it so painful and so difficult for me? This ends the first part of the poem This ends the first part of the poem

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary Affirmation of one’s special values ​​begins with a denial: “I don’t expect anything from life ...” - Affirmation of one’s special values ​​begins with a denial: “I don’t expect anything from life ...” - this is about earthly imperfect life, with which a proud, protesting heart cannot be reconciled. this is about earthly imperfect life, with which a proud, protesting heart cannot be reconciled. The next line should not be read (understood) literally, because it contains a purely Lermontovian meaning. The key to it is in all the poet's lyrics; it differs from other poetic systems in an extraordinary unity of thought, views, attitude. The next line should not be read (understood) literally, because it contains a purely Lermontovian meaning. The key to it is in all the poet's lyrics; it differs from other poetic systems in an extraordinary unity of thought, views, attitude.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary "And I do not feel sorry for the past at all ..." - evidence of one of the most important features of Lermontov's poetic consciousness - his belief in "heavenly origin" human soul, that the soul remembers the former heavenly harmony. “And I don’t feel sorry for the past at all ...” is evidence of one of the most important features of Lermontov’s poetic consciousness - his conviction in the “heavenly origin” of the human soul, that the soul remembers the former heavenly harmony. The verses about the angel who carried the soul to the sorrowful and mortal earth are indicative: The verses about the angel who carried the soul to the sorrowful and mortal earth are indicative:

An angel flew across the midnight sky, And he sang a quiet song; And the moon, and the stars, and the clouds in a crowd Listened to that song of the saint. He sang about the bliss of sinless spirits Under the bushes of paradise gardens; He sang about the great God, and His praise was not feigned. He carried a young soul in his arms For a world of sorrow and tears; And the sound of his song in the young soul Remained without words, but alive. And for a long time she languished in the world, Full of wondrous desire; And the sounds of heaven could not replace Her boring songs of the earth. "Angel"

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. The historical and literary “Past”, which is mentioned in the second line of the third stanza of the poem “I go out alone on the road ...”, means the “former” heavenly bliss, lost harmony. The “past”, which is mentioned in the second line of the third stanza of the poem “I go out alone on the road ...”, means the “former” heavenly bliss, the lost harmony. The poet does not seem to regret her and does not expect anything from earthly life, but the meaning of his assurances comes into direct conflict with their intonation, in which the bitterness of irreparable losses sounds. It is she who does not allow the hero, with all his despair, to renounce undoubted ideals, to stop yearning for them. The poet does not seem to regret her and does not expect anything from earthly life, but the meaning of his assurances comes into direct conflict with their intonation, in which the bitterness of irreparable losses sounds. It is she who does not allow the hero, with all his despair, to renounce undoubted ideals, to stop yearning for them.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary “I am looking for freedom and peace” - “I am looking for freedom and peace” - and Pushkin: and Pushkin: “There is no happiness in the world, but there is peace and freedom ...” (poem “It's time, my friend, it's time! .."). “There is no happiness in the world, but there is peace and will ...” (poem “It's time, my friend, it's time! ..”). BUT: BUT: The hope that fed Pushkin is clearly shaken in the dramatic consciousness of Lermontov. This is due to the fundamental difference between the eras that formed the two geniuses: "before" and "after" the December uprising. The hope that fed Pushkin is clearly shaken in Lermontov's dramatic consciousness. This is due to the fundamental difference between the eras that formed the two geniuses: "before" and "after" the December uprising. What was a symbol of faith for Pushkin (“is”) became an unattainable ideal for his successor (“I am looking for”), What for Pushkin was a symbol of faith (“is”) became an unattainable ideal for his successor (“I am looking for”) ), which is why the desire arises: “I would like to forget and fall asleep!”. which is why the desire arises: “I would like to forget myself and fall asleep!”.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary The desire to “forget and fall asleep” - The desire to “forget and fall asleep” is a rebellion of a lonely person against an imperfect world order, but not life itself. a revolt of a lonely person against an imperfect world order, but not life itself. The thirst for an ideal is stronger than despair, and a dream is not thought of as an exclusion from being (“... not by that cold dream of the grave”, when the spirit “drowns in the endless abyss”), but by other existence, in which life and death are the same complementary members of a pair, like heaven and earth in the universe. The thirst for an ideal is stronger than despair, and a dream is not thought of as an exclusion from being (“... not by that cold dream of the grave”, when the spirit “drowns in the endless abyss”), but by other existence, in which life and death are the same complementary members of a pair, like heaven and earth in the universe.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary Life becomes like death (“forever ... fall asleep”), death - like life (“So that life forces doze in the chest, So that, breathing, the chest rises quietly”) - this is a state of nirvana, Life becomes like death (“forever ... fall asleep”), death - for life (“So that life of strength dozes in the chest, So that, breathing, the chest rises quietly”) - this is a state of nirvana, which only one can give the hero a sense of peace and freedom, therefore: which only one can give the hero a sense of peace and freedom, therefore: The loneliness and restlessness of Lermontov's man disappear. The loneliness and restlessness of the Lermontov man disappear. His self-enclosed world: (“But, having lost my homeland and freedom, I suddenly found myself in myself alone”) (it’s not for nothing that the hero feels as if he is the center of the Universe, which does not belong to it) will enter into a different relationship with the cosmos. His self-enclosed world: (“But, having lost my homeland and freedom, I suddenly found myself in myself alone”) (it’s not for nothing that the hero feels as if he is the center of the Universe, which does not belong to it) will enter into a different relationship with the cosmos.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary Soul of the hero and the Universe - in full agreement; heaven (“sweet voice”) and earth (“dark oak”) will turn to him with love and favor. The soul of the hero and the Universe are in full agreement; heaven (“sweet voice”) and earth (“dark oak”) will turn to him with love and favor. The world of the hero will join the world of the Universe. However, this idyll is possible only when the Lermontov man ceases to be a pain point in the universe. The world of the hero will join the world of the Universe. However, this idyll is possible only when the Lermontov man ceases to be a pain point in the universe. Under other conditions, there can be no harmony between him and the surrounding world. Under other conditions, there can be no harmony between him and the surrounding world.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary Theme of the song ("sweet voice" or voice "pleasant", from the draft version), arising with the support of harmonic sound writing in the last stanza: The theme of the song ("sweet voice" or voice "pleasant", from the draft version), arising from support for harmonic sound writing in the last stanza: symmetry of sounds: symmetry of sounds: "y" - in the 1st and 4th verses: 2; "y" - in the 1st and 4th verses: 2; "e" - in the 1st and 3rd verses: 4; in the 2nd and 4th verses: 2; "e" - in the 1st and 3rd verses: 4; in the 2nd and 4th verses: 2; "l" - in the 1st and 4th verses: 3 "l" - in the 1st and 4th verses: 3 and a single rhyme with alternating feminine and male endings, which gives a special rhythmic intonation completeness to the verses of the fifth stanza), and a single rhyme with alternating female and male endings, which gives a special rhythmic intonational completeness to the verses of the fifth stanza),

