As a result of economic, political and cultural ties with other nations, various vocabulary was borrowed. Borrowed words can displace native Russian names, or be used along with them, becoming synonyms (export-import, import and export). The sources of borrowings were Slavic (Polish, Czech, etc.) and non-Slavic (Greek, Latin, French, German, Italian, English, Turkic) languages.

1. Mostly household vocabulary was borrowed from Polish (jacket, suede, stroller, cap), Latinisms (coin, public), German and Italian words (fair, soil, thing) were borrowed through it.

2. From Ukrainian language bagel, borscht, hopak, schoolboy, grain grower are borrowed.

3. From Czech - refugee, polka, robot.

When moving to another language, words adapt to the phonetic structure and morphological system of the borrowing language, undergo lexico-semantic transformation:

1. Phonetic transformations - replacing foreign sounds with sounds of the borrowing language that are close in quality.

a) nasal vowels in French are transmitted by the corresponding vowels in combination with n, m (adventure, landing)

b) permutation of sounds (easel)

c) insertion of vowels between consonants (chintz)

d) moving the accent (decorator, revolver)

2. Morphological transformations - assignment to a certain part of speech, distribution by word-formation types, obtaining the appropriate grammatical design.

a) loss of endings (Greekisms -os, -on: bishop, idol, Latinisms -moustache, -mind: muscle, decree).

b) change in generic affiliation (la sorte zh.r. - sort m.r.).

3. Lexico-semantic transformation -

a) distribution by thematic and lexical-semantic groups: the Türkisms scarlet and bulany have replenished the composition of LSG adjectives of color

b) change in the volume of the word (narrowing) - powder in French means powder, powder, gunpowder, dust, sand. And in Russian - only powder.

c) rethinking the word, changing the conceptual framework (barn - palace)

d) the emergence of a new secondary meaning of the borrowed word (vinaigrette)

AT on the mother tongue there is a tendency to attach borrowed words to consonant with their own words and rethink them in this circle - folk etymology, false etymology (entrenched). Folk etymology is used in YHL for stylistic purposes.

According to the degree of development, they differ:

1. assimilated - firmly included in the lexical system of the Russian language and are perceived as originally belonging to it (pencil, soup)

2. Exotic words (exoticisms) - reflecting the phenomena of life and life of other peoples (mademoiselle, satsivi, dollar). It is possible to find exact equivalents for such words in Russian, but the foreign language specificity will be lost during translation. When borrowing realities denoted by exoticisms, such words pass into the category of lexically mastered words (goulash, shish kebab).

3. Barbarisms - foreign words that are not fully mastered by the borrowing language, due to the difficulties of grammatical development, often give a humorous or ironic tinge to the text (chew chuingam, drink jus).

Kalki in Russian.

Tracing paper - a word built on the model of the corresponding alien by transferring it constituent parts with the help of Russian word-formation elements. Tracing is the process of creating cripples. Tracing paper differs from borrowings - someone else's word does not transfer, but is translated using its own language material when borrowing the semantics of its constituent parts.

1. derivational tracing papers - built with the help of Russian word-forming elements (look - with German Aussehen - -aus - -you, sehen - look. Interjection and lat interjectio, skyscraper and skyscraper, etc.).

2. Semantic tracing papers - words that borrow one of the LSVs from their foreign language equivalents (to touch - to excite from the French toucher (to touch), picture - the meaning of "movie" from English picture (picture, portrait, movie).

3. Semi-calques - a word made up of borrowed and native elements, using a word-building structure foreign word-prototype (television - Greek tele and Russian vision, humanity - humanitat - lat root human and rus -ost).

9. Lexicography. The main types of dictionaries (according to Maslov. chapter 3, section 7

The semantic assimilation of borrowings can manifest itself in different ways, but it comes down to the acquisition by a word of such a meaning or such a semantic structure that distinguishes it in the lexical system as a separate unit. Borrowing, getting into the Russian language, can lose all the meanings inherent in it in the source language, except for one. For example: 1) fr . genre (,genre) means "genus, breed; image, manner; genre", passed into Russian only in the latter meaning; 2) fr. word jargon (jargon) had the meanings of "chirping, chatter, incomprehensible language", then "spoiled language, dialect, jargon", it got into Russian only in the latter meaning; 3) English image means "image, statue, image, symbol, reflection in a mirror", Russian image- an idea of ​​a person, emerging on the basis of data about him.

