From the very beginning of 1611, there was a movement that finally brought the state out of ruin. It arose in the county, township and volost worlds (communities) of the North, accustomed to independence and self-government. These communities, which received county and zemstvo institutions of the 16th century, a broader organization and involvement in the tasks of state administration, built their own way of life, developed their internal relations and even managed defense against enemies, containing Cossacks and dependent people, who were recruited among themselves, under very soft leadership and the influence of the central government.
History reference
The cities and regions of the North, unaffected by the development of service landownership, were free from a sharp class division of the population. There was no strong division between rich and poor, so they were a socially cohesive force. The prosperous and energetic population of the Pomeranian cities woke up to the struggle against the reorganization of the land and the defense of the state, as soon as it encountered an insight from the thieves' gangs of the Tushinsky thief.
That is, these forces were patriotic, but we must remember that in the history of idealism there is very little. Despite the fact that among these people there were many sincerely Orthodox and patriotic, it was completely clear that the Poles' bossing in Moscow, the weakening of state power, leads them to material losses, breaks their trade. That is, they had not only a national-class, but also a material interest in kicking the Poles out of Moscow, and in order to have a strong central government in Moscow. Strictly speaking, the first wave of this movement arose as early as 1609, and objectively Skopin-Shuisky could become its leader. But in 1609 the situation was still too complicated. But in 1610 the situation changed.
First Zemstvo Militia
The so-called first Zemstvo militia arose. It was headed by the Lipunov brothers (Procopius and Zakhar), as well as Ivan Zarutsky, who had once been for the Tushintsev, and Prince Dmitry Timofeevich Trubetskoy (the so-called triumvirate). All these were adventurers, but this is a normal feature for the Time of Troubles in Russia. It is these people who come to the fore during the Time of Troubles.
At this time, the Poles are in the Kremlin. In March 1611, the first militia, led by a triumvirate, began to storm Moscow in order to drive the Poles out of there. It was not possible to take the city, but the blockade of the Kremlin continued. The Poles have reached corpse-eating. Why is it so organized? If a person in one company dies, only representatives of this company eat him. It was truly horrifying.
But the Poles held out. By the way, during this uprising, the Poles set fire to the city, and almost all of Moscow burned down. And here the conflict between the Cossacks and the nobles begins, because the Lipunovs were the leaders of the noble part, and Zarutsky and especially Trubetskoy were the Cossacks. It was used by the Poles. They planted a letter according to which Lipunov supposedly was going to enter into some kind of agreement with the Poles. The Cossacks believed this and Lipunov was killed. After the death of Lipunov, the noble part left, and the Cossacks were left alone. Meanwhile, another Tsarevich Dmitry appeared in Pskov. True, everyone knew that this was not Dmitry, but Sidorko from the locals. But Trubetskoy recognized him. In some regions, they kissed the cross of Marina Mnishek and her son, whom the authorities called "Vorenok", that is, the son of a thief. It was believed that he was the son of False Dmitry 2, but in fact he was the son of Ivan Zarutsky. Under these conditions, the province began new stage Zemsky movement.
Second Zemstvo militia
A second Zemstvo militia arose, headed by Kuzma Minin, who at first simply raised funds and was equipped primarily with infantry, but a military leader was needed. The military leader was Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky, who came from the princes of Starodubsky. That is, he was a descendant of Vsevolod the Big Nest. And he had more than good reasons to sit on the Russian throne.
Actually, the second militia marched on Moscow under the coat of arms of Prince Pozharsky. Another thing is that Pozharsky failed to become the Russian Tsar, and the Romanovs then did everything to slander him and never pay attention to the fact that the coat of arms of the second militia was the coat of arms of Pozharsky. That is, the second militia went in order to put Pozharsky on the throne. But this was not part of the plans of the Romanovs. The movement led by the second militia covered the entire Volga region and all this army came to Yaroslavl, where they stayed for 4 months. In Yaroslavl, alternative governing bodies were created. Funds were raised here, and the Cathedral of All the Earth was convened. This Council became the provisional government. Temporary orders were established. An embassy from Novgorod arrived in Yaroslavl, which offered to call the Swedish prince Karl Philip to the kingdom. Cunning merchants in Yaroslavl refused nothing and no one. They just played for time, making vague promises.
At this time, Zarutsky and Trubetskoy declare Minim and Pozharsky rebels. In addition, there is a conflict between Trubetskoy and Zarutsky himself. Zarutsky takes Marina Mnishek and goes first to Kaluga, and then to the south. In 1614, he will be captured on Yaik and put on a stake, and his son will be hanged. That is, the reign of the Romanovs began with the murder of a child. And this is the historical symmetry... When they say that they regret Tsarevich Alexei, who was shot by the Bolsheviks in 1918, they forget that there is some kind of historical symmetry in this. The Romanovs began their reign by killing a child, because this child, the son of Marina Mnishek, was kissed by many on the cross as a possible heir to the throne. And it's like a historical boomerang returned after many, many years. Marina herself was either drowned or strangled, but she also disappears in 1614.
Expulsion of Poles from Moscow
But back to current events. Trubetskoy remained in Moscow, who sent assassins to Minin and Pozharsky to kill at least Pozharsky. Nothing came of this, and in August 1612 the militia led by Minin and Pozharsky approached Moscow. In Moscow, the situation is as follows: the Poles are sitting in the Kremlin, Trubetskoy and his Cossacks are also sitting in Moscow (but not in the Kremlin). Minin and Pozharsky come to Moscow, but Hetman Khodkevich comes to the rescue of the Poles. Hetman Khodkevich and the militia of Minin and Pozharsky meet near the Crimean ford (where the Crimean bridge is now). Then there was no bridge there was a ford. And here they are, facing each other. On August 22, the first battle took place (it was more reconnaissance), and on August 24 the main battle unfolded. The Russian cavalry could not withstand the blow, but the Nizhny Novgorod infantry saved the day.