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. Historical and literary “I go out alone on the road ...” is one of Lermontov's last poems, the result of themes, motives, and quests that run through his work. This pearl of Russian lyrics reflects an extremely generalized philosophical interpretation of the poet’s tragic conflict with the world, free from historical and political realities, his romantically boundless pathos of denial, the psychological depth of the hero’s revelation, who endlessly craves the ideal and does not believe in its existence. “I go out alone on the road ...” is one of Lermontov's last poems, the result of themes, motives, and quests that run through his work. This pearl of Russian lyrics reflects an extremely generalized philosophical interpretation of the poet’s tragic conflict with the world, free from historical and political realities, his romantically boundless pathos of denial, the psychological depth of the hero’s revelation, who endlessly craves the ideal and does not believe in its existence.

TYPES OF ANALYSIS. The historical and literary, but spilled and melodious structure of the entire poem, starting with "Angel", is associated with that special Lermontov's Eden, to which he appropriated the name "joy", with the ideal fullness of being, unattainable in earthly struggles, but including musically transformed earthly values (flowering of nature, female love) ”, but the spilled and melodious structure of the entire poem, starting with“ Angel ”, is associated with that special Lermontov Eden, to which he assigned the name of“ joy ”, with the ideal fullness of being, unattainable in earthly struggles, but including in musically transformed earthly values ​​​​(flowering of nature, female love)"

Theory of Literature. The historical and literary process is the development, the movement of literature in the smallest details of a large historical time. The types of movement of literature in time are always unusually heterogeneous and are most often characterized by dissimilarity. Like artistic life in general, the literary process depends on socio-historical phenomena, but it also has relative independence. The literary process is full of contradictions, includes not only peaceful evolutionary, but also revolutionary (explosive) principles. The main thing is that it is characterized both by periods of rise and prosperity (classical stages in all national literatures), and by crises, times of decline. Initially, the various facts of the literary process are recognized by literary criticism. Discussions in the press, writers' conferences, symposiums, congresses, etc. are a form of understanding the current literary process and at the same time a way of influencing it. “Literary process - a complex system literary interactions. It is a picture of the formation, functioning and change of various literary trends (classicism, romanticism, realism and others) that arise in a particular era as an expression of the social, aesthetic needs of certain forces of society and descend from historical arena when the situation changes”.

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Literary theory

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"Theory of Literature" - Reminiscence. Grotesque. Consonance of the ends of poetic lines. Remark. A combination of strings. Pathos. Satire. Oh yeah. Character. Ballad. Metaphor. Detail. Elegy. Drama. Hymn. Functions. Symbol. Conflict. Epos. Literary genera. Content elements. Artistic detail. Humor. Plot. Means. Plot. Stages of action development. Author. Character. Comedy. Idea. Artistic welcome. Sonnet. Preparation for the exam in literature.

"Theory and History of Literature" - Tiya, in which all sectors of society inevitably participate. Subtext is the meaning hidden "under" the text. Psychologism has not left literature. Historicism in a work of art. Historicism of literature. The psychologism of Tolstoy and Dostoevsky is an artistic expression. With the help of a detail, the writer highlights the event. Russian writers of the XIX century. more severe on their reflective heroes. The discussion unfolded in the 1840s.

"Questions on the theory of literature" - Paraphrase. A way to display internal state. Type of literature. Intentional use of the same words in the text. Description of nature. Term. A tool to help describe a character. Inner monologue. events in the work. Allegory. Exposure. Epilogue. Flame of talent. Interior. Grotesque. Description of the character's appearance. Symbol. Plot. Epic works. Expressive detail.

"Literature" - Traditions, stories, bylichki, legends. Sentimentalism. Romanticism. Artistic time and space. Symbolism. Classicism. The greatest fantasy of the world is E. T. Hoffmann. Acmeists or Adamists. Folklore is the artistic creativity of the broad masses of the people. Artistic image. Poetics. The author's idea is the first stage of the creative process. Theory of Literature. Much more than just a literary school.

"Fundamentals of the theory of literature" - Eternal image. Tale. Characters. Monologue. The content of the work. Two ways to create speech characteristics. Way. Temporary sign. Theory of Literature. Paphos consists of varieties. Pushkin. Plot. An example of opposition. The emotional content of a work of art. Eternal themes in fiction. Pathos. Inner speech. Historical persons. Characteristics of the hero. Fabular development.

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The historical and literary commentary on this poem should begin with the history of the city of Kitezh and the emergence of Lake Svetloyar. They say that the legend of the concealment of the sacred city of Kitezh is the pearl of the Slavic epic. Based on the legend, many research books, poems, Rimsky-Korsakov's opera The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevronia have been written. What is hidden behind the beautiful legend about the city that “left” into Lake Svetloyar without submitting to Tatar-Mongol yoke during the Batu invasion.