In other cases, there was an expansion of the semantic volume of borrowing. Yes, in Polish word ideas means "thought, concept", and in Russian it has at least four meanings:

• 1) general concept about an object or phenomenon;
• 2) the main, defining position in the system of views, views; belief;
• 3) the main idea of ​​some work of art;
• 4) idea, plan, intention. AT German noun impulse means "impulse", and in Russian it has four meanings: 1) internal motivation, impetus to something, a reason that causes some action; 2) (physical) momentum, equal to the product body mass on its speed; 3) an excitation wave propagating along nervous system; 4) (special) momentary change electrical voltage and current strength.

The semantic mastering of borrowing is probably the most difficult stage in the entry of a foreign word into the Russian language. Most mistakes are made in its understanding and comprehension by native speakers. Currently, there are often, for example, such borrowings: aquapark, audit, auditor, outsourcing. But not all native Russian speakers can explain their meanings: aquapark- this is an amusement and recreation park, on the territory of which there are artificial reservoirs for various purposes with heated water, audit- independent examination of the company's financial statements, auditor- an auditor who checks the financial activities of enterprises, outsourcing- hiring a company to manage a specialist from the outside.

Journalists are often ironic about the misinterpretation and use of a foreign word. "Experienced parliamentarians, - we read in the journal "New Time" for 1991., - can reach consensus up to two or three times in a meeting. And they get the most satisfaction., when consensus is reached by all deputies simultaneously".

The so-called folk (false) etymology is also associated with the incorrect understanding of a foreign word - the interpretation of a word based on its similarity, random associations with other words without scientific disclosure of its origin. For example:

He always makes a fool and makes noise - kolobrodit,

Sharp as a bad writer

And if speaker from the word "yell" comes,

He is an undeniable speaker A. Ertel).

In fact, the noun speaker, Latin in origin, borrowed into Russian in early XVIII in.

False etymology also captures proper names, especially foreign ones, primarily in the common people:

• - Well, the truth is, this, like Evo, striker, they say, in Cuba, castrov, or something, too Fedor, say.
• - Fidel Castro, - corrects the more literate Mishka (V. Belov).

Often foreign words are deliberately interpreted in the spirit of folk etymology in order to ridicule the phenomena they designate.

In a common people's environment, words of foreign origin, without having a root support in their native language, are often generally distorted:

• - What's wrong with you, dear? What kind of pain has attacked you, or what? I know the epilepsy, but I have never seen a jumping isho.
• - It's charging, grandma. Gymnastics, - Seryozha laughed.
• - And what is this vymnastics!- the old woman asked incomprehensibly (£. Yevtushenko).

A special case of borrowing is tracing - this is translation, copying, building a word from Russian morphemes in accordance with the structure of a foreign word while maintaining the meaning of the latter.

At the same time, they distinguish:

■ tracing paper - derived words or expressions made up of Russian word-building elements on the model of a foreign word or expression, taking into account both its individual parts and its entire composition. Wed: English. skin heads and skinheads- a youth group protesting with their appearance against generally accepted norms of behavior (as opposed to long-haired, beatles, etc.); English business woman - businesswoman; English public relations - public relations. Such tracing papers are called derivational, since they repeat with Russian morphemes or words the word-formation structure of a foreign derivative;

■ semantic calques that borrow from foreign language equivalents some meaning, usually figurative. Yes, in English language there is a word green, which in Russian corresponds to an adjective green. Once in English green received the meaning "participant in the social movement for the preservation environment", its Russian equivalent has taken on a similar meaning. In addition, the English green has another variant of semantic development; they began to call the dollar the color of the bill. In Russian, not only the noun has become widespread green in the same sense, but also an adjective green also acquired the meaning of "dollar".

English words mouse- mouse - corresponds to Russian mouse. With the advent of computers, English mouse acquired the meaning of "pointing device, which is a small box"; the same thing happened with the Russian word.

English word garbage, meaning "garbage", in computer science began to be called "unnecessary, not subject to further use data in the computer's memory." The same semantic shift occurred in the Russian equivalent - trash;

■ half-calques - a kind of derivational cripples. These words are formed according to the model of borrowed derivatives of a certain structure, but consist of two parts: one of them is common with these derivatives, and the second is its own, Russian-speaking. For example, the English computer term cache memory corresponds Russian cache memory- memory for intermediate data storage, term root segment same origin - Russian root directory- directory where all files are registered.

