When reading about knights, warriors of the thirteenth century, we often come across references to their armor and weapons. What did the military armor of the 13th century look like, how did the warrior put on all his equipment, how did he use it? One can certainly refer to numerous reference materials that provide information on these issues, but nothing compares to a good practical demonstration of knightly equipment from the 13th century.

Numerous military history clubs study military equipment of different eras, make knightly armor and weapons, and even know what underwear was like in the 13th century. Members of military history clubs are well aware that much more interesting to see everything with my own eyes.

Practice has shown that to put on all the equipment and full equipment of a warrior of the 13th century, you will need lots of time and help , at least one servant-squire, but it is better to take two assistants who know what to do.

To begin with, the knight must put on underwear of the thirteenth century.

Over underwear the warrior puts on not one-piece trousers, but two quilted trousers , which are fastened with special leather straps to the belt. On the feet of a warrior homemade leather shoes sewn according to old patterns.

The first item of a knight's mail robe is mail greaves (eng. Chain Leggings), which are worn "on the leg" over quilted trousers.

Mail Leggings pretty hard to put on , as they should fit snugly enough to the leg.

If they were too loose, it would be difficult for a knight to walk, his legs would cling to one another.

Mail Leggings give knight the opportunity to comfortably sit on a horse.

Mail leggings are fastened with special straps to the belt knight.

For. to prevent sagging of mail greaves, they are supported by additional leather straps tied around the knee and ankle.

Then the knight puts on a thick soft quilt (English gambeson - overalls), consisting of many layers of material, fabric, cotton wool and horsehair, the entire quilt is stitched with strong threads, so it is hard to the touch, and at the same time soft armor, like a blanket.

A good quilt can stand on its own! The quilted dense fabric, like a padded jacket, weakens the force of any blows that can hit the knight, and is also a softening protective layer from the hard touch of iron chain mail.

The quilt is very warm and poorly "breathable" material, so the knight became very hot and sweaty while moving or fighting for several hours. Before a fight or before a campaign, a warrior had to drink enough water, otherwise he could die from dehydration.

Then the knight puts on a soft quilted balaclava that hides his hair and serves as a head protection from iron chain mail .

What is typical for the manufacture of chain mail of this period?

If you look closely at the close-up, you will see that it consists of alternating rows of solid rings and riveted links.

This way of joining the rings is a bit faster because each ring does not need to be riveted, but it is still a very labor intensive process.

First, the blacksmith forged steel, made individual links, correctly connected them, performing riveting.

We are talking about several weeks of work by a skilled craftsman, as well as expensive materials. That is why chain mail was very expensive, and it was only possible for wealthy people to order it from the master.

chain mail was invented about in the middle of the 1st millennium BC. e., but it is impossible to say exactly who and where first made it.

Word "mail" comes from the Vedic Sanskrit word "armor of many rings" (with the root "kol", "kolo" - "circle, ring"); armor, tight to the upper body, a shell of rings. This is a derivative of root "kank" - kañc - 1) ‘to bind’, 2) ‘shine’.

Putting on chain mail to a warrior on his own is also not easy. Hauberk quite heavy, but it is also very flexible, so a knight in it can easily move.

From the 10th century, the spread of chain mail reached its maximum when hauberks (English Hauberk) , with hood and gloves shirt (English mail shirt) covering the entire body.

The word hauberk comes from the old German word " Halsberg ", which originally meant Hals- "hals" - throat and berge- “take care”.

B XIII century in Europe chain mail sometimes reinforced with extensive shoulder and chest plates.

As you can see, the hauberk has a built-in hood , which must be laced with a leather strap around the head.

A leather strap holds the hood in place, and serves to keep it from falling forward over the eyes, but rather against the knight's forehead when he rides a horse or fights in battle.

The hood has a collar to protect the throat.

The flexible collar of the hood can be fixed in two positions - up and down.

An important detail of the knight's equipment is waist belt , which helps to distribute the weight of heavy mail.

When a knight puts on a hauberk, the entire weight of the iron equipment, hanging down, presses on his shoulders.

If the warrior raises his hands, and the servant-squire tightly tie a belt around the waist , then lowering his hands again, the warrior will feel that a big part of the chain mail weight is now held by the belt.

An integral part of the equipment of a knight of the 13th century are mittens.

The mittens have chain mail protection with back side , but from the side of the palm they are leather, so that it would be easier for the knight to hold the horse's reins and weapons.

There is a slit in the palm of the leather gauntlet so that the knight can remove his hand from the gauntlet when necessary.

If you look at contemporary illustrations of combat, you will see that the knights are always wearing mittens, and there is a reason for this.

No one in their right mind would go into battle without gloves, first of all, it is protection from damage to the hands holding weapons. Hands in mittens, chained with chain mail protection from the back - this powerful weapon in close combat.

Mittens attached to hauberk (English hauberk), but are located so that you can take them off or put them on. They also have a leather tie around the wrist to keep them in place.

Over the hauberk the knight puts on shirt (English) sur + coat - "surcoat", hence the word "coat"). Researcher opinions differ as to the original purpose of wearing the shirt.

Researchers of military equipment believe that the outer shirt protected the iron mail from heating in the sun, because the chain mail could become too hot, or the shirt could protect the mail from the rain, because the iron mail could rust. In any case, the shirt served both purposes.

Top shirt (Surcoat) was used for drawing the coat of arms of a knight, which was very important, as it is very difficult to distinguish one warrior from another, when they put on their mail helmets and turned up their collars.

At the beginning of the 13th century, heraldic symbols were quite simple, mainly geometric patterns or stylized images animals.

On the shields of the knights of the 13th century there were not yet very complex heraldic emblems and coats of arms, consisting of quarters and eighths, indicating kinship with the distant ancestors of the family. Emblems of the 13th century can be described as "embellished sable (sable)", that is, black and white.

Over a shirt with a coat of arms, the knight put on sword belt. The sword in the scabbard was attached to the left side so that the knight can quickly and easily grab the hilt of the sword with his right hand.

By the way, swords of the 13th century are much less heavy than many believe, they weighed about 3 pounds or 1.5 kg, which is only three times more than a fencing sword. The sword is a weapon of balance and skill, not a striking weapon like a mace.

The knight could hold a mace or an ax in his left hand, and inflict crushing, deadly blows on the enemy. Depending on the situation, the knight could use his shield while holding it in his left hand.

Then an additional soft protective headdress is put on the knight's head, with a sewn-in circle, like egalema which are worn on head Arabs. This circle helps to hold the chain mail helmet in place, just as the egal holds the men's head scarf - kufya.

Now the helmet. The early thirteenth century was a kind of transitional time for helmets: if you look at contemporary illustrations, you will see old-fashioned nose helmets next to the later "mask" type of helmet. However, the most modern 13th century fashion there was a flat-topped helmet whose design was a clear backward step, not a good idea for a helmet, as it could dent badly on impact, resulting in serious injury to the knight. At the end of the thirteenth century, the design of the helmet changed , and became similar to a "sugarloaf", in subsequent centuries helmets almost always have a rounded shape, which protects the head well, but the shoulders may suffer. Chain mail was reinforced with shoulder armor protecting the shoulders of a warrior.

Wearing a helmet does not give the warrior much range of vision, nor does it take into account ease of breathing. A balance had to be struck between more security and less visual range, which would basically mean that the knight's head was completely covered. With a greater range of view, the warrior should have a more open and vulnerable face to injury. The design of the 13th century helmet thus resulted in narrow eye slits and small breathing holes.

The shield is put on left hand knight.

On the back of the shield are two short straps (English enarmes), through which the warrior passes his left hand. But there is also a longer belt on the shield called giga (English guige), that is giga ntsky to hang it over his shoulder when he is not using it for protection. The 13th century shield is made of wood and covered with several layers of thick leather to form a strong, layered defense. As on the top shirt, the knight's distinguishing sign, coat of arms was depicted on the shield.

The main weapon of a knight of the 13th century was, of course, not a sword, but a spear. At the beginning of the thirteenth century, the spear was not a blunt, striped wooden pole, but rather a real fighting spear, which was a wooden rod ten to twelve feet long, with a sharp, double-edged metal point at the end.

In more early centuries the spear was used more frequently during combat, as seen where William's Norman cavalry fight against Harold's Anglo-Saxon heavily armed infantry at the Battle of Hastings October 14, 1066. The impact force of a rider's spear was much higher than the impact force of a heavily armed warrior on foot.

By the early 13th century, knights were using the technique of striking a spear held firmly under the rider's right arm. Considering that the knight sat firmly enough in the saddle of his horse, and the entire weight of the rider in armor and the galloping horse was concentrated on the sharp cutting edge of the spear, which acquired the lethal force of the projectile. There is reliable news from contemporaries of events that tells that the spear pierced the enemy in armor through and through.

What were the horses in the army of the 13th century? Contrary to popular myths, war horses were not massive animals, however, they were very strong enough to carry the full weight of an armed knight in armor.

So, the knight is now armed and ready for battle.

There are a few things to note that refute common misconceptions that come from Hollywood movies or television. Firstly, it is physically impossible for a knight to put on all the necessary military equipment and arm himself on his own. As you can see in the photographs, there is no way a warrior could put on his equipment without outside help: he needs at least one, and preferably two assistants.

Secondly, it takes quite a lot of time to properly arm a knight. In modern conditions, at least about twenty minutes of time is required, provided that you have two experienced assistants. Under other conditions, it will take at least half an hour to put everything on and tie it correctly and neatly, and not sloppy and crooked. Otherwise, the hood can fall over the knight's eyes, and the sleeves of chain mail can slide down onto the mittens, which would be a disaster for a warrior during battle. Preparation for battle must be thorough and thorough; during the battle it will be too late to do this.

And finally, questions of weight and ease of movement. Yes, the armor is heavy - it should be so, otherwise it is unlikely to be useful for protecting a warrior. But let's not forget that the knight has been training, almost every day, since childhood. This meant that he was used to the armor and its weight, and could easily move in it. Chain mail is quite flexible, and its wearer has freedom of movement.

So, here it is - an armored knight of the thirteenth century.

The chain mail in the photo is made of a metal bundle, and is an exact copy of the knight's equipment of the 13th century.

Weight of various pieces of equipment of a 13th century knight in a modern version:

Overalls (eng. Gambeson): 10 pounds (4.5 kg)
Mail (English Hauberk; Hauberk): 38 pounds (17 kg)
Leggings (eng. Chausses - highway): 18 pounds (8 kg)
Helmet (English Helm): 6 pounds (2.5 kg)
Shield (English Shield): 4 pounds (2 kg)
Scabbard and sword belt: 2 pounds (1 kg)
Sword (eng. Sword): 3 pounds (1.5 kg)
Ax (English Axe): 4 pounds (2 kg)

In total, this is 85 pounds or 38.5 kg.

A knight of the 13th century, equipped in all armor, was an "armored tank" of his time - almost invincible and not killed with all the iron protection. Very few knights of the 13th century died during the battle, much more civilians or lightly armed foot soldiers died.

Many thanks to Knight Colin Middleton and his trusty squire.

2018-12-15

Brief historical outline

© Guy Stair Sainty
© Translation from English and additions by Yu.Veremeev

From a translator. For us in Russia, the Teutonic Order is unambiguously associated with German knights, crusaders, Germany, German expansion to the east, the battle of Prince Alexander Nevsky on Lake Peipsi with dog-knights, the aggressive aspirations of the Prussians against Russia. The Teutonic Order for us is a kind of synonym for Germany. However, this is not entirely true. The Order and Germany are far from being the same thing. In the historical essay offered to the reader by Guy Steyr Santi, translated from English with additions made by the translator, the history of the Teutonic Order is traced from its inception to the present day. Yes Yes! The order still exists today.

The translator in some places gives explanations about moments little known to the Russian reader, provided the text with illustrations, additions and corrections from other historical sources.

Some explanations and references are given before the beginning of the text of the essay. In addition, the translator encountered certain difficulties in translating proper names, names of a number of localities and settlements, locks. The fact is that these names are very different in English, German, Russian, Polish. Therefore, names and titles are, if possible, given in translation and in the original language (English) or German, Polish.

First of all, about the name of this organization.
Official name for Latin(because this organization was created as a Catholic religious organization, and Latin is the official language of the Catholic Church) Fratrum Theutonicorum ecclesiae S. Mariae Hiersolymitanae.
Second official name in Latin Ordo domus Sanctae Mariae Teutonicorum in Jerusalem
In Russian -
In German, the full name is Bruder and Schwestern vom Deutschen Haus Sankt Mariens in Jerusalem
- the first version of the abbreviated name in German - Der Teutschen Orden
- common in german version -Der Deutsche Order.
In English - The Teutonuc Order of Holy Mary in Jerusalem.
In French - de L "Ordre Teutonique our de Sainte Marie de Jerusalem.
In Czech and Polish - Ordo Teutonicus.

The highest leaders in the Order in various circumstances and in various times bore the following names (titles):
meister. It is translated into Russian as "master", "leader", "head". In Russian historical literature, the term "master" is usually used.
Gross Meister. It is translated into Russian as "great master", "great master", "supreme leader", "supreme leader". In Russian historical literature, the German word itself is usually used in the Russian transcription "Grandmaster" or "Grand Master".
Administratoren des Hochmeisteramptes in Preussen, Meister teutschen Ordens in teutschen und walschen Landen. This long title can be translated as "Administrator of the Main Magistrate in Prussia, Master of the Teutonic Order in the Teutonic and controlled Lands (Regions)".
Hoch- und Deutschmeister. Can be translated as "Supreme Master and Master of Germany"
hochmeister. Can be translated into Russian as "Grand Master", but more often used in transcription as "Hochmeister"

Other senior leaders in the Order:
commander. In Russian, the term "commander" is used, although the essence of this word means "commander", "commander".
capitularies. It is not translated into Russian, it is transcribed as "capitulier". The essence of the title is the head of the chapter (meetings, conferences, commissions).
Rathsgebietiger. Can be translated as "Council Member".
Deutscherrenmeister. It is not translated into Russian. Means approximately "Chief Master of Germany".
balleimeister. It can be translated into Russian as "master of the estate (possession)".