I
1. The story of the city of Kitezh dates back to the time of the Tatar-Mongol invasion, that is, to XIII century. However, according to Alexander Asov, the origins of this legend should be sought in an even earlier period - the pre-Christian history of Russia. This is not so easy, because in the Orthodox religious tradition paganism is so closely intertwined with Christianity that it is quite difficult to distinguish which legends belong to one and which myths to another.
Lake Svetloyar, in which, according to legend, the sacred city of Kitezh hid, is located in the Volga region, and has long been known as the center of pagan faith. The very name of the lake comes from two ancient Russian words: “bright”, that is, pure, righteous, and “yar”, which is the root of the name of the pagan solar deity Yarila, who was worshiped by the ancient tribes of the Slavs. AT modern world Lake Svetloyar is exposed scientific research, which end in failure, but many legends of the pre-Christian period are associated with Lake Svetloyar. They also mention the city of Kitezh. It is mentioned in the most ancient sacred source of the pagan faith - the "Star Book of Kolyada".
According to one of the legends, the magical half-horse-half-human Kitovras, who was a powerful magician and builder of ancient temples, as well as the god of wisdom and hop Kvasura, were born in the area of ​​​​Lake Svetloyar. From their names came the name of the city of Kitezh.
In the area of ​​​​Lake Svetloyar lived the Slavic tribe of the Berendeys. Their descendants to this day have preserved the legend that from ancient times in Kitezh there was one of the largest religious centers of the Yarila cult. This place was considered sacred to the Russian princes.
With the baptism of Russia, Kitezh, like many other major centers of the pagan cult, was turned into the center of the Orthodox faith, and the princes continued to visit it. Thus, the city of Kitezh, as it was the religious center of Russia, remained so.
Many Orthodox churches were built on the site of temples, as it was believed that such places are special - they are sources of strong positive energy. The names of the ancient gods were gradually changed to the names of saints, but the place of worship itself higher powers, possessing a truly magical energy, remained the same. That is why the region of Lake Svetloyar has been shrouded in legends and mysticism since ancient times. According to legend, it is in these places that only believers are able to see the city and its temples.

According to Christian chronicles, the city of Great Kitezh on the shores of Lake Svetloyar was built by Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich, son of Vsevolod the Big Nest. In addition to Big Kitezh, there was also Small Kitezh, which grew up under his grandfather, Yuri Dolgoruky (Rostov-Suzdal and the Great Kyiv Prince). There were many churches in Bolshoi Kitezh, and it was built all of white stone, which was at that time a sign of wealth and purity. However, legends united these two different cities, and so the mystical and mysterious Kitezh-grad appeared.

3. Aleksey Asov, guided by the legends and chronicles of that time, was able to recreate the true picture of the events of those distant times. In 1238, after the ruin of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Batu Khan set up camp on the City River. After another unequal battle, Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich with the remnants of his troops retreated to Small Kitezh. However, Batu took him by storm, and the prince with the remnants of the army miraculously managed to hide in Big Kitezh.
At that time, on Russian soil, Yuri Vsevolodovich remained practically the only organized force opposing Tatar-Mongol invasion. Batu craved power over the world and was eager to go further as soon as possible - to the Mediterranean Sea, but he was afraid to leave the proud and undefeated Russian prince in the rear. And then he ordered all Russian prisoners to be tortured so that they would give out reserved roads leading to Kitezh. The warriors were silent, because they knew: to betray the holy city means dooming themselves and their family to eternal damnation. Only one could not stand the torture - Grishka Kuterma. He was afraid of torment and death and agreed to lead the enemies to the Russian shrine. The path was not easy and lay among impenetrable swamps and forests. But the traitor knew the secret paths and was able to lead the Tatar-Mongolian army to the holy city. When Batu Khan approached the city, he saw that people were not going to fight with him, they were praying. Seeing the suffering of the Russians from the invaders, God took pity on the besieged. Before the eyes of Khan Batu and his troops, the holy city plunged into Lake Svetloyar and did not get to be plundered and destroyed by a merciless enemy.

Thus, for the Russian people, the city of Kitezh becomes a symbol of unsullied holiness and purity, which, according to the Old Believers, has no place in vicious reality.

Let's move on to the topic of M.V. Voloshin, the author of the work "Kitezh" in Russian literature.

MA Voloshin (Maximilian Alexandrovich Kiriyenko-Voloshin, 1877-1932) occupied a special place among the symbolists. With the Symbolists, he was united by social indifference, a passion for medieval mysticism, Indian philosophy, and modern occultism. Voloshin himself pointed to his creative affinity with Balmont, with whom he was connected by an interest in the fate of ancient cultures, reflections on the course of history, and lyrical contemplation. However, unlike the Symbolists, Voloshin was a master of vivid picturesque paintings; concrete, visible images were attracted to his poems, which brought the poet closer to the subsequent school of modernism - acmeism. Voloshin was a talented painter, and this was reflected in his poetry: Voloshin's poems are as colorful and expressive as the drawings. Voloshin's landscapes and his manner of writing distinguished him from the environment of the symbolists with their foggy images, decorative landscapes. He himself defined his style as "neorealism", which he understood as a combination of impressionism and symbolism.

The poem "Kitezh" was written on August 18, 1919. This poem fell into the cycle “Ways of Russia”, at the end of this poem, as in all other poems by M.A. Voloshin, it is written in which city the poem was created. But it is in this poem that there is a clarification when exactly it was written “During the offensive of Denikin” (this offensive by General Denikin on Moscow took place during the Civil War of 1919). This poem occupies a rather important place in this cycle, because this poem tells about a very early history, and it was with her that it all began, like this poem.