The Poles began to reorganize for the next attack, and Pozharsky explained to Minin that the militias would not withstand the second blow. Then Pozharsky turned to Trubetskoy for help. But Trubetskoy refused, because the Cossacks strongly hated everyone who had or could have at least a little better financial situation. And then Minin cheated ... The battle began, success began to lean on the side of the Poles, and then Minin decided the matter. He sent Trubetskoy a messenger to the Cossacks with a promise that if the Cossacks help and hit on the flank, then the entire convoy of Khodkevich will be theirs. For the Cossacks, this decided everything (the convoy is a holy cause). The Cossacks hit the flank, Hetman Khodkevich was defeated, and as a result, the Cossacks drove into Russian history with a convoy. Looking ahead - the Cossacks on the cart and out of Russian history.
The conclusion of a military alliance with Sweden and the arrival of Swedish troops gave Sigismund III, who fought with Sweden, a reason to start open hostilities against V. Shuisky. The boyars decided to get out of the catastrophic situation by eliminating V. Shuisky. There was a boyar conspiracy against him. In the summer of 1610, V. Shuisky was deposed from the throne and forcibly tonsured a monk, which meant political death. The boyars invited the son of Sigismund III Vladislav to the throne. The troops of the Commonwealth entered Moscow, and the Polish administration appeared. However, this did not bring peace. The head of the church, Patriarch Hermogenes, began to call for a fight against the Poles. Swedish troops demanded payment of salaries, engaged in robbery and robbery. They captured Novgorod and Novgorod land, Smolensk. Only relying on the broad support of the people, it was possible in these conditions to win back and preserve the independence of the state.
At the beginning of 1611, the first militia was formed in the Ryazan land. It included nobles, townspeople of many cities, Cossacks from the camp of False Dmitry P. The militia was headed by the nobleman Prokopy Lyapunov and Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In March 1611, detachments of the first militia approached Moscow and began to lay siege to the capital. However, between the noble and the Cossack parts of the militia, significant disagreements were discovered, during which P. Lyapunov was killed by the Cossacks. The first militia broke up. Near Moscow, only Prince D. Trubetskoy remained with the Cossacks, who later joined the troops of the second militia.
3.Second militia
The struggle of the people did not subside. Nizhny Novgorod became its center. Here, in the autumn of 1611, on the initiative of the zemstvo headman Kuzma Minin, a second militia was created, the military leader of which was Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In the spring of 1612, the detachments headed for Yaroslavl, where forces were being accumulated for a decisive offensive. The “Council of the Whole Land” was also created there, that is, the provisional government of the country (it included representatives of the boyars, nobles, townspeople, clergy), as well as orders - state executive authorities. In August, the militia approached Moscow and laid siege to the city. Attempts by Polish troops under the command of Hetman Khodkiewicz to break through to the besieged failed. After bloody battles, they were thrown back from Moscow, and on October 27, 1612, the encircled garrison laid down their arms.
In 1613, a Zemsky Sobor was held in Moscow to elect a new tsar. With the support of the Cossacks, who were part of the second militia, Mikhail Romanov (1613–1645), the son of Fyodor Romanov (Filaret), was elected tsar, that is, the beginning of the reign of a new dynasty was laid.
Topic 7. Russia at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th century. Russia in the 17th century
1. The reign of Peter I
The assessment of the transformations carried out during the reign of Peter the Great (1682-1725) has been and remains one of the most difficult problems of Russian historical science. Formed in the 30s and 40s. 19th century two different approaches to the assessment of Peter's reforms and national history in general, they are usually associated with the traditions of Slavophilism, which defends the idea of a special path for the development of Russia, and Westernism, based on the ideas of social progress, the laws of which are the same for all peoples. With a certain degree of simplification, it can be said that the Slavophiles perceived the transformations of Peter I as an artificial interference of state power in the course of social development, as a forcible transfer of alien ideas, customs and institutions to Russian soil. The Westerners, on the other hand, proceeded from the fact that Peter had started and carried out a useful thing for the country, accelerating its development and eliminating (or reducing) Russia's "lag" behind Europe. Both of these concepts are certainly exaggerated. The assessment of Peter's reforms should be approached more carefully, given the ambiguity of the tendencies of the spiritual, political and social development of society that manifested themselves in his time. It should also be taken into account that the objective prerequisites for transformations were formed in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. These include:
1) activation foreign policy and diplomatic activity of the Russian state;
2) intensive development of trade;
3) reforming the financial and tax system;
4) the transition from handicraft production to manufacturing with the use of elements
hired labor and the simplest mechanisms;
5) the tendency to absolutization of the supreme power;
6) registration of national legislation (Council Code of 1649);
7) reorganization and improvement of the armed forces (creation of regiments of the "foreign system");
8) the delimitation of society under the influence of Western European culture and Nikon's church reforms; the emergence of national conservative and Western trends.
After the death of Alexei Mikhailovich in 1676, 14-year-old Fyodor (1676–1682) ascended the throne,
who was seriously ill, could not even walk. In fact, power was seized by his maternal relatives Miloslavsky and sister Sophia, who was distinguished by her strong will and energy. The ruling circle under the princess was headed by the intelligent and talented Prince V.V. Golitsyn. During this period, the course towards the elevation of the nobility was continued, towards the creation of conditions for the merging of the nobility and the boyars into a single estate. A strong blow to the class privileges of the aristocracy was dealt in 1682 with the abolition of parochialism.
With the death in 1682 of the childless Fyodor Alekseevich, the question of the heir to the throne arose. Of his two brothers, the weak-minded Ivan could not occupy the throne, and Peter was only 10 years old. At court, a struggle for power broke out between the Miloslavskys and the Naryshkins. At a meeting of the "Consecrated Cathedral" and the Boyar Duma, Peter was proclaimed tsar. However, on May 15, 1682, streltsy rebelled in Moscow, incited by the head of the streltsy order, I.A. Khovansky (in late XVII in. in connection with the creation of regiments of the new system, the role of the archers fell, they lost many privileges, but were still obliged to pay duties and taxes on crafts). A rumor was spread around Moscow that Tsarevich Ivan had been strangled. Armed archers entered the Kremlin. Mother of Peter N.K. Naryshkina led Peter and Ivan to the palace porch. But this did not calm the archers, who wanted to use the palace events for their own purposes. For three days power in Moscow was in the hands of the archers. All prominent supporters of the Naryshkins were killed. In honor of their performance, the archers erected a pillar on Red Square. On the iron boards nailed to it, the merits of the archers and the names of the boyars executed by them were listed. Peter and Ivan (1682–1696) were proclaimed kings. Princess Sophia became regent until they came of age. However, the position of the archers almost did not improve. They tried to appoint I.A. Khovansky. However, Khovansky was summoned by deceit to Sofya, captured and executed. Archers came to obedience. The pillar of the Red Square was torn down, many of the archers were executed. Power passed into the hands of Princess Sophia (1682-1689). The actual ruler under Sophia was her favorite Vasily Vasilyevich Golitsyn. Sophia's government achieved the most notable results in the field of foreign policy. In 1686, the “Eternal Peace” was concluded with Poland, Russia assumed an obligation, in alliance with Poland, Austria and Venice, to oppose the Crimea and Turkey.