Other titles in German:
Fuerst. It is translated into Russian as "prince", but the word "duke" is often used to refer to foreign titles of this rank.
Kurfuerst. It is translated into Russian as "Grand Duke", but the words "Archduke", "Elector" are also used in Russian historical literature.
Koenig. King.
Herzog. duke
Erzherzog. Archduke

Motto of the Teutonic Order: "Helfen-Wehren-Heilen"(Help-Protect-Heal)

The highest leaders of the Order ( known to the author essay and translator):
1. 19.2.1191-1200 Heinrich von Walpot (Rhineland)
2. 1200-1208 Otto von Kerpen (Bremen)
3. 1208-1209 Herman Bart (Holstein)
4. 1209-1239 Herman von Salza (Meissen)
5. 1239-9.4.1241 Conrad Landgraf von Thuringen
6. 1241 -1244 Gerhard von Mahlberg
7. 1244-1249 Heinrich von Hohenlohe
8. 1249-1253 Gunther von Wüllersleben
9. 1253-1257 Popon von Osterna
10. 1257-1274 Annon von Sangershausen
11. 1274-1283 Hartman von Heldrungen
12.1283-1290 Burchard von Schwanden
13. 1291-1297 Conrad von Feuchtwangen
14. 1297 - 1303 Godfrey von Hohenlohe
15. 1303-1311 Siegfried von Feuchtwangen
16. 1311-1324 Kard von Trier
17. 1324-1331 Werner von Orslen
18. 1331-1335 Luther von Brunswick
19. 1335-1341 Dietrich von Altenburg
20. 1341-1345 Ludolf König
21. 1345 -1351 Heinrich Dusemer
22. 1351-1382 Winrich von Kniprode
23. 1382-1390 Conrad Zollner von Rothenstein.
24. 1391-1393 Conrad von Wallenrod
25. 1393-1407 Conrad von Jungingen
26. 1407 -15.7.1410 Ulrich von Jungingen
27. 1410 - 1413 Heinrich (Reuss) von Plauen
28. 1413-1422 Michel Küchmeister
29. 1422- 1441 Paul von Russdorf
30. 1441- 1449 Konrad von Erlichshausen
31. 1450-1467 Ludwig von Erlichshausen
32. 1469-1470 Heinrich Reuss von Plauen
33. 1470-1477 Heinrich von Richtenberg (Heinrich von Richtenberg)
34. 1477-1489 Martin Truchses von Wetzhausen
35. 1489- 1497 Johann von Tiefen
36. 1498 -1510 Furst Friedrich Sachsisch (Prince Friedrich of Saxony)
37. 13.2.1511-1525 Markgraf Albrecht von Hohenzollern (Brandenburg)
38. 1525 -16.12.1526 Walther von Plettenberg
39. 12/16/1526 -? Walther von Cronberg
40.? - 1559 von Furstenberg
41. 1559 -5.3.1562 Gothard Kettler
42. 1572-1589 Heinrich von Bobenhausen
43. 1589- 1619 Ezherzog Maximilian Habsburg (Archduke Maximilian)
44. 1619-? Erzherzog Karl Habsburg (Archduke Karl Habsburg)
?. ?-? ?
?. 1802 - 1804 Erzherzog Carl-Ludwig Habsburg (Archduke Karl-Ludwig)
?. 30.6.1804 -3.4.1835 Erzgerzog Anton Habsburg (Archduke Anton Habsburg)
?. 1835-1863 Erzperzog Maximilian Austria-Este (Habsburg)
?. 1863-1894 Erzherzog Wilhelm (Habsburg)
?. ? -1923 Erzherzog Eugen (Habsburg)
?. 1923-? Monsignor Norbert Klein
? ?- 1985 Ildefons Pauler
? 1985 - Arnold Wieland

Part I

Forerunner of the Order was a hospital founded by German pilgrims and crusader knights between 1120 and 1128, but destroyed after the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 during the Second Crusade.

With the arrival two years later of the Knights of the Third Crusade (1190-1193), many of whom were Germans, a new hospital was formed near the Syrian fortress of Saint Jean d "Acre (Acre) for soldiers who were wounded during the siege (approx. translator - the fortress in Russian historical literature is called Acre, Acre, in English Acre. It was taken by the knights in 1191. The hospital was built on the land of St. Nicholas from boards and sails of ships that transported participants in the campaign to the Holy Land. and Canon Wurhard. Note by the translator.) Although this hospital had no connection with an earlier hospital, its example may have inspired them to restore Christian rule in Jerusalem. They adopted the name of the city as part of their name, along with Our Lady Mary, whom they considered The Knights later proclaimed Saint Elisabeth of Hungary also patroness after her canonization in 1235, and in the custom of many knights They also proclaimed Saint John as their patron, as the patron of nobility and chivalry.

The new institution with the status of a spiritual order was approved by one of the German knightly leaders, Prince Friedrich of Swabia (Furst Frederick von Swabia) November 19, 1190, and after the capture of the fortress of Acre, the founders of the hospital found her a permanent place in the city.

According to another version, during the 3rd crusade, when Acre was besieged by the knights, merchants from Lübeck and Bremen founded a field hospital. Duke Friedrich of Swabia transformed the hospital into a spiritual Order, headed by the chaplain Conrad. The order was subordinate to the local bishop and was a branch of the Order of St. John.

Pope Clement III approved the Order as "fratrum Theutonicorum ecclesiae S. Mariae Hiersolymitanae" by his papal bull of February 6, 1191.

March 5, 1196 in the temple of Acre, a ceremony was held to reorganize the Order into a spiritual and knightly Order.

The ceremony was attended by the masters of the Hospitallers and the Templars, as well as the secular and clergy of Jerusalem. Pope Innocent III confirmed this event with a bull dated February 19, 1199, and defined the tasks of the Order: the protection of the German knights, the treatment of the sick, the fight against the enemies of the Catholic Church. The order was subject to the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor.

In a few years the Order developed into a Religious Armed Force comparable to the Order of the Hospitallers and the Order of the Knights Templar (translator's note - the latter is also known as the Order of the Holy Temple or the Templars), although initially subordinate to the Master of the Hospital (Der Meister des Lazarettes). This submission was confirmed by a bull of Pope Gregory IX dated January 12, 1240, under the title "fratres hospitalis S. Mariae Theutonicorum in Accon". The Germanic character of this new hospital Order and its protection by the German emperor and the German dukes enabled it to gradually assert its de facto independence from the Order of St. John. The first imperial decree came from the German king Otto IV, who took the Order under his protection on May 10, 1213, and this was followed almost immediately by further confirmation by King Frederick II of Jerusalem on September 5, 1214. These imperial confirmations strengthened the independence of the Teutonic Knights from the Hospitallers. In the middle of the fourteenth century this independence was confirmed by the Holy See.

Approximately forty knights were accepted into the new Order at its founding by King Frederick of Swabia of Jerusalem (Frederick von Swabia), who chose their first master on behalf of the Pope and Emperor. The knights of the new brotherhood had to be of German blood (although this rule was not always respected), which was unusual for Crusader Orders based in the Holy Land. They were chosen from people of the noble class, although this last obligation was not formally included in the original rule. Their uniform was a blue mantle (cloak), with a black Latin cross, worn over a white tunic, recognized by the Patriarch of Jerusalem and confirmed by the Pope in 1211. (From the translator.- In the figure there is a Latin cross worn by the knights of the Teutonic Order on cloaks)

The waves of German knights and pilgrims who participated in the third Crusade brought considerable wealth to the new German Hospital as newcomers. This enabled the knights to purchase the Joscelin estate and soon build the fortress of Montfort (lost in 1271), a rival to the great fortress of Krak des Chevaliers. Not so numerous in the Holy Land compared to the Templars, the Teutonic Knights, however, wielded great power.

First Master of the Order Heinrich von Walpot (died 1200) was from the Rhineland. He drew up the first statutes of the Order in 1199, which were approved by Pope Innocent III in the bull "Sacrosancta romana" of February 19, 1199. They divided the members into two classes: knights and priests, who were required to take three monastic vows - poverty, celibacy and obedience, as well as promise to help the sick and fight against unbelievers. Unlike the knights, who from the beginning of the thirteenth century had to prove "ancient nobility", the priests were exempted from this obligation. Their function was to celebrate holy mass and other religious services, to give communion to the knights and the sick in hospitals, and to follow them as medics to war. Priests of the Order could not become masters, commanders or vice-commanders in Lithuania or Prussia (i.e. where there were fighting. Translator's note), but could become commanders in Germany. Later, a third class was added to these two ranks - service personnel (Sergeants, or Graumantler), who wore similar clothes, but a grayer shade than pure blue and had only three parts of a cross on their clothes to indicate that they were not full members. brotherhood.

The knights lived together in bedrooms on simple beds, ate together in the dining room, had no more than enough money. Their clothing and armor were similarly simple but practical, they toiled daily, trained for battle, looked after their equipment, and worked with their horses. The master - the title of grandmaster appeared later - was elected, as in the Order of the Johnites, and, as in other Orders, his rights were limited to knights. The representative of the master, the (chief) commander, to whom the priests were subordinate, managed the Order in his absence. The marshal (chief), also subordinate to the magister, was the chief in command of the knights and ordinary troops, and was responsible for ensuring that they were properly equipped. The hospitalier (chief) was responsible for the sick and wounded, the drapier was responsible for building and clothing, the treasurer managed the property and finances. Each of these last leaders was elected for a short term, rotating annually. As the Order spread throughout Europe, it became necessary to appoint provincial masters for Germany, Prussia and later Livonia, with their respective chief leaders.

Valpota was succeeded by Otto von Kerpen from Bremen and the third was Herman Bart from Holstein, which suggests that the knights of the Order came from all over Germany. The most eminent early master was the fourth, Herman von Salza (1209-1239) near Meissen, who by his diplomatic measures greatly increased the prestige of the Order. His mediation in conflicts between the Pope and the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire provided the Order with the patronage of both, increasing the number of knights, giving him wealth and property. During his reign, the Order received no less than thirty-two papal confirmations or grants of privilege and no less than thirteen imperial confirmations. Master Salz's influence extended from Slovenia (then Styria), through Saxony (Thuringia), Hesse, Franconia, Bavaria and Tyrol, with castles in Prague and Vienna. There were also possessions near the borders of the Byzantine Empire, in Greece and in present-day Romania. By the time of his death, the Order's influence extended from the Netherlands in the north to the west of the Holy Roman Empire, southwest to France, Switzerland, further south to Spain and Sicily, and east to Prussia. Salz received a golden cross from the king of Jerusalem as a sign of his superiority, after the knights' outstanding performance at the siege of Damietta in 1219.

By imperial decree of January 23, 1214, the grand master and his representatives were given the rights of the Imperial Court; as owners of immediate fiefs they enjoyed a seat on the Imperial Council in princely rank from 1226/27. The princely rank was subsequently awarded to the master of Germany and, after the loss of Prussia, to the master of Livonia.

The Order's presence in medieval Europe enabled it to play a significant role in local political events. Despite the limitation of belonging to the German aristocracy, German rule spread to Italy, and especially to Sicily under the German kings Henry VI and Frederick II Barbarossa, who established convents of the Order in places far from Germany. Sicily was ruled by the Saracens until it was conquered by the Norman dynasty of Hauteville, but with the collapse of that dynasty it came under the dominion of the Germanic dukes.

The first Teutonic hospital of Saint Thomas in Sicily was confirmed by the German emperor Henry VI in 1197, and in the same year the emperor and empress granted the request of the knights to own the church of Santa Trinita in Palermo.

The Teutonic Knights initially established themselves in Eastern Europe in 1211 after King Andrew of Hungary invited the knights to settle on the border of Transylvania. The warlike Huns (Pechenegs), who also plagued the Byzantine Empire in the south, were a constant threat, and the Hungarians hoped that the knights would provide support against them. King Andrew granted them considerable autonomy in the lands for Christian missionary work, but he found their excessive demands for greater independence unacceptable, and in 1225 demanded that the knights leave his lands.

In 1217, Pope Honorius III (Honorius III) announced a crusade against the Prussian pagans. The lands of the Polish prince Konrad of Masovia were captured by these barbarians and in 1225 he, in desperate need of help, asked the Teutonic Knights to come to his aid. He promised the master the possession of the cities of Culm (Kulm) and Dobrzin (Dobrin), which the master Salza accepted with the condition that the knights could retain any territories of the Prussians captured by the Order.

Granted by the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire to the Masters of the Order, the Royal Rank in 1226/27 in the "Golden Bull" gave the knights sovereignty over any lands they seized and fixed as direct fiefs of the empire.