Throughout the first part of "Kitezh" the image of fire can be traced, which in the poetry of different peoples can be interpreted in different ways. But it is in this poem that this symbol can be understood only as a symbol of purification.

1. All Russia is a fire. Unquenchable flame

From end to end, from age to age

Buzzing, roaring... And the stone is cracking.

And each torch is a person.

Are we not ourselves, like our ancestors,

Did they let you fall? A hurricane

Inflated it, and drown in caustic smoke

Forests and villages of fire.

People, without realizing it, lit this “bonfire” themselves (it’s not for nothing that M.A. Voloshin associates every person with a torch: “And every torch is a person”) and people themselves must pay for what has been done. After all, the country has been burning with the flames of rebellion for so long, wars have flared up one after another, as if the coal will never go out. And why is the obsolete word “fire” used in this passage, and how does it relate to the theme of fire? Ognishchane is an estate in Ancient Russia, consisting of people living on a fire - in a large estate - and feeding on their labor. These are all producers of material values ​​who see the meaning of their lives in work and use the results of this work to their advantage (peasants, professional artisans, hunters and shepherds, city guards and other people of humble origin who have devoted themselves to protecting their native settlement, protecting trade routes, and during wars they formed the backbone of the people's militia). These people are directly related to the war, and therefore to the theme of fire.

Further analyzing this poem, we are faced with such geographical concepts as Sergiev, Optina and Sarov. According to G. Fedotov, "Sarov and Optina are the two hottest bonfires around which all of Russia warmed up." But what do these lines mean?

Neither Sergiev, nor Optina, nor Sarov -

The people will not take away the fire:

They will leave, fleeing the fires,

To the bottom of silver lakes.

Optina here means the world-famous monastery of Optina Hermitage. This monastery was spoken of as “an unfading lamp of unceasing prayer, a receptacle for truly Christian love and the center of asceticism…” Optina was a holy land for the Russian people, the third after Paradise and the Christian Community in the days of the Apostles.

Sarov, or Sarov Monastery (Sarov Assumption Hermitage) is a former male monastery founded in early XVIII in the city of Sarov, Tambov province (now Sarov - part of the Nizhny Novgorod region). Known as the place where he labored Reverend Seraphim Sarovsky, revered Orthodox ascetic and saint.

Sergius, or the Trinity-Sergius Lavra, in church literature is usually the Holy Trinity - Sergius Lavra - the largest Orthodox male stauropegial monastery in Russia, located in the center of the city of Sergiev Posad, Moscow Region, on the Konchur River. It was founded in 1337 by St. Sergius of Radonezh.

All these folk shrines, as they say in the poem "... will leave, fleeing the fires, To the bottom of silver lakes ..." Here, for the first time, the image of an underwater city appears for us, which appears as an eternal dream of the Russian people. And only the chosen and truly sacred land was rewarded with this divine grace: it left the harsh reality, from eternal life in the captivity of foreigners. After all, water is also a symbol of purity, and only such shrines are worthy of salvation.

So, given to the flow of the Tatars,

Holy Kievan Rus

She left the earth, hiding behind Svetloyar ...

But I will not renounce the fire!

I myself am fire. Rebellion is in my nature

Following the course of the poem, for the first time we are confronted with the image of the lyrical hero of the poem, which is personified here. The lyrical hero himself identifies himself with fire, saying: “I myself am fire. Rebellion is in my nature…”, meaning by this a stormy, restless personality. Further, he tries to convey to his readers that any human impulse and aspiration, like fire, needs its own framework and boundaries. As an example, he cites the construction of new cities, like prisons, into which a person drives himself.

But he needs the chain and the edge.

Not for the first time, dreaming of freedom,

We are building a new prison.

Outside the will of copper Peter -

Lights demonic game.

It is also mentioned here geographical concepts two Russian capitals: Moscow (the center of Russia) and St. Petersburg (the cultural center of Russia), which is presented here as a metaphor "The will of copper Peter". The mention of these two greatest cities for Russia is not accidental, because, according to the lyrical hero, we are not allotted more space outside of them. It is not in vain that he compares the development of new lands with the “fires of the demonic game” in the swamp, which can lead far, lead to death, without indicating the way back. So in history, when you get out of an old addiction, you fall under a new one.

And there are no ways to that city,

Where does the conscript and alien call

Underwater evangelism of churches.

Holy Russia has absolutely nothing to do with earthly existence, because her heirs made the country vile, there was no holiness left in it. “Holy Russia is covered with sinful Russia” - with the help of this metaphor, the author shows the structure of Russia (its history): up there, there is a sinful land, which seems to cover another world, the Holy Land, which was not created for everyone. And this deceitful world, built only on economic relations, blocks the way to the bright, pure, sacred, but not all people are given the opportunity to hear the call of the "underwater gospel of churches."

Now let's move on to the second part. this poem. It describes many stages of the entire centuries-old Russian history. It is this part of all three parts of the poem that can be attributed to the direction of impressionism, in which the author M. Voloshin sought to convey his fleeting impressions of the constantly changing world. Here are the internecine wars that arose at the very beginning of its existence, between the sons of princes Svyatoslav, Vladimir the Red Sun and Yaroslav the Wise for the division of land:

Here is the subordination of Prince Ivan Kalita of Rostov and Novgorod principalities, and the subordination of other principalities of the “rags” by his children Semion the Proud and Ivan the Red (Prince of Moscow from 1325), Grand Duke of Vladimir (from 1328). Ivan Krasny played a big role in the unification of Russian lands around Moscow after the death of Kalita.

Mean children of Kalita

She was taken in pieces.

In the following lines, we see a comparison of the Moscow princes in the face of Moscow itself with a "cross-spider", an insect whose color always adapts to its environment. So the Moscow tsars were by no means distinguished by their nobility, but by cunning and the ability to adapt to everyone: to humiliate themselves in front of stronger opponents, and to benefit by using weaker ones.