Peter grew up in the villages of Kolomenskoye, Preobrazhensky, Semenovsky near Moscow. From the age of three, he began to learn to read and write from the deacon Nikita Zotov. Peter did not receive a systematic education, even in his mature years he wrote with grammatical errors. As a teenager, the prince discovered a penchant for military affairs. For Peter's military games, children from two palace villages - Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky, were gathered into "amusing" regiments, which later turned into the first regular guards regiments of the same name, which were an impressive military force. Another favorite brainchild of Peter was the fleet. First, on the Yauza, and then on the nearest large reservoir from Moscow - Lake Pleshcheyevo near the city of Pereyaslavl-Zalessky - the foundations of the future were laid Russian fleet. In 1689, Peter, having reached the age of majority, married the hawthorn E. Lopukhina. In the person of Peter, the advanced part of Russian society saw the tsar-transformer, an irreconcilable fighter against the old, obsolete boyar orders and traditions. Relations between Sophia and Peter escalated from year to year and by the summer of 1689 became such that an open clash became inevitable. On the night of August 8, 1689, secret supporters of Peter informed him that Sophia was preparing archers for a campaign against Preobrazhenskoye. Later it turned out that the rumor was false, but, frightened, Peter rode to the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, where amusing troops soon arrived. An armed struggle was brewing, in which, however, the streltsy regiments, which initially supported Sophia, were not inclined to shed blood for her and one by one went over to the side of Peter. He was supported by many boyars and nobles, the Moscow Patriarch. Sophia was left without armed support. She was imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent in Moscow. The throne passed to Peter. With the death of Ivan (1696), the autocracy of Peter was established.
Peter surrounded himself with capable, energetic assistants, especially the military. Among the foreigners stood out: the closest friend of the king F. Lefort, an experienced general P. Gordon, a talented engineer J. Bruce. And among the Russians, a close-knit group of associates gradually formed, who subsequently made a brilliant political career: A.M. Golovin, G.I. Golovkin, brothers P.M. and F.M. Apraksina, A.D. Menshikov.
One of the most important tasks facing Peter was to continue the fight against the Crimea. It was decided to take possession of Azov - a Turkish fortress at the mouth of the Don. In 1695, Russian troops besieged Azov, but due to a lack of weapons, poorly trained siege equipment and the absence of a fleet, Azov was not taken.
Having failed near Azov, Peter set about building a fleet. The fleet was built on the Voronezh River at its confluence with the Don. During the year, about 30 large ships were built, lowered down the Don. The land army was doubled. In 1696, blocking Azov from the sea, Russian troops captured the city. In order to strengthen Russian positions on the Sea of Azov, the Taganrog fortress was built. However, Russia was clearly not strong enough to fight Turkey and Crimea. Peter ordered the construction of new ships (52 ships in 2 years) at the expense of landlords and merchants and began looking for allies in Europe. This is how the idea of the “Great Embassy” was born, which took place from 1697 to 1698. Its goals were to create an anti-Turkish coalition, get acquainted with the political life of Europe, study foreign crafts, life, culture, military orders. General-Admiral F.Ya. Lefort, General F.A. Golovin, head of the embassy department, and Duma clerk P.B. Voznitsyn. The embassy included 280 people, including 35 volunteers who went to study crafts and military sciences. In its composition, under the name of the constable of the Preobrazhensky regiment, Peter Mikhailov, was Peter himself. During a year and a half of his stay abroad, Peter with an embassy visited Courland, Brandenburg, Holland, which at that time was the largest power in Europe (its fleet was 4/5 of the European fleet), England and Austria. Members of the embassy met with princes and monarchs, studied shipbuilding and other crafts. During the “embassy”, Peter became convinced that a favorable foreign policy situation had developed for the struggle for the Baltic, since the largest European states were busy with the upcoming War of the Spanish Succession of 1701-1714. - the struggle for vast possessions in Europe and America due to the lack of a direct heir after the death of the Spanish king Charles II.
In the summer of 1698, Peter had to cut short his trip. In Vienna, he received a secret report about the Streltsy rebellion in Moscow. Even before the arrival of Peter, the rebellion was suppressed by government troops. Streltsy regiments marching on Moscow were defeated near New Jerusalem (now in the area of Istra near Moscow). More than a hundred archers were executed, many of them were exiled to various cities.
Peter on his return forced to reconsider the sentence. He personally led the new investigation. A connection was established between the archers and the reactionary Moscow boyars and Tsarevna Sophia. More than 1000 archers were executed. The king himself and his entourage took part in the executions. Sophia, who was tonsured a nun, lived under the strictest supervision until the end of her life in the Novodevichy Convent. The Streltsy army was disbanded, the forces of the boyar opposition were undermined.
In the summer of 1611, after the capture of Smolensk by the Poles and the penetration of the Swedes into Novgorod, the situation became especially difficult. The country was threatened political collapse and loss of national independence. The population, especially in the central districts, was devastated and dying from hunger and disease. The peasants, fleeing the violence of the interventionists, abandoned their houses and hid in the forests. Crowded settlements were empty, trade froze.
In the autumn of 1611, a new, more powerful wave of national freedom movement. Nizhny Novgorod again turned out to be its center. The movement originated in the urban environment. The organizer of the popular forces was the zemstvo headman Kuzma Minin. At his call, a second militia began to form in Nizhny Novgorod.
The organization of the militia, which required large expenditures, was immediately placed by Kuzma Minin on a solid material foundation. In addition to voluntary contributions, a mandatory salary was set at one-fifth of the total value of the property. The collection of funds made it possible to begin the creation of large military forces. To manage military affairs, a military leader was required who would combine experience in military affairs with devotion and loyalty to his people.