In 1230, the Order built the Neshava castle on Kulm land, where 100 knights were accommodated, who began to attack the Prussian tribes. In 1231 - 1242 40 stone castles were built. Near the castles (Elbing, Königsberg, Kulm, Thorn) formed German cities members of the Hansa. Until 1283, with the help of German, Polish and other feudal lords, the Order seized the lands of the Prussians, Jotvings, and Western Lithuanians and occupied territories as far as the Neman. The war to drive the pagan tribes out of Prussia alone went on for fifty years. The war began with a detachment of crusaders, headed by Landmeister Hermann von Balk. In 1230, the detachment settled in the Masurian castle of Neshava and its environs. In 1231, the knights crossed to the right bank of the Vistula and broke the resistance of the Prussian Pemeden tribe, built the castles of Thorn (Torun) (1231) and Kulm (Chelmen, Kholm, Chelmno) (1232) and until 1234 fortified themselves on Kulm land. From there, the Order began to attack the neighboring Prussian lands. The crusaders tried in the summer to destroy the occupied area, to defeat the Prussians in the open field, to occupy and destroy their castles, and also to build their own in strategically important places. When winter approached, the knights returned home, and left their garrisons in the built castles. The Prussian tribes defended themselves one by one, sometimes united (during the uprisings of 1242 - 1249 and 1260 - 1274), but they never managed to free themselves from the power of the Order. In 1233 - 1237 the crusaders conquered the lands of the Pamedenes, in 1237 - the Pagudens. In 1238, they occupied the Prussian stronghold of Honeda and built the castle of Balgu (Balga) in its place. Near it in 1240 the united army of Warm, Notang and Barth Prussians was defeated. In 1241 the Prussians of these lands recognized the authority of the Teutonic Order.

The new campaign of the knights was caused by the uprising of the Prussians in 1242 - 1249. The uprising occurred due to violations by the Order of the agreement, according to which representatives of the Prussians had the right to take part in managing the affairs of the lands. The rebels entered into an alliance with the East Pomeranian prince Sventopelk. The allies liberated part of Bartia, Notangia, Pagudia, devastated the Kulm land, but could not take the castles of Thorn, Kulm, Reden. Having been defeated several times, Sventopelk concluded a truce with the Order. On June 15, 1243, the rebels defeated the crusaders at the Osa (a tributary of the Vistula). About 400 soldiers died, including the marshal. At the Council of 1245 in Lyon, representatives of the rebels demanded that the Catholic Church stop supporting the Order. However, the church did not listen to them, and already in 1247 a huge army of knights of various Orders arrived in Prussia. At the request of the pope, Sventopelk made peace with the Order on November 24, 1248.

On February 7, 1249, the Order (it was represented by the assistant grand master Heinrich von Wiede) and the Prussian rebels in the castle of Christburg concluded an agreement. With the approval of the Pope, the archdeacon of Lezhsky Yakov acted as an intermediary. The treaty stated that the Pope of Rome would grant freedom and the right to be priests to the Prussians who converted to Christianity. Baptized Prussian feudal lords could become knights. Baptized Prussians were given the right to inherit, acquire, change and bequeath their movable and immovable property. It was possible to sell real estate only to their equals - the Prussians, Germans, Pomeranians, only it was necessary to leave a pledge to the Order so that the seller would not run away to the pagans or other enemies of the Order. If someone Prussian did not have heirs, his land became the property of the Order or the feudal lord on whose land he lived. The Prussians were given the right to sue and be defendants. Only a church marriage was considered legal marriage, and only a person born from this marriage could become an heir. Pamedens promised in 1249 to build 13 Catholic churches, varms - 6, notangs - 3. They also pledged to provide each church with 8 ubs of land, pay tithes, and baptize their compatriots within a month. Parents who did not baptize a child were to have their property confiscated, unbaptized adults were to be expelled from places where Christians live. The Prussians promised not to conclude treaties against the Order and to participate in all its campaigns. The rights and freedoms of the Prussians were to continue until the Prussians violated their obligations.

After the suppression of the uprising, the crusaders continued to attack the Prussians. The Prussian uprising of 1260 - 1274 was also crushed. Although the Prussians defeated the crusaders at Kryukai on November 30 (54 knights died), until 1252 - 1253 the resistance of the Warm, Notang and Barth Prussians was broken. In 1252 - 1253 the crusaders began to attack the Sembi.

The largest campaign against them under the command of Přemysl II Otakar took place in 1255. During the campaign, on the site of the Sembian town of Tvankste (Tvangeste), the knights built the Königsberg fortress, around which the city soon grew.

Until 1257, all the lands of the Sembi were captured, and ten years later, all of Prussia. Soon the Great Prussian Uprising broke out, wars with Western Lithuanians continued. The strengthening of the power of the Order in northeastern Europe lasted one hundred and sixty years until the beginning of the Polish-Lithuanian intervention. This crusade was very costly to the nations and took the lives of thousands of knights and soldiers.

The merging of the Teutonic Order with the Knights of the Sword (or Knights of Christ as they were sometimes called) in 1237 was of great importance. The Knights of the Sword were smaller in number, but they were more of a military brotherhood founded in Livonia in 1202. The founder of the Order of the Sword is Bishop of Riga Albert von Appeldern. The official name of the Order is "Brothers of Christ's Knighthood" (Fratres militiae Christi). The order was guided by the laws of the Knights Templar. Members of the Order were divided into knights, priests and employees. Knights most often came from families of small feudal lords (most of them were from Saxony). Their uniform is a white cloak with a red cross and sword. Employees (squires, artisans, servants, messengers) were from free people and townspeople. The head of the order was the master, the most important affairs of the order were decided by the chapter. The first master of the order was Winno von Rohrbach (1202 - 1208), the second and last was Folquin von Winterstatten (1208 - 1236). In the occupied territories, the swordsmen built castles. The castle was the center of the administrative division - castelatura. By agreement in 1207, 2/3 of the occupied lands remained under the authority of the Order, the rest was transferred to the bishops of Riga, Ezel, Derpt and Courland.

They were originally subordinate to the Archbishop of Riga, but, with the unification of Livonia and Estonia, which they ruled as sovereign states, they became fairly independent. The disastrous defeat they suffered at the Battle of Sauler (Saule) on September 22, 1236, when they lost about a third of their knights, including their master, left them in an uncertain position.

The remnants of the sword-bearers in 1237 were attached to the Teutonic Order, and its branch in Livonia was called the Livonian Order. The official name is the Order of St. Mary of the German House in Livonia (Ordo domus sanctae Mariae Teutonicorum in Livonia). Sometimes the knights of the Livonian Order are called Livonian crusaders. At first, the Livonian Order was closely associated with the center in Prussia. Consolidation with Teutonic Order ensured their survival, and henceforth they had the status of a semi-autonomous region. The new Master of Livonia has now become the Provincial Master of the Teutonic Order, and the united knights have adopted the Teutonic insignia.

The earliest Livonian knights came mainly from the south of Germany. But, after joining the Teutonic Order, the Livonian Knights increasingly came from areas in which the Teutonic Knights had a significant presence, mainly from Westphalia. In fact, there were no knights from local families, and most of the knights served in the East, spent several years there before returning to the Order's castles in Germany, Prussia, or before the loss of Acre in Palestine. It was not until the middle of the fourteenth century that it became customary to appoint a master of Livonia when the rule of the Teutonic Order was more settled and service there became less onerous. However, by the middle of the 15th century, a struggle began within the Livonian Order between supporters of the Teutonic Order (the so-called Rhine Party) and supporters of independence (Westphalian Party). When the Westphalian Party won, the Livonian Order practically became independent of the Teutonic Order.

Master Salza died after these campaigns and was buried at Barletta, in Apulia; and his short-lived successor, Conrad Landgraf von Thuringen, commanded the knights in Prussia and died three months later after suffering horrific wounds at the battle of Whalstadt (April 9, 1241) after only one year as a master.

The reign of the fifth master was short-lived, but his successor Heinrich von Hohenlohe (1244-1253) managed the Order very successfully, having received confirmation from the Holy Roman Emperor in 1245 about the possession of Livonia (Livonia), Courland (Courland) and Samogitia (Samogitia). Under Master Hohenlohe, the knights received a number of privileges governing the rule and monopoly use of possessions in Prussia.

He also built the Order Castle Marienburg (Malbork, Mergentheim, Marienthal), the Order's capital in West Prussia, which he and a colleague conquered for the Order in 1219. In accordance with letter of commendation dated August 20, 1250, Saint Louis IX of France provided four golden "fleurs lys" to be placed in each extreme point Master's Cross.

Under the eighth master Popon von Osterna (1253-1262), the Order greatly strengthened its rule in Prussia, establishing rule over Sambia (Sambia). The process of resettlement of peasants from Germany to Prussia accelerated after the Order created a more harmonious administrative division of its lands and appointed feudal stewards from among the knights for each administrative unit.

Under the next master, Annon von Sangershausen (1262-1274), the Order's privileges were confirmed by Emperor Rudolf of Habsburg (Habsburg), and in addition, the knights were allowed by the Pope to retain their possessions and property after the end of their service. This was an important privilege, because it ensured the replenishment of the lands by settled knights, who previously could not alienate their property because of their vows. They were also allowed to participate directly in trade, previously forbidden by their vow of poverty. By another privilege in 1263 they were granted a valuable monopoly of the grain trade in Prussia.

The Order did not adhere to the Peace of Christburg with the Prussians. This provoked an uprising that began on September 20, 1260. It quickly spread to all Prussian lands except Pamedia. The uprising was led by local leaders: in Bartia - Divonis Lokis, in Pagudia - Auktuma, in Sembia - Glandas, in Warmia - Glapas, the leader of Notangia Herkus Mantas was the most prominent. In 1260 - 1264 the initiative was in the hands of the rebels: they set fire to German estates, churches, castles of the Order. On January 22, 1261, the troops of Herkus Mantas defeated the army of the Order near Königsberg. The rebels occupied a number of small castles, but could not capture the strategically important Thorn, Königsberg, Kulm, Balga, Elbing. In the summer of 1262, the Lithuanian troops of Treneta and Švarnas attacked Mazovia - an ally of the Order - and the Kulm land and Pamedia that remained under the rule of the Order. In the spring of 1262 Herkus Mantas defeated the Crusaders near Lyubava. Since 1263, the uprisings did not receive any more help from Lithuania, since internecine wars began there. But from 1265 the Order began to receive help from Germany - many knights went to protect the Crusaders. Until 1270, the Order suppressed an uprising in Sembia, where part of the Prussian feudal lords went over to the side of the crusaders. In 1271, the Barts and Pageduns defeated the army of the Order near the Zirguna River (12 knights and 500 soldiers were slaughtered). In 1272 - 1273 the Jotvingi under the command of Skomantas plundered the Kulm land. Exhausted by a long uprising, the Prussians could no longer resist the soldiers of the Order replenished every day. For the longest time, until 1274, the uprising was held in Pagudia.

By the end of the thirteenth century, with the capture of a compactly located large territory of Prussia, the Teutonic Order actually becomes a state, although its vast possessions, in addition, exist throughout Europe.

After the death of the tenth master Hartman von Heldrungen in 1283, the Order was firmly established in Prussia, having a huge number of subjects from among the newly converted Christians. Moving eastward, the knights built many castles and fortresses, which required good garrisons and maintenance. This became an increasingly burdensome burden for the civilian population (mostly peasants) who needed people to work their fields and farms. Numerous duties (construction and maintenance of castles) distracted young people from working on the ground. Their participation as foot soldiers in numerous campaigns of knights led to catastrophic losses among the common population. This led to frequent revolts against the rule of the knights. For the uprisings, the knights turned the Lithuanians into slaves or subjected them to terrible executions. The enslavement of pagan prisoners by knights was considered perfectly acceptable, because. non-Christians were not seen as having rights. These slaves were then used to supplement the local labor force, and often, instead of paying for work, soldiering, or granting land, German peasants were paid off as prisoners. By enslaving the Lithuanian prisoners, they received many necessary physical laborers, but with the adoption of Christianity, this opportunity to replenish free labor was lost, and the Order could no longer pay off the soldiers for their service and the peasants for their food supplies.

While the Teutonic Knights played their main role in the Christianization of northeastern Europe, they paid little attention to its southeastern borders. In the second quarter of the thirteenth century, Europe faced the horror of the threat of Mongol invasion. Their westward expansion from their barren homeland between China and Russia was terrible for those who got in their way. They had no respect for the civilians who suffered terribly under them. They destroyed cities, carried away livestock, killed men, and raped or killed women. In 1240 they besieged and destroyed the splendid city of Kyiv, the capital of the Ukraine, and from there advanced towards Poland and Hungary. The Teutonic Knights could not pay due attention to this struggle even when, in 1260, in alliance with the Russian Grand Duke Alexander Nevsky, the Order decided to defeat the hordes of the Mongols. Unfortunately, everywhere their rule in Eastern Europe meant that the knights were often forced to deal with uprisings in their own lands, especially in Prussia. Every time a crusade was proclaimed against the Mongols, the knights had to return to defend their own territories from internal rebellion or Lithuanian persecution.

Together with other crusaders and Christian kingdoms during the next crusade in the Holy Land, the knights of the Order suffered huge losses at the battle of Sepet (Sephet) in 1265, defending the monastery of Montfort. Even after making peace with the Templars and Hospitallers - with whom they had often quarreled during the previous half century - the situation of the Order did not improve.