The semantic development of borrowed words gives derivatives that are formed according to their model, but on Russian soil. For example, borrowing art show(from eng. art- art, show- performance) served as a prototype of the Russian art party, in which the first part is common with English word, and the second - Russian-speaking. anglicisms arm wrestling and armwrestler served as a model for the creation on Russian soil of the word armstall- a device in the form of a table on which arm wrestlers compete, with one common (English) part arm. Following the pattern of borrowings with a common part of Greek origin bio- life ( biogenesis, biochron, biocenosis) formed Russian biofield.

In addition, borrowed words became the basis of derivatives that are formed from them on Russian soil by adding word-forming affixes. For example, a prefix anti- is Greek in origin, and the noun reformer- latin, but derivative anti-reformer actually represents Russian education. In the word decollectivization all morphemes except ending -a, are Latin in origin: prefix de-, root team and suffix -izations-. Noun concrete borrowed from French, but on Russian soil dozens of words are formed from it that are not directly related to French: concrete worker, concrete worker, concrete, concrete, concrete truck, concrete mixer, concrete mixer, paver etc. It is clear that such derivatives, which are formed with the help of morphemes of foreign origin, but on Russian soil, should not be placed in dictionaries of foreign words. So, although the word team historically goes back to Latin and, therefore, rightly placed in the Dictionary of Foreign Words, ed. F. N. Petrov, the same cannot be said about derivatives from it collectivization and collectivism that appeared in Soviet time. It is impossible to call borrowed such derivatives as corpuscular-wave, space vision, quotation, laconic, legalization, Islam etc. etc., because none foreign language they are not marked.

semantic development of borrowings

O.A. FROLOVA

SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT of borrowings

One of the signs of the entry of a foreign word into the borrowing language is semantic development, namely, the certainty of meaning, the differentiation of meanings and their shades between the words and borrowings that existed in the language.

Keywords: adaptation; borrowing; LSV; polysemy; semantics; transterminologization.

One of the features of a foreign word entering the borrowing language is its semantic development, i.e. definiteness of the meaning, differentiation of meanings and their shades among words and borrowings existing in the language.

Keywords: adaptation; borrowing; LSV (lexi-co-semantic variant); polysemy; semantics; transterminologization.

The semantic development of borrowings in the Russian language is their inclusion in the lexical-semantic system of the host language, in various series and chains of dependencies inherent in the vocabulary of the recipient language. In modern Russian, this process is very active. Depending on the measure of semantic assimilation, two groups of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) words that have hardly undergone rethinking; 2) words in the semantics of which certain changes have occurred (selectivity of meaning, narrowing of meaning, expansion of meaning, acquisition of a new meaning).

In Russian, most borrowings retain the semantics characteristic of the source language, i.e. the meanings of the source language are completely transferred to the semantics of the recipient language. This group includes words such as genesis (Greek genesis origin, occurrence); duel (fr. duel duel); dune (fr. dune sand drift); distributor (English distributor distributor); realtor (eng. realtor real estate agent); provider (eng. provider supplier, supplier), etc.

At the same time, linguists are aware of the processes of lexico-semantic changes that occur during the adaptation of borrowed words. Let us note those of them to which the extensive language material that is available today points us.

There is a group of borrowings with a selectively coinciding meaning, which illustrates the selective mastering of the semantics of the source language. Foreign words of this group are polysemic, however, when a lexeme passes into Russian, the latter does not borrow all the meanings, but only one or several of them. For example: business (English business activity, profession, commercial activity, transaction); service (eng. service occupation, service, service, communication); site (English site place, area, site); image (English image image, reflection, sculpture, copy, embodiment, reputation); clearing (clearing clarification, explanation, clearing); collage (fr. collage gluing); installation (it. Installation installation, installation); showman (English showman is the owner of a circus, an attraction, a specialist in organizing public spectacles); ring (eng. ring ring, circle, circus arena, wrestling ground); racket (English racket - a wild lifestyle, blackmail, extortion, fraud, easy money, a dubious source of income), etc.