In the silence of nights, starry and frosty,

Like a fierce cross spider,

Moscow spun under the Dark and the Terrible

Your tight, hopeless circle.

Here the announcer and earpiece ruled for everyone,

And he was fierce and strict

Moscow prince - "bed and klyushnik

Lord," God bless!

According to the author, Russia is not developing properly, its history seems to repeat itself in a circle. Russian princes do not take into account the mistakes of their predecessors, trying to show their power, building cities and facades of inhuman beauty, competing with each other, and do nothing for the good of the country. It must be said that there is also a mention of two Russian tsars: Ivan IV the Terrible and Vasily Vasilyevich (1415 - 1462), the Grand Duke of Moscow (since 1425), who bore the nickname Dark

This is followed by lines in which Moscow is presented to us through the eyes of M. Voloshin, but, alas, it is presented not as a beautiful city in which all the splendor of the Russian land is collected, but as a mixture of “... a palace, a prison and a monastery” (the beauty of the palace, there is no freedom, like in a prison, a monastery has its own rules):

A nest of boyars, holy fools, humble women -

Palace, prison and monastery,

Where is the slaughtered baby for twenty years

He drew circles like a bat.

The image of the “slaughtered baby” here refers to Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich, son of Ivan IV. And then an impostor appeared, posing as him (False Dmitry). And the phrase "He drew circles like a bat" only testifies to his inability to learn from the mistakes of his predecessors. I did not know where to go from exposure.

In the following lines, we are presented with the reign of the first tsar of the Romanov dynasty - Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (in comparison with the "offspring of the Cat and the Mare"), whose ancestors were Andrei Ivanovich Kobyla and his son Fyodor Andreevich Koshka.

Breaking the bone, pulling the veins,

The throne of Moscow was being built,

When the offspring of the Cat and the Mare

Pozharsky led to reign.

The line "Pozharsky led to reign" only says that civil uprising headed in 1612 by Dmitry Pozharsky, was able to rid our country of the Polish-Lithuanian invaders who captured Russia after the flight of False Dmitry II. , the first Russian tsar from the Romanov dynasty (since 1613

In the following passage, we are talking about the reign of another brightest representative of the Romanov dynasty - Peter the Great, who was the first Russian emperor. But in this poem And M. Voloshin portrays Peter I as the "antichrist", who not only built the city of St. Petersburg, in the name of his greatness on human bones, but also tried to liken Russia to Europe, thereby crossing out the historical traditions of the Motherland.

Antichrist-Peter steamed block

Collected, pulled and shook,

A steamed block here means the Neva River, on which the city of St. Petersburg was built. Peter the Great forgot and violated all the laws of nature and the commandments of Christianity, and later "paid" for trying to shackle an unpredictable and beyond human control, such as a river. In the work of A.S. Pushkin " Bronze Horseman” tells about the flood, Peter I tried to curb the river, but now, even after his death, people are dying. And here the theme of the city under water is also present, but only in this case, the water cleans all the dirt that has accumulated in the world.

He taught book sciences.

In these lines, Peter's attempts to Europeanize the country are clearly expressed. The reformer tsar shaved the beards of the people. Haircut introduced a new fashion, as well as increased the education of the population. All nobles and noble people spoke exclusively French words, thereby not preserving our native language, we do not save history. It must be said that these reforms were perceived with hostility. Hence the comparison "up on the rack."

M.A. Voloshin also criticized the empresses in every possible way. He believed that fat empresses sat on huge eggs, from which officials, city executioners hatched.

Empire, leaving the hole mole,

hatched from eggs Z

It says here that after the reign of Peter the Great (the “mole” who “dug” a passage to Europe), he was replaced by Empresses: Catherine I, Anna Ioannovna, Anna Leopoldovna, Elizaveta Petrovna and Catherine the Great. All of them, in the view of M.A. Voloshin, were compared with “hens”, because the fate of all five empresses with historical inevitability was reflected in the fate of Russia - a country that, in the words of the philosopher Nikolai Berdyaev, has a female soul, ETERNALLY SEEKING AND FINDING NO PEACE ANYWHERE. Hence the line "the empire ... hatched from eggs" ...

Under hot crowned flesh

His five empresses.

Almost all 5 empresses, with the exception of one or two, were

Foreign blood. Catherine the Second was a German, Elizaveta Petrovna was half Jewish, Catherine the First was a Lithuanian Jewess. Hence the phrase:

Shtykov is illuminated with a radiance

The Russian throne was defended.

Many Jews occupied places on the throne and at the court with all sorts of executions and fortresses harassed the most prominent Russian nobles - the Golitsyns and a whole nest of Dolgorukovs.

There is a struggle for survival, for money, career and power. Vices flourish: betrayal and lies, violence and meanness, cynicism and hypocrisy. Outside the mystery, sometimes, as from a dungeon, flames break out.

And burst out with a whistle from under the throne

swirling flames -

To the light from darkness, to freedom from full -

Elements, passions, tribes.

In the next quatrain, the author has hope for the restoration of autocratic, but already masculine power in the person of the new Tsar of Russia, even if in the images of such traitorous leaders of the people as Pugacheva, Razin and Mazepe, who seem to have “Rise from the graves”:

Anathema of the church overcoming the shackles,

Resurrected from the graves

Mazepas, Razins and Pugachevs -

Horrors of other ages.

“Anathem to the Church having overcome the laws…” means to be freed from church curses for sins against the church, for reviling the faith. But also Orthodox Church anathematized the leaders of the people...

Summing up the second part, which describes many stages of centuries-old Russian history, M.A. Voloshin ends it with the following quatrain:

All darkened, in blood,

You remained the land of frenzy -

Yes, Russia has endured and endured a lot in its entire centuries-old history. Since the time of Rublev, a lot of blood has been shed in the struggle for justice, for better life. But in spite of everything, it still remained the "land of frenzy" - the land, which is constantly in a state of excitement, passion. After all, the very mentality of the Russian people contains such qualities as the breadth of the soul and the ability to sacrifice. And true love is always sacrificial...