In 1291, after the loss of the fortress of Acre, which up to that time could be considered the capital of the Order, the knights retreated first to the island of Cyprus and then to Venice, where they recruited a small group of Italian knights in their commandery of Santa Trinita (Santa Trinita), which temporarily until 1309 year became the main capital of the Order. Then the Grand Master's residence moved to Marienburg Castle (Malbork, Mergentheim, Marienthal, Marienburg) in West Prussia, built back in 1219. 2/3 of the lands were divided into commanders, 1/3 were under the authority of the bishops of Kulm, Pamed, Semb and Varma. Their master, Conrad von Feuchtwangen, who had previously been a provincial master in Prussia and Livonia, was fortunately in Acre when he was elected and was able to demonstrate to his fellow knights his general abilities, fighting the barbarians of Prussia. These efforts proved insufficient. He connected them with his wanderings and spent his last years, trying to extinguish the strife between the provincial proprietors who predetermined the partitions of later years.

After his death in 1297, the Order was led by Godfrey von Hohenlohe, whose reign was spoiled by quarrels among his subordinates, while the struggle against the pagans extended into Lithuania.

Since 1283, in order to spread Christianity, the Order began to attack Lithuania. He sought to seize Samogitia and the lands near the Neman in order to connect Prussia and Livonia. The strongholds of the Order were the castles of Ragnit, Christmemel, Bayerburg, Marienburg and Jurgenburg located near the Neman. Until the beginning of the 14th century. both sides organized small attacks on each other. The largest battles were the Battle of Medininka (1320) and the defense of the city of Pilenai (1336).

The Battle of Medinica took place on July 27, 1320. The army of the Order consisted of 40 knights, the Memel garrison and the conquered Prussians. Marshal Heinrich Plock commanded the army. The army attacked the Medininkian lands and part of the crusaders went to plunder the surroundings. At this time, the Samogitians unexpectedly hit the main enemy forces. The marshal died, 29 knights, many Prussians. The order did not attack the Medininkian lands until the conclusion of truces with Gediminas in 1324 - 1328.

Defense of the city of Pilenai. In February 1336, the Lithuanians defended themselves from the crusaders and their allies in the Pilėnai castle. Pilenai is often identified with the Punsk settlement, but most likely it was in the lower reaches of the Neman. On February 24, the crusaders and their allies surrounded Pilėnai. The army was commanded by Grandmaster Dietrich von Altenburg. According to the chronicle of the Crusaders, there were 4,000 people in the castle, headed by Prince Margiris. A fire broke out. A few days later, the defenders of the castles were no longer able to defend themselves. They made a fire, threw all their property there, then killed the children, the sick and the wounded, threw them into the fire and died themselves. Margiris stabbed himself in the basement, having previously stabbed his wife. The castle burned down. The crusaders and their allies returned to Prussia.

The Order also attacked Poland. In 1308 - 1309, East Pomerania with Danzig was captured, 1329 - Dobzhinsky lands, 1332 - Kuyavia. In 1328 the Livonian Order handed over Memel and its environs to the Teutons. The crusade to Christianize Eastern Europe was complicated by some of the local rulers, especially the kings of Poland, who feared the power of the Order, and in 1325 Poland made an alliance directly with the pagan Grand Duke of Lithuania Gediminas (Guedemine).

In 1343, under the Treaty of Kalisz, the Order returned the occupied lands to Poland (except for Pomerania) and concentrated all its forces on the fight against Lithuania. In 1346, the Order acquired Northern Estonia from Denmark and transferred it to the Livonian Order. Fortunately, in 1343 Poland and the Order had equal strength and while the Lithuanians resumed the fight against the Order with all the forces at their disposal, the knights were ready.

On February 2, 1348, a battle took place between the Crusaders and the Lithuanians near the Streva River. The army of the Order (the number of warriors, according to various sources, ranges from 800 to 40,000 people), under the command of Grand Marshal Siegfried von Dachenfeld, invaded Aukshtaitija on January 24 and plundered it. When the crusaders were returning, they were attacked by the Lithuanians. With a quick counterattack, the army of the Order forced the Lithuanians to retreat along the ice-bound Streva River. Many Lithuanians died. After an unsuccessful campaign in Lithuania in 1345, this victory raised the morale of the crusaders.

The Order reached its greatest strength in the middle of the 14th century. during the reign of Winrich von Kniprode (1351 - 1382). The order made about 70 major campaigns to Lithuania from Prussia and about 30 from Livonia. In 1362, his army destroyed the Kaunas castle, and in 1365 for the first time attacked the capital of Lithuania, Vilnius.

In 1360 - 1380 major campaigns against Lithuania were made every year. The Lithuanian army made about 40 retaliatory campaigns in 1345 - 1377. One of them ended with a battle near Rudava (Rudai, Rudau) in Sambia (Sambia) on February 17, 1370, when the commanded Lithuanian army under the command of Algirdas and Kestutis occupied the castle of Rudau (owl Melnikov, 18 km north of Kaliningrad). The next day, the army of the Teutonic Order under the command of Grandmaster Winrich von Kniprode approached the castle. According to the chronicles of the crusaders, the Lithuanians were utterly defeated (the death toll ranges from 1,000 to 3,500 people). The Grand Duke of Lithuania Olgerd with seventy thousand Lithuanians, Samogits, Russians and Tatars were completely defeated in this battle. The number of dead crusaders is indicated from 176 to 300, 26 knights died along with Grand Marshal Heinrich von Schindekopf and two commanders. True, some historians believe that the Lithuanians won, since the chronicle is silent about the course of the battle and prominent crusaders died in the battle. According to other sources, Algirdas lost more than eleven thousand killed along with his standard, while the Order lost twenty-six commanders, two hundred knights and several thousand soldiers.

After the death of the Lithuanian prince Algirdas (1377), the Order kindled a war between his heir Jogaila and Kestutis with his son Vytautas (Vytautas) for the princely throne. Supporting either Vytautas or Jagiello, the Order attacked Lithuania especially strongly in 1383-1394, and in 1390 invaded Vilnius. For peace with the Order in 1382 Jagiello and in 1384 Vytautas renounced Western Lithuania and Zanemanya. The order strengthened even more, occupying the island of Gotland in 1398 (until 1411) and in 1402 - 1455 New Mark. They gradually destroyed the areas ruled by the Grand Duke of Lithuania, taking them under their own control.

In 1385, Lithuania and Poland concluded the Treaty of Kreva against the Order, which changed the balance of power in the region not in favor of the Order. In 1386, Olgerd's heir, Jagiello (Jagellon), married Hedwig (Jadwiga), heiress of Poland, took the name Wladislav (Vladislav) and Christianized the Lithuanians, thus uniting the two royal powers. After the baptism in 1387 Lithuania (Aukštaitija) the Order lost the formal basis for attacking Lithuania.

On October 12, 1398, Grand Duke Vytautas and Grand Master Konrad von Jungingen concluded the Treaty of Saline on the island of Saline (at the mouth of the Nevezhis). Vytautas wanted to calmly seize Russian lands, which he already succeeded in capturing part of the Black Sea coast. In addition, he did not recognize the suzerainty of Poland and was afraid of the pretender to the throne, Shvitrigaila, who sought help from the Order. In exchange for the fact that the Order would not support them, Vytautas gave him Samogitia up to Nevėžys and half of Suduva. The treaty ceased to operate in 1409 - 1410.

In 1401, the rebellious Samogitians expelled the German knights from their lands, and the Order again began to attack Lithuania. In 1403, Pope Banifacius IX forbade the Order to fight with Lithuania.

On May 23, 1404, the Polish King Jagiello, the Grand Duke of Lithuania Vytautas concluded an agreement with the Grand Master Konrad von Jungingen on the Vistula Island near the Racionzhek castle. He ended the war of 1401 - 1403 between the Order and Lithuania. Poland received the right to return the Dobzhinsky land, the border with Lithuania remained the same as it was after the Salina Treaty. The order abandoned claims to the Lithuanian lands and Novgorod. During the lull in the wars with the Order, Lithuania captured more and more Russian lands (in July 1404 Vytautas took Smolensk).

Poland was now at the height of her power. Christianity was firmly established in Eastern Europe, which threatened the very existence of the Teutonic Knights. with the Christianization of this part of Europe, the meaning of the missionary activity of the order was lost. (From the translator. - Events on the borders of the possessions of the Order and Poland at the end of the fourteenth - beginning of the fifteenth century are well described in the novel by G. Senkevich "The Crusaders").

After the unification of Lithuania and Poland, the Teutonic Knights soon lost the support of the church and neighboring duchies. Conflicts with the Archbishop of Riga worsened relations with the church in the first half of the century. These strife intensified as the Order's mission of baptizing Gentiles was exhausted.

The transformation of Lithuania's rule provided the last support for the Pope, who ordered the knights to reach a settlement. Disputes between the knights and the new Polish-Lithuanian alliance increased, however, the knights even found themselves engaged in a war between two other Christian states, Denmark and Sweden.

A provisional peace signed in favor of the Order in 1404 led to the sale of the cities of Dobrzin and Ziotor by the Polish king, but although the Order's wealth was never greater, this was its last success. Since 1404, under the Treaty of Rationz, the Order, together with Poland and Lithuania, ruled Samogitia.

The Order now alone controlled a vast area with two million one hundred and forty thousand inhabitants of Prussia, but they were offended by many even German ducal houses, and he was afraid of his neighbors, as the Polish state became more centralized and sought convenient access to the Baltic Sea. The Order turned to Germany and the Emperor of Austria for support, and conflict was inevitable.

In 1409 the Samogitians revolted. The uprising served as a pretext for a new decisive war (1409 - 1410) with Lithuania and Poland. Lithuania and Poland were fortified and prepared to resume the fight. Despite interventions by the kings of Bohemia and Hungary, Jagellon (Wladislav) was able to amass a vast force of about 160,000 men. This included Russians, Samogitians, Hungarians, Silesian and Czech mercenaries along with the forces of the Duke of Mecklenburg and the Duke of Pomeranian (also Duke of Stettin, which shared a border with the Order). The knights, with only 83,000 men, were outnumbered two to one. Despite this, the Battle of Tanenberg (Battle of Grunwald) took place on July 15, 1410. At the beginning of the battle, the knights were successful, destroying the right wing of the Lithuanian forces, but they were gradually pushed back. When their brave grandmaster Ulrich von Jungingen was taken down in the center of the fight, dying of wounds to his chest and back, the fight was lost. In addition to their leader, they lost two hundred knights and about forty thousand soldiers, including the chief commander Conrad von Liechtenstein, Marshal Friedrich von Wallenrod, and many commanders and officers, while Poland lost sixty thousand killed. The Order lost the so-called. The Great War in the Battle of Grunwald. The Peace of Torun and the Peace of Meln obliged the Order to return Samogitia and part of the lands of the Jotvings (Zanemanye) to Lithuania.

The order could have been completely destroyed if it were not for Schwerz's commander Heinrich (Reuss) von Plauen, who was sent to defend Pomerania and now quickly returned to support the defenses in Marienburg. He was quickly elected vice-grandmaster and the fortress was saved.

Plauen was now elected grandmaster and in Torun, concluded on February 1, 1411 an agreement with the king of Poland, ratified by a papal bull a year later. The agreement returned to the parties all their territories, with the condition that Samogitia (Samogitia) would be ruled by the king of Poland and his cousin Vytautas (Witold) the Grand Duke of Lithuania (now a Polish vassal) during their lifetime, after which they would be returned to the knights. It was also required that both sides try to convert their remaining pagans to Christianity.

Unfortunately, the Polish king immediately refused to fulfill his promise to release the prisoners of the order - whose number exceeded those captured by the knights - and demanded a huge ransom of 50,000 florins. This foreshadowed further deterioration in the relationship; Poland sought to eliminate the knightly threat to its borders.

On September 27, 1422, near Lake Meln, in the camp of Lithuanian and Polish troops, a peace treaty was concluded between Lithuania and Poland on the one hand and the Teutonic Order on the other, after the unsuccessful war of 1422 for the Order. During the Hussite movement in the Czech Republic, Emperor Zygmant could not help the Order, and the allies forced him to agree to a peace treaty. The Order finally abandoned Zanemanya, Samogitia, Neshavsky lands and Pomerania. In the possession of the Order were the lands on the right bank of the Neman, the Memel region, the Polish seaside, Kulm and Mikhalavskaya lands. On March 30, 1423, Zygmant confirmed the agreement, in exchange for which Poland and Lithuania pledged not to support the Hussites. This treaty ended the wars of the Order with Lithuania. But the agreement, which entered into force on June 7, 1424, did not satisfy either side: Lithuania was losing western Lithuanian lands, the Teutonic and Livonian Orders divided the territory between Palanga and Sventoji. These borders remained until the Treaty of Versailles in 1919.

Numerous negotiations and agreements failed to bring about a compromise, while much smaller conflicts gradually reduced the Order's territories. The order was relieved a little by the strife among the members of the Polish royal family over who should rule in Lithuania, but this problem was resolved between them after four years in 1434.

Wladislav III, who succeeded that same year, acquired the Hungarian throne in 1440, becoming the dominant power in the region.

Casimir IV, who became king in 1444, made one of his sons his heir and purchased the throne of Bohemia (Bohemia) for another. The big problem faced by the Polish royalty, and which ultimately led to the limitation of the power of the eighteenth century monarchy, was how to balance between the great magnates with their vast privileges; what they need to promise to ensure their loyalty. This inherent weakness was skillfully exploited by the knights and delayed their possible defeat.

Unsuccessful wars (with Lithuania and Poland in 1414, 1422, with Poland and the Czech Republic in 1431 - 1433) provoked a political and economic crisis, aggravated contradictions between members of the Order on the one hand, secular feudal lords and townspeople, who were dissatisfied with increasing taxes and wanted to participate in government , with another. In 1440, the Prussian Union was formed - an organization of secular knights and townspeople, which fought against the power of the Order. In February 1454, the union organized an uprising and announced that all Prussian lands would henceforth be under the auspices of the Polish king Casimir. Meanwhile, the Prussians themselves rebelled against the authority of the Order, and in 1454 the war broke out again. It was a conflict that the knights could not extinguish without outside support.