At the suggestion of Kuzma Minin, Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky was elected commander. Pozharsky in the "troubled years", when the boyar nobility proved to be politically unstable, did not show any hesitation in his attitude towards the Polish invaders. In 1608, he utterly defeated the Polish detachment that was trying to capture Kolomna, and in the spring of 1611 he was in the ranks of the rebellious Muscovites and fought until, exhausted from his wound, he was taken away from Moscow. Minin and Pozharsky became the organizers and leaders of the second militia.
The core of the militia initially consisted of townspeople and small service people from Nizhny Novgorod and peasants from nearby counties. Letters with a call to rise to the struggle for the liberation of Moscow quickly spread among the population of the Volga region and beyond. One of the first to respond to this call were small Smolensk, Vyazma and other landowners from the western districts, expelled by the Poles from their native places. Then the population of the cities of the Upper Volga rose. Nizhny Novgorod was joined by the regions lying along the Oka and beyond it. Thus, the people's militia became an all-Russian affair. The militias, the main core of which was the townspeople of the northern cities and the black-eared peasantry, were joined by wide circles of the nobility. Along with the Russians, Tatars, Mordovians, Chuvashs, Maris and Udmurts took part in the militia. At the beginning of 1612, the militia numbered from 20 to 30 thousand people in its ranks.
By this time, the Polish garrison in Moscow had been reinforced, and the Cossack detachments stationed near Moscow, instead of uniting with the people's militia, were negotiating with a new impostor who had appeared in Pskov. On the northwestern outskirts of the Russian state, the Swedes ruled. The general situation did not allow the immediate start of a campaign against Moscow.
From Nizhny Novgorod, the second militia moved at the end of February 1612 to Yaroslavl. The transition to the region of the Upper Volga region allowed the militia to absorb the numerous partisan detachments, consisting of townspeople and peasants. The population of villages and cities came out to meet the militias, gave them the collected money and supplies. The ranks of the militia were constantly replenished with volunteers. The militia was provided with its rich economic resources by Pomorie, which was not devastated by the interventionists.
The people's militia stood in Yaroslavl from April to August 1612. During this time, the military organization of the militia was completed and a nationwide power was created - the "zemstvo" government. The new government consisted of "all sorts of ranks of elected people" from all cities. It included representatives of the nobility, townships and partly peasants ("district people"). There was almost no higher feudal nobility in it; representatives of the serf peasantry were completely absent. The organs of central administration - orders - were also restored.
The leaders of the second militia had to deal with foreign policy issues in Yaroslavl. Pozharsky, for tactical purposes, negotiated with the Swedes on the adoption of the Swedish prince, but at the same time strengthened the cities on the path of the Swedes. He managed to keep the Swedes from speaking out against the militia and thereby ensure the possibility of deploying the fight against the main enemy - the Polish invaders. Pozharsky's diplomatic abilities also manifested themselves in the skillful use of the contradictions that arose between Poland and the Austrian Habsburgs. As a result of these diplomatic negotiations, both the Habsburgs and Sweden did not interfere with the actions of the second militia.
By the end of 1612, the power of the government of the people's militia had already spread to half of the territory of the state. The territory occupied by the enemies was liberated with the participation of the local population. The peasants, armed with axes and pitchforks, mercilessly destroyed the invaders who scoured the villages in search of food. Peasant partisan detachments operated everywhere behind enemy lines.
While the militia was strengthening its forces, decomposition began among the Cossacks, who were standing near Moscow. Some chieftains "departed" to Yaroslavl and joined the militia. Zarutsky opposed Pozharsky and organized an attempt on his life, which ended in failure. The adventurer Zarutsky conspired with the interventionists. Part of the Cossacks with Trubetskoy at the head supported the second militia.
The invaders, concerned about the success of the militia, turned to Sigismund III with a request for help. In the summer of 1612, the latter sent a significant force of mercenaries to Moscow under the command of Hetman Khodkevich. By this time, Zarutsky with part of the Cossacks went to Khodkevich.
Second militia. Liberation of Russia. Russia was threatened with the loss of national independence, the dismemberment of the lands. In this difficult, dashing time in Nizhny Novgorod, a large and rich city on the Volga, the townspeople, led by Kuzma Minin, a simple "beef"(a meat merchant) and a township elder, organized a fundraiser to create a new militia. In the Volga region, Pomorye and other places, detachments of militias are being created, funds and supplies are being collected.
The second, or Nizhny Novgorod, militia was headed by Minin and Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky. The first was in charge of the treasury, the home of the militia, the second, a descendant of the family of Suzdal princes, became a military leader. Detachments marched on Nizhny from all sides, and the militia, which at first had 2-3 thousand soldiers, quickly increased its ranks. In March 1612 it moved from Nizhny to Kostroma and Yaroslavl. On the way, new reinforcements pour in. In early April, already in Yaroslavl, they created "Council of All the Earth"- a government of representatives of the clergy and the Boyar Duma, nobles and townspeople; in fact it was led Pozharsky and Minin. Orders started to work. The militia already consisted of 10 thousand people - nobles, archers, peasants, artisans, merchants and others; it included Tatar detachments from Kasimov and Temnikov, Kadom and Alatyr.
In July, the militia left Yaroslavl - its leaders received the news that Hetman Khodkevich was coming to Moscow with an army. The militia went through Rostov, Pereyaslavl, Trinity. At the end of the month, the first detachments approached the capital from the north side. In August, the main forces appeared. Under the capital, they were met by detachments of Zarutsky and Trubetskoy. But Pozharsky and Minin chose not to unite with them, they stood separately. Soon Zarutsky left for Kolomna.
On August 22, Khodkevich's army, which came from the Commonwealth, with a huge convoy, settled down near Moscow. He tried to break through to the besieged in the Kremlin. But every time he was thrown back by the militias of Pozharsky-Minin and the detachments of Trubetskoy, either west of the Borovitsky Gates, or at the Donskoy Monastery. Having not gained success, having lost many people and wagons with food, the hetman left Moscow. The siege, the fighting continued. Famine began in the Kremlin, and the besieged capitulated at the end of October 1612. The militia solemnly entered the Kremlin - Moscow, the heart of all Russia, was liberated by the efforts of the people, who, in a difficult hour for Russia, showed endurance, steadfastness, courage, saved their country from a national catastrophe.