A land that seeks love.

In the third part of the poem "Kitezh", the author M.A. Voloshin expresses (but in a rather ironic form) absolute confidence that the history of Russia will repeat itself again. Muscovite Russia in this poem is a "close, hopeless circle." The Russian people, accustomed to being under the “yoke of fatal power” throughout their centuries-old history, will get tired of the freedom gained at the cost of many human lives:

They will pass - molten years

People's storms and riots:

Yesterday's slave, tired of freedom,

He will grumble, demanding chains.

Will rebuild barracks and prisons,

Raise a broken throne

And he himself will go silent in his lairs,

Work in the fields like an ox.

And, sobering up from blood and fumes,

Tsar rejoicing at the scourge,

All these lines talk about the abolition of serfdom, despite the fact that it has already been abolished, people who were slaves will want to become dependent again. After all, they are not used to living, obeying only themselves, and also not used to being responsible for their actions on their own.

And here again the theme of fire arises. But the image of fire here is different; “He will light a bright candle” means he will light a light that illuminates someone’s life path. Fire can also be understood here as a symbol of self-sacrifice for the sake of others:

From the coals of an extinguished fire

Light a fiery candle.

This “reverse” process, according to the symbolist poet, is inevitable, because this is reality, namely, it is the ideal essence of the world. We live on sinful earth, "All our Russia is a fire" and nothing can be changed here, there is no other way. Earthly life is only a reflection, a distorted representation of being. The upper world can be comprehended by faith, through religion. Therefore, it remains only to reconcile, pray and, of course, believe, believe in an unprecedented city called Kitezh - the only ray of light in the dark Russian kingdom.

Pray, be patient, accept

On the shoulders of the cross, on the neck of the throne.

At the bottom of the soul, underwater Kitezh is buzzing -

Our impossible dream!

The poem "Kitezh" appeared in 1919 - a terrible, incomprehensible time for Russia. Crimea, Civil War, the onset of the "Red Terror". Why does M. Voloshin turn to the image of Kitezh - the city-myth? Is Kitezh an image of all of Russia?

The legend tells how, during the offensive of the troops of Batu, Kitezh, together with all the inhabitants, was sheltered from enemies by the waters of Lake Svetloyar.

The rebellious spirit of the inhabitants of Kitezh, who did not want to submit to the Tatars, is the spirit of Russia itself. There was not a single era when it was calm on the Russian land. The reasons for this are the characters, the thoughts of the people themselves. “Neither Seriev, nor Optina, nor Sarov people will take away the fire,” writes M. Voloshin. Yes, the strongholds of the humility of the human soul, monasteries, cannot extinguish the blazing flame, because, blinded by the storm of feelings, people cannot find the way to the shrines, and through them to God, roads: the demon leads. Russia did not plunge into the holy lake, but into sin.

Century after century, pictures of the frightening past of Russia pass before our eyes: civil strife of Russian princes hacked Russia with knives, the cruel reign of Ivan the Terrible, the troubled times of Godunov, the accession of the Romanov family, the anti-Russian reforms of Peter I, the reign of Catherine I, Anna Ioannovna, Anna Leopoldovna, Elizabeth Petrovna, Catherine II (they say Russia has a female soul).

The activity of Peter I is negatively evaluated in the poem

Sheared, shaved and, rearing up,

He taught book sciences ....

And Russia became German, orderly, vile.

Shtykov is illuminated with a radiance,

In a mixture of Holstein and Württemberg blood

The Russian throne was defended.

The consequences of the destruction of everything primordially Russian are inhuman riots, riots and massacres, wars, revolutions ...

But the author does not believe in the death of holy Russia. The Russian man, freed from everything that held him back from the most terrible deeds, sobers up from drunken revelry and consciously puts himself in chains. Can't a man himself, without supervision and prisons, keep himself from excesses? Maybe!

From the coals of an extinguished fire

Light a fiery candle.

Not a torch, but a candle, a person must light in himself. Here is the way to salvation. Kitezh is a symbol of the holy principle in the soul of everyone, while hidden and unable to rise from the depths.

M. A. Voloshin is a man of diverse talents, a poet, artist, critic, researcher. Various aspects of Voloshin's creative activity are interconnected: in his poems - the vigilance and observation of the painter, in his landscapes - the poet's thoughts about the fate of his native country.

In one of the letters of 1919, Voloshin admitted: “I write poetry exclusively in contemporary themes- Russia and the revolution", "... the unfolding historical tragedy captures me deeply."

On August 18, 1919, M. A. Voloshin wrote the poem "Kitezh", in which the image of the underwater city appears as an eternal dream of the Russian people. The real Russian history throughout its entire length is evil.

There is no more popular legend in the history of Russian culture than the legend of the invisible city of Kitezh. "From a local legend with a well-defined geographic centre," it has become "a national symbol." Kitezh is one of the popular topics related to the idea of ​​national self-consciousness. Here is how it sounds: “Having conquered some Russian principalities, Batu Khan found out about Kitezh and ordered to capture it. The Horde soon reached the walls of the city. To the surprise of the Mongols, the city did not have any fortifications at all. Its inhabitants were not even going to defend themselves and only prayed. Seeing this, the Mongols attacked the city, but then they had to stop. Suddenly, fountains of water gushed out from under the ground and began to flood the city and the invaders themselves. The attackers had to retreat, and they could only see how the city plunged into the lake. The last thing they saw was the cross on the dome of the cathedral. And soon only the waves remained on the site of the city.

This legend gave birth to numerous incredible rumors that have survived to this day. It is said that only those who are pure in heart and soul will find their way to Kitezh. In his poem, Voloshin reflected his dream that we find Kitezh, i.e. became clean.