The Thirteen Years' War of the Order with Poland began. With the weakening of the Teutonic Order after the Battle of Gruwald, the desire of the cities and petty chivalry of Pomerania and Prussia to overthrow the power of the Order intensified. The forces of the Prussian Union within a few weeks captured the most important cities and castles of Prussia and Pomerania. However, the outbreak of the war took on a protracted character. The order skillfully used the financial difficulties of the Polish king, received support from Denmark, who feared the establishment of Poland on the Baltic Sea. Despite stubborn resistance, the Order was defeated. The war ended with the Peace of Torun. Peace between Casimir IV and Grandmaster Ludwig von Erlichshausen was concluded on October 19, 1466 in Thorn.

As a result, the Order lost the Eastern Pomerania with Danzig, Kulm land, Mirienburg, Elbing, Warmia - they moved to Poland. In 1466 the capital was moved to Königsberg. In this war, Lithuania declared neutrality and missed the chance to liberate the rest of the Lithuanian and Prussian lands. Finally, in accordance with the agreement in Torun (Torun) dated October 19, 1466 between the Order and Poland, the knights agreed to give the Poles Kulm (Chlumets)), their first possession in Prussia, along with the eastern part of Prussia, Michalow (Michalow), Pomerania (Pomerania ) (including the port of Danzig (Danzig)) and the capital of the Order of the fortress Marienburg (Marienburg).

Since October 1466, the Teutonic Order as a state becomes a vassal of the Polish crown.

In 1470 Grandmaster Heinrich von Richtenberg recognized himself as a vassal of the Polish king.

After the loss of Marienburg, the capital of the Order moves to Königsberg Castle in East Prussia. Although they retained some sixty cities and fortresses, the grand master had to recognize the Polish king as his feudal overlord and recognize himself as a vassal, although the grand master simultaneously held the title of emperor, nominal overlord of Prussia and prince of the Austrian empire. The grandmaster was recognized as a prince and a member of the Royal Council of Poland. The Grand Master confirmed the Papal authority in spiritual matters, but achieved the condition that no part of the agreement could be annulled by the Pope, which violated Catholic Church law, since. religious orders are subordinate to the Holy See. The power of the knights was now under mortal danger.

The next four Grand Masters, thirty-first to thirty-fourth in succession, were unable to prevent new conflicts with Poland, although some of the territories they had previously lost were regained. In 1498, they chose as thirty-fifth Grand Master Prince Friedrich of Saxony, the third son of Albert the Brave, Duke of Saxony whose older brother George had married the sister of the King of Poland. By choosing the throne of one of Germany's largest royal houses, the knights hoped to maintain their position by negotiating, especially over the controversial issue of whether they should consider themselves vassals of the Polish state.

The new grand master petitioned the imperial court, which decided that the Polish king could not interfere with the grand master's free exercise of his power in Prussia. Frederick's tactics were aided by the frequent change of Polish kings (there were three) between 1498 and his death in 1510.

The choice of a prince from a large royal family was so successful that the knights decided to repeat it. This time, their choice proved to be a disastrous mistake. On February 13, 1511, they elected Margrave Albrecht von Hohenzollern (Brandenburg). Like his predecessor, Albert refused to obey the Polish king Sigismond (Sigismund), but was rebuked by the Emperor Maximilian of Austria, who, by agreement of 1515 with Sigismund, demanded that the Order comply with the agreements of 1467. Albert still refused to obey Sigismund, and instead signed a treaty of mutual protection with the Tsar of Russia. Basil III. In return for issuing Neumarck to Brandenburg for the sum of 40,000 florins, Albert was also able to guarantee support for the Joachim estate. In accordance with the Treaty of Torun on April 7, 1521, he agreed that the issue of Poland's authority over the Order would be submitted to arbitration, but events caused by Luther's heresy disrupted the trial and it never took place. The desire of the Order to free itself from Polish suzerainty was defeated (because of this, the war of 1521 - 1522 took place).

Martin Luther's challenge to the established spiritual order led to further loss of military and political power by the Order. Luther March 28, 1523 called on the knights to break their oaths and take wives. The Bishop of Sambia, who held the administrative posts of Regent and Chief Chancellor of Prussia, was the first to renounce his oaths and delivered a sermon on Christmas Day 1523 inviting the knights to imitate him. At Easter, he celebrated a new rite, which caused great damage to the Catholic faith in which he was brought up and ordained as a shepherd. Grandmaster Albrecht von Hohenzollern stood aloof at first, but by July 1524 decided to renounce his vows, married and raised Prussia to a duchy with his reign.

In July 1524, under Grandmaster Margrave Albrecht von Hohenzollern of Brandenburg, the Teutonic Order ceases to exist as a state, but remains a powerful religious and secular organization with large possessions. The Order loses its most important possession - Prussia and the knights are forced to leave these lands forever.

(From the translator. - How similar it is to what happened in the USSR in the late eighties - early nineties of the XX century. The top leaders of the Communist Party, who were supposed to be the guardians and defenders of the communist ideology, were the first to betray it, both for the sake of self-interest and their personal authorities destroyed the state)

After the Agreement of Krakow on April 10, 1525, Albrecht converted to Lutheranism and swore allegiance to the King of Poland, Sigismund the Old, who recognized him as Duke of Prussia with the right of direct or joint hereditary transmission. Livonia remained temporarily independent under the rule of Master Walther von Plettenberg, who was recognized as a Prince of the Holy Roman Empire.

The new Master of Germany now assumed the title of Master of the Teutonic Order in Germany and Italy. Already as Prince of the Austrian Empire and Master of Germany, he established the Order's capital at Mergentheim in Württemberg, where it remained until the decay of the Holy Roman Empire.

Weakened with age, he did not hold on to power and resigned, leaving Walther von Cronberg on December 16, 1526, who combined the positions of the head of the Order with the position of master of Germany. Now he was approved by the Holy Roman Emperor, but with the title "Master of the Teutonic Order in German and in Italy, pro-Administrators of the Grand Magistery" with the requirement that all the commanders of the Order and the master of Livonia showed him respect and obedience as the Grand Master of the Order. This title in German was later changed to: "Administratoren des Hochmeisteramptes in Preussen, Meister Teutschen Ordens in teutschen und walschen Landen", which remained the title of the head of the Order until 1834.

At the congress of 1529, Cronberg resigned the seat of Master of Germany, advancing in seniority to obtain the position of Grand Master, after the Archbishop of Salzburg and before the Bishop of Bamberg (Bamberg).

On July 26, 1530, Cronberg was formally elevated to the dignity of Emperor of Prussia in a solemn ceremony, intended to directly challenge the Hohenzollerns for power, but this had little actual effect.

The Order still continued to receive priests and nuns who proved to be diligent and humane ministers, but the religious members were really separated from the lay people and knights, who were not required to live in the monasteries of the Order. The order did not lose all of its Protestant members or possessions, however, in a number of places in its parishes, the church denomination changed. In Livonia, although Master von Plettenberg remained loyal to the Catholic Church, he was incapable of resisting the granting of toleration to the reformed churches in 1525. The Order thus became a tri-denominational (Catholic, Lutheran, Calvinist) institution with a Chief Magistrate and main offices supported by the Catholic nobility. Lutheran and Calvinist knights were given equal rights under the Treaty of Westphalia of 1648, with a seat and a vote in the General Assembly. Only the Protestant district of Utrecht declared full independence in 1637.

A proposal in 1545 to unite the Teutonic Knights with the Knights of the Order of St. John was not accepted. Meanwhile, the main diplomatic efforts of the Order were concentrated on the restoration of their statehood in Prussia, a project that still did not materialize. Livonia continued to be ruled by the knights, but their rule was weak due to encirclement by Russia and Poland.

In 1558 Gotthard Kettler was elected assistant master, and in 1559 master after the resignation of master von Furstenberg. Once again, the Order unwittingly made an unfortunate choice. While Kettler was a capable soldier, in 1560 he secretly converted to the Lutheran faith. The following year, after behind-the-scenes negotiations, he was recognized by the Polish king as the Duke of Courland and Semigalla (Courland und Semigalla) by agreement of November 28, 1561, with the right to inherit. This state included all the territories formerly ruled by the knights between the Dvina River, the Baltic Sea, Samogitia and Lithuania. This ended the existence of the Order in the north of Eastern Europe.

On March 5, 1562, Kettler sent an envoy to take back to the King of Austria the insignia of his dignity as Master of Livonia, including a cross and a great seal, intending to transfer to the King the titles and privileges of the Teutonic Knights, the keys of Riga, and even his knightly armor, as proof of his renunciation of the title of Grand Master of the order.

(From the translator.- Thus, since 1562, the Order has been more of an Austrian than a German organization.)

In 1589, the fortieth Grand Master, Heinrich von Bobenhausen (1572-1595) transferred the reign to his deputy, Archduke Maximilian of Austria, without formal abdication. This transmission was ratified by brother last emperor Austria on August 18, 1591, and Maximilian now had the right to take oaths of loyalty from members and monks of the Order. At the disposal of the Austrian emperor, the knights then provided 63,000 florins, one hundred and fifty horses and a hundred foot soldiers along with knights from each province of the Order, to fight the Turks as they rampaged through southeastern Europe. This, of course, was a small fraction of what they could have put up in the past, but the territorial losses of the previous century had seriously impoverished them, significantly reducing the number of knights and priests. The order was now firmly united with the Austrian royal house of Habsburg, and after Maximilian, from 1619, Archduke Karl was the master. Of the remaining years before the fall of the Austrian Empire, there were eleven grand masters, of which four were archdukes, three princes of the House of Bavaria, and one prince of Lorraine (brother of Emperor Francis I of France).

Thus, while the Order's military strength was merely a shadow of its earlier strength, prominence, and the position of its grandmasters, membership in the Order was a testament to high standing among the royal houses. At this time, stricter rules excluded the replenishment of members of the minor nobility.

On February 27, 1606, Grand Master Maximilian gave the Order new statutes that were to govern the Order until the reforms of the nineteenth century. They included two parts. The first part contained rules in nineteen chapters, which listed religious obligations, communal, holidays, customs, servicing sick colleagues, the behavior of the priests of the Order and the regulation of their duties, and relations between members. The second part, in fifteen chapters, was devoted to the ceremonies for the arming and reception of the knights, and the obligations to fight the infidel on the Hungarian frontier and elsewhere, the behavior of each body, the administration, the burial rites of the dead members, including the grand master himself, the choice of his successor and the circumstances, in which the knight could leave the Order. The charter restored the main mission of the Order against the Pagans and restored its spiritual significance for Catholic members.

Unfortunately, by the second quarter of the eighteenth century, the concept of the Christian Crusade was abandoned by the great powers. Having lost its historical mission and most of its military functions, the Order fell into decline and was now busy providing for its regiment in the service of the Archdukes of Austria, Holy Roman Emperors and providing accommodation for knights and priests.

The Napoleonic Wars proved disastrous for the Order, as they were for every traditional Catholic institution. By the Luneville Peace Treaty of February 9, 1801 and the Amiens Agreement of March 25, 1802, his possessions on the left bank of the Rhine, with an annual income of 395,604 florins, were distributed among the neighboring German monarchs. In compensation, the Order was given episcopates, abbeys and nunneries of Voralberg in Austrian Swabia and nunneries in Augsburg and Constance. Its grandmaster, Archduke Carl-Ludwig, took office without taking oaths, but nevertheless brought his rights to the Order. The order was given a ninth vote in the Council of Princes of the Holy Roman Empire, although a proposal to replace the title of Grand Master with that of Elector was never made, and the corruption of the Holy Roman Empire soon made this title nominal.

On June 30, 1804, Karl-Ludwig left the chief magistrate to his assistant Archduke Anton (Anton), who made this title simply an honorary title.

By Article XII of the Pressburg Agreement of December 26, 1805 between Austria and France, all property of the chief magistrate in the city of Mergentheim and all order titles and rights became owned by the Austrian imperial house.

The new grandmaster, Archduke Anton, was the son of the Austrian emperor Leopold II (Leopold II) and the brother of Francis I (Francis I) of Austria, and had already been elected archbishop of Munster (Munster) and archbishop of Cologne. On February 17, 1806, Emperor Francis I confirmed Brother Anton's title as Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, confirming the result of the Pressburg Agreement until such time as this title becomes a hereditary dignity. At the same time, he also placed some restrictions on part of the Covenant, to the detriment of the Order. The sovereign status of the Order as recognized in the Treaty of Pressburg was limited to the fact that any prince of the Austrian Imperial House who would in the future hold the title of Grand Master would be fully subordinate to the Emperor of Austria. No attempt was made to consult the Holy See and this decision was a violation of ecclesiastical Catholic law. In the meantime, the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine on 12 July 1806 cost the Order the loss of several more Commanderies, given variously to the Kings of Bavaria and Württemberg, and to the Grand Duke of Baden.

In accordance with Napoleon's decree of April 24, 1809, the Order was dissolved in the territories of the Confederation, and Mergentheim was transferred to the King of Württemberg as compensation for the losses suffered by his nobles, supporters of Napoleon. The only surviving possessions of the Order were those that were in the territory of Austria. These were three commanderships assigned to the chief commander and eight other commanderships, one convent, the possession of Adige and the Mountains. The Commandership of Frankfurt in Saxony (Sachsenhausen) was retained. In Austrian Silesia, two commanderies and some districts were preserved, but the Namslau Commandery in Silesian Prussia was lost, which was confiscated by the commission of the separation of the church from the state of Prussia on December 12, 1810. Despite requests from the Order for the enforcement of the Pressburg Treaty, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 refused to return anything lost by the Order in the preceding twenty years.