"Council of All the Earth" convened representatives of different segments of the population to the Zemsky Sobor (clergy, boyars, nobility, townspeople, Cossacks, black-haired peasantry). In January 1613, he elected young Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov, the son of the Tushino Patriarch Filaret, as tsar, in the world boyar Fyodor Nikitich Romanov, a female relative of the tsars and Fyodor Ivanovich. The election of the king meant the revival of the country, the protection of its sovereignty, independence and originality.
Liberation of Moscow in 1612. The new government had to solve difficult tasks. The country was ruined, exhausted. Gangs of robbers and invaders roamed the towns and villages. One of these Polish detachments, even before arriving in Moscow (at that time it was in the Kostroma Ipatiev Monastery), operated in Kostroma and neighboring counties. The ancestral lands of the mother of the newly elected king were located here. It was winter time. The Poles appeared in one of the villages of the Romanovs, seized the headman Ivan Susanin and demanded that he show them the way to where his young master was. Susanin led them into the wilds and, dying himself under the sabers of enemies, destroyed the detachment. The feat of the Kostroma peasant played a role not only in saving Mikhail Fedorovich, but also in preventing a new unrest in the country, in the event of the death of young Romanov.
The Moscow authorities are sending military detachments everywhere, and they are gradually freeing the country from gangs. The campaign in Russia, undertaken by the grown-up prince Vladislav in the autumn of 1618, ended in failure. On December 1 of the same year, in the village of Deulino, near the Trinity-Sergius Monastery, a truce was concluded for 14.5 years - hostilities ceased, Poland retained Smolensk and some cities along the southwestern border.
Almost two years earlier, on February 27, 1617, peace was established with Sweden under the Stolbovsky Treaty. She was given land along the southern and eastern shores of the Gulf of Finland with the cities of Ivan-gorod, Yam, Koporye, Oreshek. Russia again lost access to the Baltic Sea.
task "appeasement" countries in relations with neighboring countries was finally able to be resolved. There were internal affairs, first of all - the ongoing unrest and offended people. The rebels during these years captured Cheboksary, Tsivilsk Sanchursk and other cities in the Volga region, Vyatka district and the city of Kotelnich in the northeast. Besieged Nizhny Novgorod and Kazan. In Pskov and Astrakhan, for many years a fierce struggle was waged between local “best” and "smaller" people. In Pskov, in some years, the rebels established "smerd autocracy", removing the governors, boyars and nobles from business. Impostors operated in both cities.
The Romanov government organizes the fight against the rebels. Civil War comes to the end. But its echoes, the last peals are heard for several more years, until 1617-1618.
Troubles, called by contemporaries also “Moscow or Lithuanian ruin”, is over. She left grave consequences. Many cities and villages lay in ruins. Russia has lost many of its sons and daughters. Were ruined Agriculture, crafts, trade life faded away. The Russian people returned to the ashes, proceeded, as was customary from time immemorial, to a holy cause - they revived their dwellings and arable land, workshops and trade caravans.
The Time of Troubles greatly weakened Russia and its people. But it also showed his strength. Early 17th century heralded the dawn of national liberation.
The collapse of the First Zemstvo militia did not lead to the end of Russian resistance. By September 1611, a militia was formed in Nizhny Novgorod. It was headed by the Nizhny Novgorod zemstvo head Kuzma Minin, who invited Prince Dmitry Pozharsky to command military operations. In February 1612, the Second Militia set off on a campaign to the capital.
Nizhny Novgorod
AT early XVII century Nizhny Novgorod was one of the largest cities of the Russian kingdom. Having arisen as a border fortress of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia on its eastern border he gradually lost his military value, but acquired a serious trade and craft value. As a result, Nizhny Novgorod became an important administrative and economic center on the Middle Volga. In addition, in Nizhny there was a rather large and rather heavily armed “stone city”, its upper and lower tenements were protected by wooden forts with towers and a moat. The Nizhny Novgorod garrison was relatively small. It consisted of approximately 750 archers, fodder foreigners (mercenaries) and serf servants - gunners, collars, zatinshchiks and state blacksmiths. However, this fortress could become the core of a more serious army.
Important geographical position(it was located at the confluence of two largest rivers inner Russia- Oka and Volga) made Nizhny Novgorod a major trading center. In terms of its trade and economic significance, Nizhny Novgorod stood on a par with Smolensk, Pskov and Novgorod. In terms of its economic importance, it occupied at that time the sixth place among Russian cities. So, if Moscow gave the royal treasury at the end of the 16th century 12 thousand rubles of customs duties, then Nizhny - 7 thousand rubles. The city rod was connected with the entire Volga river system and was part of the ancient Volga trade route. Fish from the Caspian Sea, furs from Siberia, fabrics and spices from distant Persia, bread from the Oka were brought to Nizhny Novgorod. Therefore, the trade settlement, in which there were up to two thousand households, was of primary importance in the city. There were also many artisans in the city, and workers (loaders and barge haulers) in the river port. The Nizhny Novgorod Posad, united in the zemstvo world with two elders at the head, was the largest and most influential force in the city.
Thus, Nizhny Novgorod, in terms of its military-strategic position, economic and political significance was one of the key points of the eastern and southeastern regions of the Russian state. No wonder the 16th-century publicist Ivan Peresvetov advised Tsar Ivan the Terrible to move the capital to Nizhny Novgorod. It is not surprising that the city became the center of the people's liberation movement, which engulfed the Upper and Middle Volga regions and neighboring regions of Russia, and Nizhny Novgorod residents actively joined the struggle for the liberation of the Russian state.
Nizhny Novgorod and Troubles
During the Time of Troubles, Nizhny Novgorod was threatened more than once by the Poles and Tushinos. At the end of 1606, large bandit formations appeared in the Nizhny Novgorod district and adjacent districts, which were engaged in robberies and atrocities: they burned villages, robbed residents and drove them to full. This "freedom" in the winter of 1608 captured Alatyr and Arzamas, setting up its base in it. Tsar Vasily Shuisky sent his governor with troops to liberate Arzamas and other cities occupied by "thieves". One of them, Prince Ivan Vorotynsky, defeated the rebel detachments near Arzamas, took the city and cleared the areas adjacent to Arzamas.