In the poem, the author appears as a great historian: the history of Russia unfolds before our eyes. Brightly and unusually, with just a few lines, the poet sketches a picture of his homeland. And now terrifying, terrible images of bonfires from living flesh are already rising before us.

The gallery of historical characters in Voloshin's lyrics is a kind of collection of moral freaks, mental cripples, despots, madmen. The same picture appears before us in the poem "Kitezh".

M. A. Voloshin, who firmly chose continuity in relation to the thousand-year-old domestic tradition, retains the Christian character of the Kitezh legend.

Kitezh appears to him both as a symbol of the invisible Holy Russia, and as a symbol of a real, but lost historical Russia.
So folk belief in the material existence of an invisible, but real city first gave birth to figurative meanings the toponym "Kitezh", and then an intangible, but capacious symbol of the national image of the world.

Kitezh is a mythological city, the extraordinary fate of which has become the subject of Russian traditions and legends.

Lake Svetloyar, in which, according to one of the legends, the sacred city of Kitezh hid, is located in the Volga region. Having ruined the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, Batu Khan set up camp on the City River. After another unequal battle, Prince Yuri Vsevolodovich with the remnants of his troops retreated to Small Kitezh. However, Batu took him by storm, and the prince with the remnants of the army miraculously managed to hide in Big Kitezh. Seeing the advancing enemy hordes, the inhabitants of Greater Kitezh and the soldiers of Yuri Vsevolodovich began to pray to God. Hearing the prayers of the Russians, God took pity on the besieged. Before the eyes of Batu and his troops, the holy city plunged into Lake Svetloyar and did not go to the merciless enemy for plunder, dishonor and death.

The sanctity of its waters extended to the city itself and its inhabitants. Therefore, the image of a city inhabited by the righteous was born, which passed unharmed through the sacred waters and passed into better world. The legend says that the lake hid Kitezh until the end of time, and only before the end of the world it will rise again from the waters, and the army of Yuri Vsevolodovich will come out of the gates of the holy city to appear at the judgment of God with all Christian souls.

Based on the legends, many research books have been written and works of art. One of them is before us - a poem by M.A. Voloshin "Kitezh".

In his work, Voloshin tries to comprehend the history of Russia, gives his assessment historical events and historical figures. The content of the poem is a combination of various segments of the historical time of the formation of Russia, transmitted through the prism of the author's perception. Heavy, oppressive thoughts forced Voloshin to take up his pen. In the words of the poet, one can hear the bitterness from the realization of the general chaos, which is increasingly approaching Russia in a terrible period of asserting new truths, a new world order:

... not for the first time, dreaming of freedom,

We are building a new prison.

Yes, outside of Moscow - outside of our stuffy flesh,

Outside the will of copper Peter -

We have no roads: we are led in the swamp

Lights demonic game ...

The epithets used by the author (“people's fire”, “stuffy flesh”, “molten years”), metaphors (“stone is cracking”, “Rus shredded”), expressive comparisons (Rus is a fire, a torch is a man, a Moscow prince is “bed and Klyushnik with the Lord", Moscow - "a fierce cross-spider") fully convey all the pain of the poet's soul, unable to remain silent anymore.

The situation in Russia has never been absolutely quiet and calm. Wars, civil strife, struggle for power, lies and betrayal existed at all times ... But integrity of spirit and unshakable faith in holy ideals always helped her to survive.

At the beginning of the poem M.A. Voloshin mentions three important spiritual centers: Sarov, Optina, Sergiev, named after Russian saints. Thanks to their bright thoughts and deeds, a person’s faith in the ideals of goodness and love grew stronger, a vivid confirmation of which is the work of B.K. Zaitsev "Reverend Sergius of Radonezh".

And then in the poem by M. Voloshin, the names of other historical figures begin to sound: Ivan Kalita, Ivan the Terrible, False Dmitry, Vasily the Dark, Andrey Kobyla and his son Fyodor Koshka, Pozharsky, Peter I, Mazepa, Stepan Razin, Emelyan Pugachev. The interpretation of the images of some of them is well known to the modern reader from such works by A.S. Pushkin, like "Poltava", "The Bronze Horseman", "The History of Peter the Great", "The Captain's Daughter", "Boris Godunov". In the generalized name of the “five empresses”, the names of five real Russian rulers are guessed: Catherine I, Elizabeth Petrovna, Anna Ioannovna, Anna Leopoldovna and Catherine II, known in Russia under the name of Catherine the Great. Maximilian Voloshin gives each of these heroes a very unflattering assessment.

The author characterizes the times of Ivan Kalita and his immediate descendants as follows:

The strife shredded Russia with knives.

Mean children of Kalita

Lies, violence, robbery

She was taken in pieces.

And indeed it is. As you know, Ivan Kalita contributed to the union of the Moscow principality with the Golden Horde. For the Horde, he collected tribute from the Russian lands. Popular discontent was brutally suppressed. It is also known that once, having come to the Tver volost, Kalita and the Tatars burned cities and villages, took people prisoner.

Further, Voloshin compares Moscow with a spider that weaves its webs in the stillness of the night. This is also no coincidence. Time of Troubles in Russia began with the reign of Vasily the Dark. But no less tragic time came with the reign of Ivan the Terrible. According to a number of historians, the policy of Ivan IV was despotic in nature, the power acquired misanthropic features. This is evidenced by mass executions and murders, the defeat of Novgorod and other cities. “Among other difficult experiences of fate, beyond the disasters of the specific system, beyond the yoke of the Mongols, Russia had to experience the storm of the autocrat-tormentor: she withstood with love for autocracy, for she believed that God sends both an ulcer, and an earthquake, and tyrants; did not break the iron scepter in the hands of the Ioannovs, and for twenty-four years she endured the destroyer, armed only with prayer and patience, ”N.M. Karamzin characterizes the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

Deepening into history helps to understand what hard times the people went through, how many disasters they endured. And, probably, more than once dreamed of such an underwater city of Kitezh, where one could hide from all hardships and torments. But a person who is mired in vices has no way there. That is why the author says:

Holy Russia is covered with sinful Russia,

And there are no ways to that city,

Where does the conscript and alien call

Underwater evangelism of churches.