The decision regarding the Order was delayed until February 20, 1826, when the Austrian Emperor Francis asked Metternich to determine whether the Order's autonomy within the Austrian state should be restored.

By this time, in addition to the grand master, the Order included only four knights. The Order urgently needed regeneration or it would disappear. In accordance with the decree of March 8, 1834, the Austrian Emperor returned to the Teutonic Knights all the rights that they enjoyed under the Pressburg Agreement, annulling the restriction on those rights that had been imposed in accordance with the Decree of February 17, 1806. The Order was declared as an "Autonomous, Religious and Military Institute" under the auspices of the Austrian Emperor, with the Archduke as "Supreme and German Master" (Hoch- und Deutschmeister) and the status of "direct fief of the Austrian and Empire". Moreover, Archduke Anton was the sovereign ruler of the order, and his heirs had to ask the emperor's permission for sovereignty.

The order now had one class of knights who could prove their knightly lineage in sixteen generations of exclusively German or Austrian states, subsequently the requirement was reduced to four generations in the last two hundred years and it was mandatory to be Catholic.

This class was divided into major commanders (abolished by the reform of April 24, 1872), chief capitularies (Capitularies), commanders and knights. Knights were thought to be religiously subordinate to the head of the Order, while the statutes governing their behavior were based on those of 1606, restoring knightly symbols and ancient ceremonies, many of which had become moribund.

After a further reform of July 13, 1865, anyone who could prove a noble German origin could be admitted to the number of Knights of Honor and they wore a slightly modified cross. The main commandery of the Order was to include the chief commander of the order district of Austria, the chief commander of the Adige and Mountains, the chief commander, and the chief capitular (Capitular) of the shaper of the district of Franconia (Franconia) and the chief capitular of the shaper of the district of Westphalia (Westphalia), with the right of the grand master to increase the number chief capituliers at his discretion.

A further restriction would have imposed on the Imperial House of Austria the duty of choosing a grand master (or appointing a deputy) and, if there were no archdukes among the members of the house, to choose the prince most closely associated with the imperial house. Although the Emperor of Austria failed to defend the Order against Napoleon, the restoration of some independence of the Order was undoubtedly his achievement. Emperor Francis died on March 3, 1835 and Grandmaster one month later, on April 3.

The Order chose Archduke Maximilian of Austria-Este (1782-1863), brother of the Duke of Modena, as Grand Master. Maximilian became a member of the order in 1801 and became a full member of the order in 1804. The new Emperor of Austria (Ferdinand I), Ferdinand I, issued a decree of July 16, 1839, confirming the privileges granted by his father, the rules and Statutes of 1606, which did not contradict the status of the Order as an Austrian fief.

Another Imperial Patent, dated June 38, 1840, defined the Order as an "Independent Religious Institute of Chivalry" and a "direct imperial fief" for which the Austrian Emperor is supreme leader and protector. The order was given free control of its own estates and finances independent of political control and, while the knights were regarded as religious figures, the earlier documents confirming the right of the knights to their estates and property remained valid. Their wealth could be increased by inheritance, but gifts larger than three hundred florins received by them would have to be approved by the grandmaster. In addition, if a knight died without leaving a will, then his property was inherited by the Order.

The priests of the Order were not supposed to be alone, but they were required to live away from their relatives. In 1855, more than two hundred years after the disappearance of the convents of the Order, the position of the Order's hospitalier was restored and the organization of the sisters of the Teutonic Order and the grand master gave several buildings for the sisters at their own expense.

Confident of restoring the rights of the Order outside of Austria, and especially in Frankfurt, they were now occupied by religious brothers and sisters. Having lost their military functions, although the Knights were entitled to wear military uniforms, the Order now specialized in a religious, humanitarian and philanthropic mission in the spirit of "fraternal consciousness" and was engaged in the evacuation and treatment of the wounded and sick in the wars of 1850-1851 and 1859 (with Italy), 1864 and 1866 (with Prussia) and in the World War of 1914-18. The reforms brought about by Archduke Maximilian served to revive the spiritual powers of the Order, with approximately fifty-four priests received during his twenty-eight year reign.

(From a translator. Thus, having lost Prussia in the middle of the 16th century, the Order began to gradually lose its military forces and the function of a military-religious organization, and by the middle of the 19th century it finally turned into a religious and medical organization. Chivalry and military attributes remained simply as a tribute to tradition and historical memory.)

Many ancient formations of the Order, which were about to fall apart, were restored and the Order's churches in Vienna produced many valuable relics and religious miracles. By the time of his death in 1863, Grandmaster Maximilian had given away more than 800,000 florins to support sisters, hospitals and schools, and 370,000 to the Teutonic priests.

In order to enable the Order to cope with requests for its services, its next leader with the title of Hoch und Deutschmeister, Archduke Wilhelm (1863-1894), (joined the order in 1846), introduced by decree of March 26, 1871 a special category of "knights and ladies of the Virgin Mary." These knights and ladies were not full members of the Order, but had the right to wear one of the variants of the Order's cross. This category was originally limited to the Catholic nobles of the two Monarchies, but by decree of November 20, 1880, was expanded to include Catholics of any nationality. With a bull dated July 14, 1871, Pope Pius IX confirmed the ancient statutes and rules, along with new reforms. In a papal letter dated March 16, 1886, Pope Leo XIII approved the reforms of the Rite drawn up by the Grand Master, which were then approved by the general assembly of the Order on May 7, 1886 and sanctioned by the Austrian Emperor on May 23.

They revealed the full virtues of the Order to those who took simple oaths, canceling the category of solemn oaths for the future, but not canceling the solemn oaths of those who had already taken this obligation. This meant that while knights still had to take vows of poverty, obedience and aid, they could leave the Order and, if they wished, marry after leaving the Order. This condition did not extend to the priests of the Order, whose membership was indefinite.

In 1886, the Order was headed by a leader with the title "Hoch- und Deutschmeister", members of the council (Rathsgebietiger), three chief capituliers (Capitularies). The Order consisted of eighteen full knights, four members were in simple oaths, one novice, twenty-one knights of Honor, more than one thousand three hundred knights of the Virgin Mary, seventy-two priests, most of whom were in solemn oaths, and two hundred and sixteen sisters.

During the last two-thirds of the nineteenth century and the first decade of the twentieth century, the Order increased its active role in the Austrian region, especially in Austrian Silesia and Tyrol. With schools and hospitals under its care, maintained by the locals, during the war the Order earned itself a privileged position within the Two Monarchies (Germany and Austria). The First World War, in which the Order especially distinguished itself, led to the fall of the Austrian monarchy and the loss of the leading role of the nobility in Austria. Hostility towards the royal house of Habsburg on the part of the new republican regimes in Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia led to hostility towards everything connected with this house; including the Order. The threat of Bolshevism and growing anti-Catholicism led to the destruction of any organization that could be considered anti-democratic, which created a danger to the Order. The preservation of the Order in its old form was no longer possible and the possessions of the Order, perceived as the dynastic property of the royal house, were in danger of being confiscated by the vengeful republican states.

However, according to ecclesiastical Catholic law, the Order was independent as an autonomous religious institution and could not be regarded as part of the Habsburg heritage. However, the last grand master of the house of Habsburg, Archduke Eugen (died 1954), now forced into exile along with all members of the dynasty, was forced to leave and announce his resignation to the Pope in 1923.

Before his resignation, he convened a general meeting in Vienna to select a new leader and, at his suggestion, Cardinal Norbert Klein (Monsignor Norbert Klein), priest of the Order and bishop in the city of Brno (Brunn, Brno) was elected as a deputy.

The Austrian government and representatives of the Order could now enter into negotiations and, fortunately, the understanding that the Order was primarily a religious institution prevailed, even though some representatives of the church were still against the Order. The papacy was now held by Fr Hilarion Felder, who could investigate complaints against the Order within the church.

The argument that, since the Order was originally created as an infirmary, and therefore should be part of the Order of Malta, was rejected and the investigation considered in favor of the Teutonic Order that it could be managed independently. Now saved as Mary's Hospital Religious Organization in Jerusalem he accepted the papal sanction of the new administration on 27 November 1929.

The new government restored it as a completely religious Order of priests and nuns, headed by the "Supreme and German Master" (Hoch und Deutschmeisteren), who must be a priest with the title and seniority of Abbot with the right to a purple cap. This made it possible to maintain its independence from local authorities and directly depend on the Holy See.

The order was now divided into three categories - brothers, sisters and parishioners. The brothers are divided into two categories - 1) brother priests and brother clerks, who take a life oath after a three-year probation, and 2) novices, who obey the rules and give simple oaths for six years. The sisters make perpetual vows after a probationary period of five years. Catholic priests and parishioners who serve the Order on request and who work well - they are divided into two categories. The first of these are the Knights of Honor, there are very few of them (then nine, including the last Cardinal Franz König and the last Sovereign Prince Franz Joseph II of Liechtenstein, Archbishop Bruno Heim and Duke Maximilian of Bavaria) who have a prominent social position at all and must be has great merits before the Order. The second of these are worshipers of the Virgin Mary numbering about one hundred and fifty and, in addition to serving Catholics, must serve the Order in general, including financial commitment.

The results of the Reformation and, ultimately, the exclusive limitation of belonging to the Catholic Church brought the Order under Austrian control into order.

But the military traditions of the Order were reflected in Prussia with the establishment in 1813 of the award (order) "Iron Cross", the appearance of which reflected the symbol of the Order. Prussia appropriated the history of the Teutonic Order as the source of Prussian military traditions, although it was this exclusively Protestant state that destroyed the ancient Christian Order.

This tradition was further perverted by the Nazis, who, after the occupation of Austria on September 6, 1938, arrogated to themselves the right to be considered the heirs of the Order. When they captured Czechoslovakia the following year, they appropriated the Order's possessions there as well, although the Order's hospitals and buildings in Yugoslavia and southern Tyrol were preserved. The Nazis, activated by Himmler's fantasies of reviving the German military elite, then attempted to recreate their own "Teutonic Order" as the highest manifestation of the spirit of the Third Reich. It included ten men led by Reinhard Heydrich and several of the more notorious Nazi criminals. It goes without saying that this organization had nothing to do with the Teutonic Order, although it appropriated its name. At the same time, as they were persecuting the priests of the Order, they were also persecuting the descendants of those Prussian families who had once been knights of the Order (many of them fought against Hitler).

The possessions of the order in Austria were returned after the war, although it was not until 1947 that the decree on the liquidation of the Order was formally annulled. The order was not restored in Czechoslovakia, but was significantly revived in Germany.

It has retained its headquarters in Vienna, and, although directed by the abbot as a Hochmeister, is composed chiefly of sisters; which is unique among Catholic religious orders - the sisters are united under the authority of a church that is part of another part.

The Order maintains with its nuns only one full hospital in Friesach in Carinthia (Austria), and one nursing home in Cologne, but is nevertheless represented in other hospitals and nursing homes in Bad Mergenthem, Regensburg and Nurermberg.

The current Hochmeister, chosen after the resignation of the eighty-five-year-old Ildefons Pauler in mid-1988, is the most reverend Dr. Arnold Wieland (born 1940) (Arnold Wieland), previously leader of the Italian Brethren.

The order is distributed in the regions of Austria (with thirteen priests and brothers and fifty-two sisters), Italy (with thirty-seven priests and brothers and ninety sisters), Slovenia (with eight priests and brothers and thirty-three sisters), Germany (with fourteen priests and brothers and one hundred and forty-five sisters) and, earlier, in (Moravia-Bohemia) Moravia-Bohemia (ex-Czechoslovakia). The order is divided into three (possessions) Bailiwicks - Germany, Austria and south Tyrol, and two commanderies - Rome and Altenbiesen (Belgium).

There are approximately three hundred and eighty members of the Society of St. Mary in the possession of Germany under the direction of Deutschherrenmeister Anton Jaumann, comprising seven commanderies (Donau, Oberrhein, Neckar und Bodensee, Rhine und Main, Rhine und Ruhr, Weser und Ems, Elbe und Ostsee, Altenbiesen), sixty five in Austria under the Master of the Estate (Balleimeister) Dr. Karl Blach, forty-five in Tyrol under the Master of the Estate (Balleimeister) Dr. Otmar Parteli, and fourteen in the command of Am Inn und Hohen Rhein. And twenty-five members in the Italian Commandery Tiberiam. There are a handful of St. Mary's members outside of Germany, Austria and Italy. It now has fewer than twenty members in the United States. The symbol of the Order is a Latin cross in black enamel with a white enamel border, covered (for the Knights of Honor) with a helmet with black and white feathers or (for members of the society of St. Mary) with a simple circular decoration of a black and white sash.