With the advent of False Dmitry II, various gangs became more active again, especially since part of the boyars, the Moscow and district nobility and boyar children went over to the side of the new impostor. The Mordovians, Chuvashs and Cheremis also rebelled. Many cities also went over to the side of the impostor and tried to persuade Nizhny Novgorod to do the same. But Nizhny Novgorod stood firmly on the side of Tsar Shuisky and did not change his oath to him. The citizens of Nizhny Novgorod have never let enemies into the city. Moreover, Nizhny not only successfully defended itself, but also sent its army to help other cities and supported the campaign of Skopin-Shuisky.
So, when at the end of 1608 the inhabitants of the city of Balakhna, having changed their oath to Tsar Shuisky, attacked Nizhny Novgorod, the voivode Andrey Alyabyev, according to the sentence of Nizhny Novgorod, hit the enemy, and on December 3, after a fierce battle, he occupied Balakhna. The leaders of the rebels were captured and hanged. Alyabyev, barely having time to return to Nizhny, again entered the fight against a new enemy detachment that attacked the city on December 5. Having defeated this detachment, the Nizhny Novgorodians took Vorsma.
In early January 1609, the troops of False Dmitry II attacked Nizhny under the command of the voivode Prince Semyon Vyazemsky and Timofey Lazarev. Vyazemsky sent a letter to Nizhny Novgorod residents, in which he wrote that if the city did not surrender, then all the townspeople would be exterminated, and the city would be burned to the ground. Nizhny Novgorod did not give an answer, but they themselves decided to make a sortie, despite the fact that the enemy had more troops. Thanks to the suddenness of the attack, the troops of Vyazemsky and Lazarev were defeated, and they themselves were taken prisoner and sentenced to hang. Then Alyabiev freed Murom from the rebels, where he remained as the royal governor, and Vladimir.
An even more active struggle was waged by the inhabitants of Nizhny Novgorod against the Polish troops of King Sigismund III. Simultaneously with Ryazan, Nizhny Novgorod called on all Russians to liberate Moscow. It is interesting that letters with such appeals were sent not only on behalf of the governor, but also on behalf of the townspeople. The importance of urban settlements in the fight against enemy intervention and internal unrest has seriously increased. On February 17, 1611, earlier than others, the Nizhny Novgorod squads marched to Moscow and fought bravely under its walls as part of the First Zemstvo militia.
The failure of the first militia did not break the will of the Nizhny Novgorod residents to resist, on the contrary, they were even more convinced of the need for unity for a complete victory. Nizhny Novgorod residents maintained constant contact with Moscow through their scouts - the boyar son Roman Pakhomov and the townsman Rodion Moseev. They penetrated the capital and mined necessary information. The Nizhny Novgorod scouts even managed to establish contact with Patriarch Hermogenes, who was languishing in the Kremlin in the underground cell of the Chudov Monastery. Gonsevsky, embittered by the fact that the patriarch denounced the interventionists and their henchmen, called on the Russian people to fight and, not daring to openly deal with Hermogenes, sentenced him to starvation. Once a week, only a sheaf of unthreshed oats and a bucket of water were allowed to feed the imprisoned. However, this did not humble the Russian patriot. From the underground dungeon, Hermogenes continued to send out his letters with calls to fight against the invaders. These letters also reached Nizhny Novgorod.
Minin
From Nizhny, in turn, letters were distributed throughout the country with a call to unite to fight the common enemy. In this strong city, the determination of people to take the fate of a dying country into their own hands was ripening. It was necessary to inspire the people, instill in people confidence in victory, readiness to make any sacrifices. We needed people who had high personal qualities and such an understanding of what was happening in order to lead the popular movement. Such a leader folk hero became a simple Russian man from Nizhny Novgorod Kuzma Minin.
Little is known about Minin's origins. However, it is known for certain that the version of the non-Russian origin of K. Minin (“baptized Tatar”) is a myth. On September 1, 1611, Minin was elected to the zemstvo elders. “The husband is not glorious by birth,” the chronicler notes, “but he is wise, intelligent and pagan in sense.” The high human qualities of Minin were able to appreciate the people of Nizhny Novgorod, nominating Sukhoruk to such an important post. The position of zemstvo headman was very honorable and responsible. He was in charge of the collection of taxes and ruled the court in the suburb, he had great power. The townspeople had to obey the zemstvo headman "in all worldly affairs," those who did not obey, he had the right to force. Minin was a "favorite" person in Nizhny Novgorod for his honesty and justice. Great organizational talent, love for the Motherland and ardent hatred for the invaders made him the "fathers" of the Second Zemstvo Militia. He became the soul of the new militia.
Minin began his exhortations to “help the Muscovite state” both in the “zemstvo hut”, and at the market where his shop stood, and near his house in ordinary meetings of neighbors, and at gatherings where letters that came to Nizhny Novgorod were read to the townspeople, etc. .d. In October 1611, Minin appealed to the people of Nizhny Novgorod with a call to create a people's militia to fight foreigners. At the alarm, the people gathered at the Transfiguration Cathedral for a gathering. Here Kuzma Minin delivered his famous speech, in which he urged the people of Nizhny Novgorod not to spare anything to protect their native country: “Orthodox people, we will want to help the Muscovite state, we will not spare our stomachs, but not only our stomachs - we will sell our yards, we will lay down our wives, children and we will beat brow, so that someone becomes our boss. And what praise will be to all of us from the Russian land that such a great deed will happen from such a small city as ours. I know that as soon as we move towards this, many cities will come to us, and we will get rid of foreigners.
Kuzma Minin's ardent call received the warmest response from Nizhny Novgorod residents. On his advice, the townspeople gave the "third money", that is, the third part of their property, for the militia. Donations were made voluntarily. One rich widow of the 12 thousand rubles she had donated 10 thousand - a huge amount at that time, striking the imagination of Nizhny Novgorod residents. Minin himself donated not only “his entire treasury” to the needs of the militia, but also silver and gold salaries from icons and jewelry of his wife. “You all do the same,” he said to the posad. However, voluntary contributions alone were not enough. Therefore, a compulsory collection of the “fifth money” was announced from all Nizhny Novgorod residents: each of them had to contribute a fifth of their income from fishing and trading activities. The collected money was to be used to distribute salaries to service people.