Bless the churches! It seems to me that it is the ringing of bells that gives people hope and strength. After all, if you climb the bell tower, you can feel freedom and feel like a bird. Perhaps every inhabitant cherished such a dream in his soul: just to feel free from the laws of the rulers.

Antichrist-Peter steamed block

Collected, pulled and shook,

Sheared, shaved and, rearing up,

He taught book sciences ...

The poet says that Peter really carried out positive transformations in Russia: the reform local government, finance and budget reform, formation new army, transformation in the fleet, provincial reform, the formation of the Senate and colleges, the emergence of a new culture.

Separately, the decree on shaving beards is mentioned. Since 1699, a special duty was levied on men wearing a beard, and those who paid it were given a specially minted bond - a beard sign.

However, in the course of the transformations, Russia lost its originality, some special spirituality inherent in it, and therefore the tsar-transformer turned into the tsar-antichrist.

After Peter I, the Russian Empire was ruled by Catherine I, Elizaveta Petrovna, Anna Ioanovna, Anna Leopoldovna and Catherine II. All of them were followers of Peter's course, and therefore, under them, Russia became "German, orderly, vile."

So Maximilian Voloshin told the history of the formation of the Russian state: from Kievan Rus to Russian Empire. It seems to me that, despite all the bitterness and despair that gripped the poet, he is full of faith in the spiritual revival of Russia, capable of making it a great and invincible country:

But now, as in the days of past falls,

All darkened, in blood,

You remained the land of frenzy -

A land that seeks love.

That is why the poem "Kitezh" by Maximilian Voloshin produces a special

The ending schooling ends with the most important stage - the state final certification. Each graduate must successfully pass the mandatory USE, and most students increase the number of exams, supplementing them with elective disciplines. So how can you organize your training effectively so that in just over a year you can improve your knowledge and successfully pass the final tests?

Everyone who will take a responsible exam needs to determine a list academic disciplines, and then start preparing for the tests in time.

ADVICE: Experienced teachers argue that the best option is to start preparing for the exam in a year.

With the correct organization of work during this time, it will be possible to restore in memory, to systematize information that was studied even several years ago.

Where to begin

To achieve the result, it is worth using the traditional teaching methods that teachers use. First stage they dedicate to testing.

When organizing, it is useful to objectively determine which topics are easy to remember, which ones are difficult to remember, which information seems completely new.

For verification, you should not rely only on your own impressions or grades received in the lessons. You need to look at them in terms of exam requirements.

Pretest options:

• test, test papers at school;
• self-checking the level of knowledge (with the help of collections or special sites for preparing for the exam).

What materials will be needed?

It is also best to prepare the necessary materials in advance. The textbooks that were used at school will be the main guide. Additional resources:

• reference books, methodological manuals compiled to help those who pass the unified state exams;
• demo versions of the exam;
• manuals posted on the pages of social networks dedicated to passing the final exam;
• tests to check the quality of knowledge acquisition.

ADVICE: choosing study guides or additional resources, first of all, preference should be given to those compiled by the developers of examination materials.

The study of examination tasks in selected disciplines will help determine what else is needed: contour maps, atlases (history, geography), dictionaries (Russian, foreign languages), texts of works of art (literature), etc.

Planning is the key to success

Often the mistake of many schoolchildren is the inability to competently combine the amount of information with the time for its assimilation. Drawing up a plan will help to evenly distribute all the material, systematize knowledge, save the reserve of strength necessary for the successful completion of the final certification.

• Reconsider the daily routine, your work schedule, in order to allocate from 0.5 to 1 hour for classes daily. Systematic work is more effective than a long session once a week.
• When preparing for exams in several disciplines, try to devote at least 20 minutes each day to each.
• When scheduling, it will be helpful to plan to complete the rep 3-4 weeks before the start of the trial. The reserve time will come in handy if the plan has to be adjusted (due to illness or a longer study of one of the topics). If everything goes according to plan, the reserve will be needed to repeat and complete the exam tasks.

ADVICE: the successful completion of the final certification will help comprehensive work on educational material. The repetition of each topic should begin with the analysis of theoretical information, after which you can proceed to the examination tasks.

Self-control in preparation

In preparation for the GIA, even the greatest connoisseurs of personal freedom will have to tune in to systematic control. You need to control a lot: the implementation of the drawn up plan, the level of preparation, the time for completing examination tasks.

The easiest way for graduates is to evaluate the plan: here all the delays from the schedule are obvious.

It is important to evaluate the intermediate results and the current one, which will help to adjust the content of the work.

To test ourselves, let us again recall the methodological techniques that teachers use: tests, control, verification work. They should be performed regularly, after studying each topic or section.

ADVICE: strict control will provide an objective assessment of knowledge, which will help to identify and eliminate existing gaps.

The maximum approximation of the conditions of self-control to the examination ones (in terms of time, degree of independence, lack of access to the Internet, etc.) will make it possible to understand whether what has been done is effective, to which a lot of time has been devoted.

If the results remain the same, repeat the data of the initial testing, it is necessary to revise the approaches, use other tutorials or resources, and best of all, use the help of specialists - school teacher, tutor, a special site developed by professionals.

Take care of your health

A high score as a result of a single state exam important but not the main objective. These points should open the door to an interesting, rich student life.

So that after the final tests you do not have to deal with the restoration of health, it is important to devote time not only to classes. complete rest, physical activity, walks, interesting leisure activities are not canceled in preparation for the exam!

Systematic studies throughout the year and diligence will help you cope with tasks and get a high score on the unified state exam.