Sources

1 Guy Stair Sainty. THE TEUTONIC ORDER OF HOLY MARY IN JERUSALEM (Site www.chivalricorders.org/vatican/teutonic.htm)
2. Heraldic collection of the FPS of Russia. Moscow. The border. 1998
3. V. Biryukov. The Amber Room. Myths and reality. Moscow. Publishing house "Planet". 1992
4. Directory - Kaliningrad. Kaliningrad book publishing house. 1983
5. Website "Borussia" (members.tripod.com/teutonic/krestonoscy.htm)

Modern depictions of warriors

German knight of the 11th century

The knight is wearing old-style chain mail with slits on the sides. Such chain mail was worn in Germany for more than two centuries in a row. The cavalrymen wore chain mail with slits in front and behind, and this knight is an infantryman. On the head of the knight is an old-style helmet (the so-called "spengelhelm"), in which the plates are riveted to a frame of iron strips. The helmet has no nasal plate. The bottom of the chain mail cap does not protect the neck from the front. The shield is copied from the drawings of that time. It is believed that the German knights of the 11th century had such shields, although archaeologists have not been able to find a single surviving specimen.

Bohemian infantryman of the 11th century

Foot soldiers of many European countries differed from knights and mercenaries in that they did not wear almost any armor. However, on this infantryman we see a helmet with a nasal plate that protects against the slashing blow of the sword. It is cast from a single piece of metal. The rivets on the edge of the helmet are designed to attach a padded leather or canvas headband. The kite shield, which we see on a warrior, came into use in the 11th century, both among infantrymen and cavalrymen.

Polish heavy cavalryman of the 11th century

The Poles clashed with the Germans many times, as they were under the constant threat of the aggressive policy of the emperors. On this warrior we see iron scaly armor. In his hands is a shield covered with pieces of leather. His gilded helmet is decorated on the front with decorative plates. A short ax is tied to the saddle.

German knight of the first half of the 12th century

The knight's helmet has a pointed and forward-curved top, typical of that time. The sleeves of chain mail reach the wrist. However, unlike most of his contemporaries, this warrior does not have leg armor. A belt for carrying a sword was fixed at the waist in the following way: its forked end was inserted into the slots at the opposite end and tied into a knot. This way of wearing a belt was widespread in Germany throughout both the 12th and 13th centuries.

Infantryman from Lorraine, first half of the 12th century

The warrior is wearing short chain mail with sleeves reaching only to the elbow. In the hands of the warrior is a round shield, on which criss-crossing straps have replaced the metal grip bar, characteristic of the previous samples. Despite the ubiquity of the “kite” shield, the foot soldiers also often had a round shield.

An infantryman from Verona, 1139

This city infantryman is wearing mail. His attire has some Italian style features: the top of the helmet is tilted forward, the lower part of the helmet is extended to better protect the back of the head. The warrior's shield is quite long, the lower end has a rectangular shape. This is one of the varieties of the Italian shield, which, in addition to the Italians, was used only by some Muslim warriors. The quality of this warrior's attire is no worse than that of a knight. Only mail greaves worn only on left leg, they say that we have a heavy infantryman in front of us, who during the battle turned to the enemy with his left side.

German knight of the second half of the 12th century

On the legs of the knight, chain mail leggings are worn, tied at the back, although most of the warriors wore one-piece chain mail “stockings”. On the head is a high hemispherical helmet, popular in 12th-century Germany. On the sides of the helmet we see an image of the simplest heraldic emblem. The inverted "T" nasal plate, flared at the bottom to better protect the mouth, is the first step towards making a full face mask.

Milanese infantryman 1170

In the picture we see an infantryman from the city of Milan, whose soldiers brought so much trouble to the Germans. On the head of the warrior is a helmet with an elongated back part designed to protect the back of the head. The shield is reinforced with iron strips, its lower end is rounded. The weighted end of the wide curve of the saber is designed to deliver powerful blows. This infantryman has no armor.

Italian knight of the late 12th century

The figure shows a knight from northern Italy who fought both for the Germans and against them during their campaigns for the Southern Alps. His attire differs little from that of a German knight. A round helmet with a slightly elongated back looks like one of the later sallet models. The rib in the middle of the helmet forms a crest at the top. The knight is holding one of the early types of mace with a copper alloy butt.

Knight "Ministerial" Wolfram von Eschenbach

Knight Wolfram von Eschenbach came from a family of Bavarian knights-ministerials. The flared hanging sleeves and the "V"-shaped neckline of his surcoat can be found in many images of that time. German craftsmen often made vertical grooves on the part, which strengthened the metal structure. Whether they did it deliberately or squeezed out the notches just for decoration, we do not know. The knight's face is completely covered by a mask riveted to the forehead edge of the helmet. At the top of the helmet we see an ornament in the form of a flag with the Eschenbach family coat of arms. The researchers could not determine exactly what was depicted on this coat of arms: an ax or a flower pot. The body of the horse is protected by a quilted blanket. The dots at the corners of the quilted diamonds are probably rivets.

German knight 1200

The image of this knight is copied from a drawing in the Aeneid manuscript. The sleeve of the chain mail is so long that it covers the arm, forming something like a mitten. A piece of fabric or leather was sewn to the inside of the sleeve, adjacent to the palm, to facilitate grip. On the head of the knight of an unusual shape is a chain mail hood with slits for the eyes, apparently being part of the chain mail worn under the surcoat. There is no description in the manuscript of how such vestments were worn. Perhaps the chain mail had an elongated flap in front, but it usually covered only the mouth. It seems that some of these valves were tied with laces at the temples. This option is shown in this figure. In the hands of the warrior is a wide shield, common among the German knights. On the surcoat there is the same image of the coat of arms as on the shield. The sword hangs from a sling at the wrist. This is a fairly rare way to carry a sword. More often they wore a mace.

Archer from Thuringia, 1200

The archer has no armor other than a bowler hat. His weapon is close in size to a longbow. The cap-shaped arrow quiver is reminiscent of the quivers of Muslim mounted archers, as well as the quivers of Eastern European warriors. Arrowheads semicircular. Probably, the proximity of the Slavic borders and the military traditions of the Slavs influenced the archers of Thuringia.

Savoy knight, 1225

A warrior from the kingdom of Arles, which was part of the German Empire. The warrior is holding one of the early models of a helmet with a face mask. This helmet was worn over a padded cap and mail hood and tied with straps under the chin. In hard leather knee pads, holes were made along the edges and sewn to the leggings. In the hands of a knight, a shield typical of a German warrior, close to triangular in shape.

Infantryman from Arles, 1220

This warrior is wearing a long coat of mail. On his head he has a separate chain mail cap with a rectangular chest part. This form of the flap of the mail cap was typical for German soldiers. It testifies to the German influence that took place in the territory, which increasingly fell under the rule of France. Wearing a hat separately from chain mail was uncharacteristic for that time. The warrior's helmet probably consists of two halves, and a decorative strip in the middle closes the joint. However, this is just a guess. The helmet could also be made from a single piece of metal. In the hands of a warrior is a shield - a "kite" of the old model.

Count Louis Luz, 1216

The drawing is copied from the image on the graphic seal, where the count is depicted in a surcoat with a rigid shoulder insert. Alternating red and yellow stripes on the surcoat and horse blanket are the colors of the family coat of arms. In this case, the blanket covers only the head and front of the horse's body. Such "half" blankets were not common. On the original seal, the helmet is depicted with a decoration on top. But due to damage to the original, the form of the decoration has not been preserved.

German knight 1250

The equipment of this knight is similar to the equipment of the knights of contemporary France and England. He has no hard armor on his legs. The knight's helmet has become deeper. At the top, under the chain mail cap, there is a circular bolster on the lining, which gives the cap the appearance of a rectangle when viewed from the front. The crescent-shaped hilt head was rarely seen outside of Germany. The coat of arms of the Malinkrodts from Westphalia is depicted on the shield of the knight and on the blanket of his horse.

Saracen mounted archer from Sicily, 1240

Frederick II was especially fond of the Saracens, of whom there were many in his army. A warrior in a Saracen dress from the Andalusian part of Spain holds in his hands a reinforced bow with the ends bent back, consisting of wood, horn and tendons. The tendons on the outside of the bow increase the tension. The horn on the inside contributes to compression (that is, the return of the bow to its original state after the shot). This warrior does not use a bow case, but his arrows are hidden in a quiver hanging from his right shoulder. The archer is also armed with a straight sword, typical of Arab warriors.

Tunisian Berber bodyguards, 1240

Frederick II, like his predecessor Roger I, hired bodyguards from Tunisia. This warrior, which is a striking contrast to the German knight in appearance, is a real Arab warrior. A turban is put on his head over a conical helmet, his torso is protected by an upper dress, characteristic of Arab warriors. The round shield is covered with leopard skin. The armor that protects the torso is a series of small plates connected to each other. Such armor was common among Muslim warriors and is very rare in Catholic Europe.

Sicilian crossbowman of the first half of the 13th century

The drawing is based on an image from a manuscript by Peter Eboli. This warrior could be a Sicilian, a Byzantine, an Arab, a Norman, or a German. On his head is an outdated helmet with a nose plate. To load the crossbow, the warrior uses a hook hanging from his belt. The bow is made of horn, wood, tendons and covered with parchment. The only weapon of this warrior is a long knife.

Walter von Geroldsek, Bishop of Strasbourg, 1262

In this drawing, the bishop is depicted as he probably had when he led his army into battle. On top of the helmet, instead of decoration, a miter is worn, behind which a cape is visible, although at that time one could more often see a scarf tied around the helmet. His surcoat is lined with three rows of vertical plates. On the front side, you can see the heads of the rivets with which the plates are attached to the surcoat fabric. In the hands of the bishop is one of the earliest varieties of mace with ribs. It is made in such a way that all the impact force falls on a small area of ​​the rib. Despite the prediction that he who lifts the sword will die by the sword, ”the bishop is armed with a sword. Warrior prelates, armed with swords and spears (rarely maces), were often depicted in the drawings of chronicles, as well as in Archbishop Turpin's Song of Roland. On the horse, we see a chain mail blanket thrown over a soft lining. The reins are an iron chain, which is harder to break during combat than leather reins.

German infantryman-townsman of the second half of the XIII century

This warrior wears a padded aketon with a stand-up collar and long sleeves that reach down to the wrist, where they taper to form close-fitting cuffs. On the head of an infantryman of a simple form is a helmet, under which a soft-lined cap is worn. An ax with a large blade was held with both hands, striking during the battle. Other warriors from the townspeople were armed with spears, swords and shields.

Equestrian crossbowman, second half of the 13th century

This warrior, like many others, we see chain mail worn under a surcoat. However, he does not have any armor on his legs. For the convenience of loading the crossbow, the sleeves of the chain mail only reach the wrist. During the reloading of his weapon, the crossbowman dismounted from his horse.

An infantryman from the Netherlands, second half of the 13th century

One of the many infantry soldiers serving as a mercenary or feudal warrior. On the infantryman we see scaly armor. Such armor in the form of a long shirt with short sleeves without a hood, consisting of horn, iron and copper scales, could be seen from time to time among the warriors of the second half of the 13th century.

German knight, 1290

On the knight's shield we see the family coat of arms of the Bredov family from the Brandenburg Mark. On top of the chain mail, the knight wears plate armor, which was especially common in the 14th century. Vertical plates are placed on the front and on the shoulders, the rivets from which are visible on the front side. Under the chain mail, the knight wears a soft-lined aketon that dampens blows. In this picture, the aketone is not visible. The lower leg is protected by the leggings of one of the first samples, fastened on the inside of the leg with a buckle. In addition to the usual sword hanging on the belt, in the hands of the knight we see a bastard sword, also called a combat sword or a big sword. In many illustrations, it is shown attached to a belt. However, there is written evidence that the second sword was tied to the saddle. Such swords were especially popular among the German knights.

Cuman mercenary of the second half of the 13th century

Cumans are a nationality that was part of the Hungarian people. The warrior is wearing an overcoat of Turkish cut, under which he must be wearing chain mail and small plate shoulder pads. A bow with a case, a quiver with a hinged lid and a small shield are suspended from the belt. In the hands of the warrior is a slightly curved saber, sharpened at one end. During the 14th century, many Cumans, like other Hungarians, gradually adopted the Germanic costume.

Mercenary from Brabant, 1300

The Low Countries, including Flanders, which was formally part of France, provided numerous mercenary troops. This picture shows one of these mercenaries. On the warrior we see chain mail. In his hands he holds a spear with a four-sided tip.

Back to the Scrolls

The 13th century in the history of Germany was marked by another extremely important phenomenon - knightly orders. The orders that united the knights into brotherhoods in the image and likeness of the monastic orders of the early Middle Ages were very militant organizations. Formally, the knightly order was subordinate to both the Pope and the emperor, in fact, having two masters, it did not completely depend on any of them. In 1237, the two main German knightly orders - the Teutonic and Livonian - merged. A new force appeared in the German lands, an excellently armed and trained army of "warriors of the faith." The knights did not encroach on the lands belonging to the German princes, and turned their weapons to the east. For five years they conquered the Baltic lands inhabited by Slavs and Finns. The occupied lands remained at the complete disposal of the order, although they were formally considered part of Germany. Only the Russian prince Alexander Nevsky managed to stop the onslaught of the German knights. On April 5, 1242, the famous Battle of the Ice took place on Lake Peipus, the result of which was the complete defeat of the hitherto invincible army.

After this defeat, the Teutonic and Livonian knights entrenched themselves in the occupied lands, founding several cities there. The Baltic States turned out to be an extremely valuable acquisition for Germany - numerous trade routes connecting Europe with Russia ran exactly here. The cities founded by the knights subsequently merged into the Hansa - the famous union of trading cities, which included the largest trading centers in Northern and Eastern Europe.

The conquest of the Baltic states marked the beginning of a new stage in the economic development of the German lands. A mass of immigrants from Saxony poured into the new territories, where at that time large feudal lords were actively buying up peasant allotments, releasing the peasants into the wild and at the same time depriving them of their livelihood. In the 13th century, three main regions of Germany finally took shape, each of which was dominated by a special type Agriculture.