Peasants, townspeople and nobles joined the Nizhny Novgorod militia as volunteers. Minin introduced new order in the organization of the militia: the militia was given a salary that was not equal. Depending on military training and combat merit, the militias were assigned (divided) into four salaries. Those who were turned on the first salary received 50 rubles a year, on the second - 45, on the third - 40, on the fourth - 35 rubles. Monetary salaries for all militias, regardless of whether he was a nobleman or a peasant, made everyone formally equal. Not noble origin, but skill, military abilities, devotion to the Russian land were the qualities by which Minin assessed a person.
Kuzma Minin not only himself was attentive and sensitive to every soldier who came to the militia, but also demanded the same from all commanders. He invited a detachment of service Smolensk nobles into the militia, who, after the fall of Smolensk, not wanting to serve the Polish king, abandoned their estates and went to the Arzamas district. The arriving Smolensk warriors were greeted very warmly by the Nizhny Novgorod people and provided with everything necessary.
With the full consent of all the inhabitants and city authorities of Nizhny Novgorod, on the initiative of Minin, the “Council of All the Earth” was created, which in its nature became the provisional government of the Russian state. Its members included the best people Volga cities and some representatives local authorities. With the help of the "Council" Minin led the recruitment of warriors in the militia, and resolved other issues. The inhabitants of Nizhny Novgorod unanimously invested him with the title of "an elected man of the whole earth."
Minin's appeal to the people of Nizhny Novgorod in 1611. M. I. Peskov
Commander of the Second Militia
The question was extremely important: how to find a governor who would lead the Zemstvo militia? Nizhny Novgorod did not want to deal with local governors. Okolnichiy Prince Vasily Zvenigorodsky did not differ in military talents, and was related to Mikhail Saltykov, hetman Gonsevsky's henchman. He received the rank of roundabout according to the letter of Sigismund III, and was appointed to the Nizhny Novgorod province by Trubetskoy and Zarutsky. Such a person was not to be trusted.
The second governor, Andrey Alyabyev, skillfully fought and served faithfully, but was known only in his Nizhny Novgorod district. The townspeople wanted a skilled governor, not marked by "flights", and known among the people. Find such a warlord in this Time of Troubles when the transitions of governors and nobles from one camp to another became commonplace, it was not easy. Then Kuzma Minin proposed to elect Prince Dmitry Mikhailovich Pozharsky as governor.
His candidacy was approved by the people of Nizhny Novgorod and the militias. A lot spoke in favor of the prince: he was far from the corrupt ruling elite, did not have a duma rank, a simple steward. He did not manage to make a court career, but more than once distinguished himself on the battlefield. In 1608, being a regimental commander, he defeated the Tushino troops near Kolomna; in 1609 he defeated the gangs of ataman Salkov; in 1610, during the dissatisfaction of the Ryazan governor Prokopiy Lyapunov with Tsar Shuisky, he kept the city of Zaraysk in loyalty to the tsar. Then he defeated the Polish detachment sent against Lyapunov and the "thieves" Cossacks, who tried to take Zaraysk. He was faithful to the oath, did not bow to foreigners. The fame of the heroic deeds of the prince during the Moscow uprising in the spring of 1611 reached Nizhny Novgorod. Nizhny Novgorod also liked such traits of the prince as honesty, disinterestedness, justice in making decisions, decisiveness and balance in his actions. In addition, he was nearby, he lived in his patrimony just 120 miles from Nizhny. Dmitry Mikhailovich was treated after severe wounds received in battles with enemies. The wound on the leg was especially difficult to heal - lameness remained for life. As a result, Pozharsky received the nickname Lame.
To invite Prince Dmitry Pozharsky to the voivodship, the citizens of Nizhny Novgorod sent an honorary embassy to the village of Mugreeevo, Suzdal district. There is evidence that before and after that, Minin repeatedly visited him, together they discussed the organization of the Second Zemstvo militia. Nizhny Novgorod people went to him "many times, so that I could go to Nizhny for the Zemstvo Council," the prince himself noted. As was customary then, Pozharsky for a long time refused the offer of Nizhny Novgorod. The prince was well aware that before deciding on such an honorable and responsible business, it is necessary to think over this issue well. In addition, Pozharsky wanted from the very beginning to receive the powers of a large governor, to be commander in chief.
In the end, Dmitry Pozharsky, who had not yet fully recovered from his injuries, gave his consent. But he also set a condition that the people of Nizhny Novgorod themselves choose from among the townspeople a person who would become with him at the head of the militia and deal with the “rear”. And he offered Kuzma Minin to this position. That's what they decided on. Thus, in the zemstvo militia, Prince Pozharsky assumed a military function, and the “elected man of the whole earth” Kuzma Minin-Sukhoruk became in charge of the economy of the army, the militia treasury. At the head of the second zemstvo militia stood two people, elected by the people and invested with their confidence - Minin and Pozharsky.
"Minin and Pozharsky". Painter M. I. Scotty
Militia organization
At the end of October 1611, Prince Pozharsky arrived in Nizhny Novgorod with a small retinue and, together with Minin, set about organizing a people's militia. They developed vigorous activity to create an army that was supposed to liberate Moscow from the invaders and initiate the expulsion of the interventionists from the Russian land. Minin and Pozharsky understood that they could solve such a big task facing them only by relying on the “popular multitude”.
Minin showed great firmness and determination in raising funds. From the tax collectors for the militia, Minin demanded that the rich not make indulgences, and the poor should not be unfairly oppressed. Despite the total taxation of Nizhny Novgorod residents, there was still not enough money to provide the militias with everything they needed. I had to resort to forced loans from residents of other cities. The clerks of the richest merchants of the Stroganovs, merchants from Moscow, Yaroslavl and other cities connected with Nizhny Novgorod by trade were subject to taxation. By creating the militia, its leaders began to show their strength and power far beyond the borders of the Nizhny Novgorod district. Letters were sent to Yaroslavl, Vologda, Kazan and other cities. In a letter sent on behalf of the Nizhny Novgorod militia to residents of other cities, it was said: “From all the cities of the Moscow state, there were nobles and boyar children near Moscow, Polish and Lithuanian people were besieged by a strong siege, but the flow of nobles and boyar children from Moscow parted for a temporary sweets, for robberies and kidnappings. But now we, all sorts of people of Nizhny Novgorod, having referred to Kazan and all the cities of the lower and Volga regions, having gathered with many military people, seeing the final ruin of the Muscovite state, asking God for mercy, we all go with our heads to the aid of the Muscovite state. Yes, Smolensk, Dorogobuzh and Vets came to Nizhny Novgorod from Arzamas ... and we, all the people of Nizhny Novgorod, after consulting among ourselves, sentenced: to share our stomachs and houses with them, give salaries and help and send them to help the Moscow the state."