Saxon lands became the stronghold of large estates, leased to ministerials or small knights for a monetary payment (and not for quitrent and corvée, as was the case with serfs before). The peasants who received freedom and lost their lands went to the Baltic states and to the lands east of the Elbe, where they became state peasants - they acquired their own land plot, paid taxes to the princes and performed some state duties. Later, part of the peasant allotments passed into the hands of small knights who owned fiefs in the Baltic territories. A landlord economy gradually took shape there, in which the peasants fell into serfdom from the owner of most of the land in the district. In these lands, primarily in Prussia, relations between the knight-landowner and the peasant were relatively early, back in the 14th century, formalized by numerous laws that stipulated the rights and obligations of both. Finally, in the South German lands, feudal orders survived longer than anywhere else. There, the basis of agriculture was made up of large estates. Unlike the northern and eastern lands, landowners have not yet completely abandoned corvée and dues.

This difference could not but affect general development each of the three regions. Uneven economic development and the desire of the German princes for independence from the supreme power led to the fact that Germany in the 16th-17th centuries was a multitude of scattered princely possessions. Feudalism and feudal fragmentation, which survived here longer than in other countries of Western Europe, held back the development of Germany.

Knights

The knights considered themselves the best in everything: in social position, in military art, in rights, in manners, and even in love. They looked upon the rest of the world with extreme disdain, considering the townspeople and peasants to be "uncouth dorks." And even priests they considered people deprived of "noble manners." The world, in their understanding, is eternal and unchanging, and in it the domination of the knightly estate is eternal and unchanging. Only that which relates to the life and work of knights is beautiful and moral, everything else is ugly and immoral.

Origin

The origin of chivalry dates back to the era of the Great Migration of Nations - VI - VII centuries. In this era, the power of the kings was strengthened: the conquests and the huge booty associated with them sharply raised their authority. Along with the king, the members of his squad were also strengthened. At first, their rise above their fellow tribesmen was relative: they remained free and full people. Like the ancient Germans, they were both landowners and warriors, participated in the management of the tribe and in legal proceedings. True, large landed estates of the nobility grew next to their relatively small plots. Feeling their impunity, the magnates often took land and property by force from weaker neighbors, who were forced to recognize themselves as dependent people.

Number and role
in medieval society

The number of chivalry in Europe was small. On average, knights made up no more than 3% of the population of a particular country. Due to the peculiarities of the historical development of Poland and Spain, the number of knights there was somewhat higher, but also no more than 10%. However, the role of chivalry in Medieval Europe was enormous. The Middle Ages were a time when everything is decided by strength, and strength was precisely in the hands of chivalry. It was the knights (if this term is considered as a synonym for the word feudal lord) who also owned the main means of production - land, and it was they who concentrated all power in medieval society. The number of knights who were in the vassal dependence of the lord determined his nobility.

In addition, it is very important to note that it was the knightly environment that gave rise to a special type of culture, which became one of the most striking aspects of the culture of the Middle Ages. The ideals of chivalry permeated both the entire court life and military conflicts, diplomatic relations. Therefore, the study of the features of knightly ideology seems to be absolutely necessary for understanding all aspects of the life of medieval society.

Knights | dedication

Becoming a knight, the young man underwent an initiation procedure: his lord hit him with a flat sword on the shoulder, they exchanged a kiss, which symbolized their reciprocity.

Armor

1. Helmet 1450
2. Helmet 1400
3. Helmet 1410
4. Helmet Germany 1450
5. Milanese helmet 1450
6. Italy 1451
7. - 9. Italy (Tlmmaso Negroni) 1430

Knightly weapons

The medieval feudal lord was armed with heavy cold iron weapons: a meter-long long sword with a cruciform handle, a heavy spear, and a thin dagger. In addition, clubs and battle axes (axes) were used, but they fell out of use quite early. But the knight paid more and more attention to the means of protection. He put on chain mail or armor, replacing the old leather armor.

The first shells made of iron plates began to be used by the 13th century. They protected the chest, back, neck, arms and legs. Additional plates were placed over the shoulder, elbow and knee joints.

An indispensable part of knightly weapons was a triangular wooden shield, on which iron plates were stuffed.
An iron helmet with a visor was put on the head, which could rise and fall, protecting the face. Helmet designs have been constantly changing, providing better protection, and sometimes just for the sake of beauty. Covered with all this metal, leather and clothing, the knight suffered from intense heat and thirst during a long battle, especially in summer.

The knight's warhorse began to be covered with a metal blanket. In the end, the knight with his horse, to which he seemed to grow, became a kind of iron fortress.
Such heavy and clumsy weapons made the knight less vulnerable to arrows and blows with a spear or sword of the enemy. But it also led to a low mobility of the knight. Knocked out of the saddle, the knight could no longer mount without the help of a squire.

Nevertheless, for a foot peasant army, the knight remained for a long time a terrible force, against which the peasants were defenseless.

The townspeople soon found a means of breaking up the knights' troops, using their great mobility and simultaneous cohesion on the one hand, and their better (compared to the peasant) weapons on the other. In XI - XIII centuries Knights have been beaten by townspeople in different countries of Western Europe more than once.
But only the invention and improvement of gunpowder and firearms in the XIV century and beyond put an end to chivalry as an exemplary military force middle ages.

Feudal castles and their arrangement

After the cathedral, the most important type of building in the Middle Ages was undoubtedly the castle. In Germany, following the formation of the type of dynastic fortress in the 11th century, there was an idea of ​​​​the practical and symbolic advantages of a significant height of the building: the higher the castle, the better it is. Dukes and princes competed with each other for the right to be called the owner of the highest castle. In the medieval worldview, the height of the castle was directly related to the power and wealth of its owner.
Taking as a model the southwestern part of Germany, where castles were built especially actively, let us briefly consider some political, social and legal aspects of the development of fortification architecture.
Representatives of the Hohenberg dynasty, descendants of the Counts of Pollern, followed the tradition that ordered a large lord to build a castle on top of a rock as a sign of his power and authority. In the middle of the 12th century, this branch of the Zollerns chose a rocky mountain peak above a mountain meadow, now known as the Hummelsberg (near Rottweil), as a place for a family fortress. Having thus appeared at an altitude of about a kilometer, the Hohenberg castle "overtook" the Zollern castle - Hohenzollern by about 150 meters. To emphasize this advantage, the counts - the owners of the castle took a surname in honor of this mountain peak: "Hohenberg" means in German " high mountain" ("hohen Berg"). Hummelsberg-like conical exits rocks, steep on all sides, typical of the Swabian highlands. They were ideal geographical symbols of power and greatness.
The medieval castle was the center of life of the feudal court. Documentary evidence has been preserved that the castles performed many of the ceremonial functions of the palace: it is known, for example, that in the castle of Count Albrecht 2 of Hohenberg, on Christmas Day 1286, long and extremely magnificent celebrations were held in honor of the Emperor of Germany Rudolph 1, who was visiting the count's court. It is also known that many of the officials characteristic of the administrative structure of the palace, such as butlers, seneschals and marshals, served in the castles, and this is another evidence of the frequency with which all kinds of holidays were held in the castles.
What did a typical medieval castle look like? Despite the differences between the local types of castles, all medieval German castles were generally built according to approximately the same scheme. They had to meet two basic requirements: to provide reliable protection in the event of an enemy attack and conditions for the social life of the community in general and the feudal court in particular.
As a rule, the castle was surrounded by a fence, the walls of which rested on massive buttresses. A covered sentinel path usually ran over the top of the wall; the remaining parts of the wall were protected by battlements alternating with embrasures. One could get inside the castle through a gate with a gate tower. Towers were also erected at the corners of the wall and along it at certain intervals. Outbuildings and the castle chapel were usually located in the immediate vicinity of such towers: this provided greater security. The main building, where there were living quarters and reception rooms for guests, was the palace - the German analogue of the large hall, which performed the same functions in castles in other countries. Stalls for livestock adjoined it. In the center of the courtyard stood a donjon (sometimes it was placed closer to the palace, and sometimes close to it). Lichtenberg Castle north of Stuttgart is one of the few completely preserved medieval German castles to this day. According to the brands of masons, its construction dates back to around 1220.
Returning to the Hohenbergs, it should be noted that, along with the palatine counts of Tübingen, they belonged to the most powerful aristocratic families of Southwestern Germany in the 12th and 13th centuries. They owned vast estates in the upper reaches of the Neckar River, as well as, in addition to the main castle of Hohenburg, castles in Rothenburg, Horb and other places.
It was in Horb, a city built on a hill above the Neckar, that the Hohenbergs' dream of an ideal residence, completely dotted with towers gazing at the sky, came close to being realized. The former owner of Horb, Rudolf 2, Count Palatine of Tübingen, conceived, but did not have time to complete, the project of building a grandiose castle on a rocky ledge hanging over the city market. At the end of the 13th century, Horb, as part of the dowry of a bride from the Tübingen family, passed to the Hohenbergs, who completed the construction work, uniting the castle with the city in such a way that the city church was also protected by the castle walls. Built between 1260 and 1280, this former collegiate church of the Holy Cross is now dedicated to the Virgin Mary.
As a result, the castle and the city in Horb have grown together in a unique way. It is almost certain that Horb was the first of the German cities to serve as the basis for a lord's residence. Thanks to this, many buildings belonging to the count appeared in the city itself, which stimulated the development of the functions of the count's court as a social institution.
Further development of this process took place in Rotenburg. In 1291, Count Albrecht 2 of Hohenberg, who had previously lived in seclusion on the Weilerburg peak, established a residence for himself above Rothenburg; the castle and the city also formed a single whole here. The secluded Weilerburg castle on a rock, cut off from public life, of course, was not completely abandoned, but basically lost its role as a residence. Rothenburg turned into the capital of the Hohenbergs and remained a residence city even after this count family died out.

Thus, the development of medieval residence cities in the 13th and 14th centuries was determined mainly by the process of transferring the castle to the city. This process, which formed a new type of urban culture and entailed important political and social consequences, can be viewed in the context of a frequent change of rulers.
The strengthening of the political power of the lords created a need for the maintenance of more magnificent courtyards and the financing of expensive construction projects - castle cities and castle palaces. Of course, such a frank demonstration of power brought danger to new castles. The castle and the surrounding area had to be carefully fortified. For defense, powerfully fortified castle walls and well-armed knights were required; however, open confrontation was usually preceded by tense diplomatic negotiations. And only if all the possibilities of non-violent resolution of the conflict were exhausted, war was declared and the opponents closed in their castles in order to prepare for hostilities.
Then the lord either marched out of the castle with his army, or took defensive measures. Not only the castle, but also the city took part in the preparation for the defense. At the end of the war, a peace treaty was signed, the sole purpose of which was to prevent further strife. The treaty established new boundaries, which were sometimes described down to the smallest detail, listing pastures and fiefs. Descendants, however, often did not want to recognize the legitimacy of such a redistribution of land, and if such a conflict, which dragged on for generations, could not be resolved, it could eventually lead to the death of the castle or to a change of ruler. In the Middle Ages, formally declared internecine wars were often considered a completely legal means of restoring hereditary rights.
Some medieval castles, and subsequently the residence cities developed into cultural centers. If the lord turned out to be a lover of fine arts, he tried to attract scientists and artists to the court, founded a university and ordered work on the construction or decoration of temples and palaces.

Leisure

Tournaments

The purpose of the tournament is to demonstrate the fighting qualities of the knights who made up the main military. power of the Middle Ages. Tournaments were usually arranged by the king, or barons, large lords on especially solemn occasions: in honor of the marriages of kings, princes of the blood, in connection with the birth of heirs, the conclusion of peace, etc. Knights from all over Europe gathered for the tournament; it took place publicly, with a wide confluence of the feudal. nobility and common people.

For the tournament, a suitable place was chosen near the big city, the so-called "rounds". The stadium had a quadrangular shape and was surrounded by a wooden barrier. Benches, lodges, tents for spectators were erected nearby. The course of the tournament was regulated by a special code, the observance of which was monitored by the heralds, they named the names of the participants and the conditions of the tournament. Conditions (rules) were different. In the XIII century. the knight did not have the right to participate in the tournament if he could not prove that 4 generations of his ancestors were free people.
Over time, emblems were checked at the tournament, special tournament books and tournament lists were introduced. Usually the tournament began with a duel of knights, as a rule, just knighted, the so-called. "zhute". Such a duel was called "tiost" - a duel with spears. Then the main competition was arranged - an imitation of the battle of two detachments, formed according to "nations" or regions. The victors took their opponents prisoner, took away their weapons and horses, and forced the vanquished to pay a ransom.
From the 13th century the tournament was often accompanied by severe injuries and even death of the participants. The church forbade tournaments and the burial of the dead, but the custom turned out to be ineradicable. At the end of the tournament, the names of the winners were announced and awards were distributed. The winner of the tournament had the right to choose the queen of the tournament. Tournaments ceased in the 16th century, when the knightly cavalry lost its importance and was supplanted by the infantry of the shooters recruited from the townspeople and peasants.

Knight mottos

An important attribute of a knight was his motto. This is a short saying expressing the most important side of the knight's character, his life principles and aspirations. Often the mottos were depicted on the coats of arms of the knights, their seals, armor. Many knights had mottos that emphasized their courage, determination, and especially their complete self-sufficiency and independence from anyone. The characteristic knightly mottos were the following: "I go my own way", "I will not become another", "Remember me often", "I will master", "I am not a king and not a prince, I am Comte de Coucy".