The Volga cities responded to the appeal of Nizhny Novgorod in different ways. Such small towns as Balakhna and Gorokhovets immediately got involved. Kazan reacted to this call at first rather coolly. Her "sovereign people" believed that "royal Kazan - main city Downstream". As a result, the service people of the border regions who arrived in the vicinity of Arzamas after the fall of Smolensk, Smolensk, Belyan, Dorogobuzh, Vyazmichi, Brenchan, Roslavtsy and others, become the core of the militia along with the Nizhny Novgorod people. They gathered about 2 thousand people, and they were all experienced fighters who had participated in battles more than once. Later, nobles from Ryazan and Kolomna came to Nizhny, as well as service people, Cossacks and archers from the "Ukrainian cities" who were in Moscow under Tsar Vasily Shuisky.
Having learned about the formation of the Second Militia in Nizhny Novgorod and not being able to counteract this, the worried Poles turned to Patriarch Hermogenes demanding that he condemn the "traitors". The patriarch refused to do so. He cursed the Moscow boyars who turned to him on behalf of Gonsevsky as "cursed traitors." As a result, he was starved to death. On February 17, 1612 Hermogenes died.
The leaders of the second militia needed to resolve the issue of the remainder of the First militia. The leaders of the Cossack freemen Zarutsky and Trubetskoy still had considerable strength. As a result, since December 1611, two provisional governments have been operating in Russia: the “Council of All the Land” of the Cossacks near Moscow, led by Ataman Ivan Zarutsky, and the “Council of All the Land” in Nizhny Novgorod. Between these two centers of power there was a struggle not only for influence on local governors and for income, but also over the question of what to do next. Zarutsky and Trubetskoy, with the support of the rich and influential Trinity-Sergius Monastery, proposed to lead the militia to Moscow as soon as possible. They feared the rapid growth of the power and influence of the Nizhny Novgorod rati. And they planned to take a dominant position near Moscow. However, the "Council of All the Earth" of Nizhny Novgorod considered it necessary to wait in order to properly prepare for the campaign. It was the line of Minin and Pozharsky.
Relations between the two centers of power became openly hostile after Trubetskoy and Zarutsky began negotiations with the Pskov impostor Sidorka (False Dmitry III), to whom they eventually swore allegiance. True, they soon had to abandon their "kissing the cross", since such an act did not find support among ordinary Cossacks and was sharply condemned by Minin and Pozharsky.
Start of the hike
After hard work, by the beginning of February 1612, the Nizhny Novgorod militia was already an impressive force and reached 5 thousand soldiers. Despite the fact that the work on the military structure of the Second Home Guard had not yet been fully completed, Pozharsky and Minin realized that they could no longer wait and decided to start the campaign. Initially, the shortest route was chosen - from Nizhny Novgorod through Gorokhovets, Suzdal to Moscow.
The moment to attack was convenient. The Polish garrison in Moscow experienced great difficulties, especially an acute shortage of food. The famine forced most of the Polish garrison to leave the devastated city for the surrounding counties in search of food. Of the 12 thousand the enemy troops in the Kremlin and Kitai-Gorod remained about 4 thousand. garrison weakened by hunger. The most select detachments of Polish thugs under the command of Hetman Khodkevich settled in the village of Rogachevo, not far from the city of Dmitrov; Sapieha's detachment was in the city of Rostov. There was no help from Sigismund III to the besieged garrison. And the “Seven Boyars” is somehow real military force did not represent herself. Thus, it was the most convenient time for the liberation of Moscow.
Voivode Dmitry Pozharsky drew up a plan for a liberation campaign. The idea was to take advantage of the fragmentation of the forces of the interventionists, to break them in parts. At first, it was planned to cut off the detachments of Khodkevich and Sapieha from Moscow, and then defeat the besieged Polish garrison of Gonsevsky and liberate the capital. Pozharsky hoped for the help of the Cossack camps near Moscow (the remnants of the First Militia).
However, Ataman Zarutsky began open hostilities. He decided to capture a number of major cities Northeast Russia and thereby prevent Nizhny Novgorod residents from going there and preserve their sphere of influence. Taking advantage of the withdrawal from Rostov of the Great Sapieha Detachment, in February Zarutsky orders his Cossacks to capture Yaroslavl, a strategically important city on the Volga. The Cossack detachment of ataman Prosovetsky was supposed to go there from Vladimir.
As soon as it became known about the actions of Zarutsky, Minin and Pozharsky were forced to change the original plan for the liberation campaign. They decided to move up the Volga, occupy Yaroslavl, bypassing the devastated areas where the Cossack detachments of Zarutsky and Trubetskoy near Moscow were operating, and combine the forces that had risen against the interventionists. Zarutsky's Cossacks were the first to break into Yaroslavl. The townspeople asked Pozharsky for help. The prince sent detachments of his relatives, princes Dmitry Lopata Pozharsky and Roman Pozharsky. They occupied Yaroslavl and Suzdal with a quick raid, taking the Cossacks by surprise and did not allow Prosovetsky's detachments to go there. The detachment of Prosovetsky, who was on the way to Yaroslavl, had no choice but to turn back to the camps near Moscow. He did not take the fight.
Having received news from Lopata-Pozharsky that Yaroslavl was in the hands of the Nizhny Novgorod people, Minin and Pozharsky in early March 1612 ordered the militia to set out from Nizhny Novgorod on a campaign to liberate the capital of the Russian state. In early April 1612, the militia entered Yaroslavl. Here the militia stood for four months, until the end of July 1612.