Other semantic processes, such as: narrowing the meaning, expanding the meaning, acquiring a new meaning, are represented in the Russian language to a lesser extent.

During adaptation, there may be an expansion of the meaning of the English etymon, which is explained by a number of reasons. For example, English. bluff "deceit, intimidation" -bluff "invention for the purpose of showing off or to intimidate someone"; “in a card game, poker is a technique when a player acts in such a way that opponents consider his cards to be winning” - there was an expansion of meaning, a complication of the semantic structure due to the development of a secondary meaning. The word hattrick was first borrowed to mean "three goals scored by one player in one game." Later, the Russian language borrowed another LSV - "a situation where one athlete or one team takes first place in three types of competition."

AT recent times updated in a special sense the word summary. It has long and firmly been mastered by the Russian language in the sense of “a brief conclusion from what was said, written or read” and is recorded in all modern explanatory dictionaries, starting with the dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov. AT modern language it has acquired a special meaning, private in relation to the noted general: a text representing a track record and other data about the job seeker, including the amount of the desired salary, any preferences and gender. Such resumes are usually compiled by the applicants themselves. This has become relevant in recent years, when the Internet has become the most common way to find a job.

The word boutique is borrowed from the French language: boutique - shop, shop, small shop, workshop. It is interesting that in the very French it was replaced by the noun magazine (shop) from Arabic, which became especially widespread in the first half of the 19th century, when French trade was being restructured on new industrial grounds and the old shops (boutiques) no longer suited sellers who needed spacious and roomy stores. In Russian, this word “increased in rank” began to mean a fashion store, that is, a word that in the source language called an ordinary, ordinary object, in the borrowing language is attached to a more significant and prestigious object. A boutique is not necessarily a small store (although one of the original meanings was that it was a small store, usually located in the same building as a workshop of a particular company). Originally in Russian, a boutique store of fashionable exclusive clothes. By the end of the 90s of the XX century, the meaning of the lexeme expanded: the word boutique began to mean not only a clothing store, but also many other goods (finishing materials boutique, mobile boutiques, jewelry boutique, antique boutique, perfume boutique, flower boutique, souvenir boutique, shoe boutique, etc.).

The noun defile (French defile - the passage of troops at a review, a string, a procession, a gorge, a gorge, a passage) entered the Russian language long ago and was first recorded in the explanatory dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov in the meaning of “gorge; tight, narrow passage. AT modern dictionaries the defile lexeme is given with the mark military. In the explanatory dictionary of foreign words L.P. Rat is given the following definition: defile - a gorge or a narrow passage (between mountains, swamps, etc.), usually used to detain the enemy. In the last ten-

This noun defile began to be used in a different meaning - “fashion show”, but gradually it is expanding. The following combinations became possible: teaching defile, picture defile, teaching defile, setting up defile, etc. The language fashion "pushes" the active use of the word, and the language fashion, especially in initial stage occurrences of a word, can expand and "somewhat lubricate" the linguistic meaning.

There are many examples of this kind: experiencing a pragmatic need to name new concepts, the language seeks to “load” with the meanings those sound complexes (formatives) that it has already absorbed. An interesting example in this regard is the word happeninging, which first appeared in the meaning of “a kind of dramatic performance”, and recently the main meaning of the etymon was re-borrowed - “something that happened, happened”.

The expansion of the semantic volume occurs due to the transterminologization of different meanings. In this respect, the borrowing of English dumping is indicative: the specialization of its two meanings in the process of adaptation is confirmed not only by different LSVs of non-coinciding term systems, but also by their different pronunciation / spelling - dumping (economic) - export of goods at bargain prices and dumping (technical) - technology disposal of industrial waste.

There is also an expansion of the semantic structure of borrowings due to a change in the subject-conceptual correlation of the word in connection with a change in the designated realities: driver, server, rating, etc. Separate words associated with the computer sphere receive new meanings, for example, start - “start sending / receiving a fax”, page - “in the meaning of the home page”, click - “click with the mouse button”.

A more advanced stage of adaptation characterizes the appearance figurative meaning in a number of Anglicisms it is on Russian soil. Let's take the word Sherpa as an example. In English, it is monosemantic and means "a representative of one of the peoples living in the Himalayas and having a special skill in overcoming mountain routes." Recently, it has acquired a figurative specialized meaning - "(in diplomacy) a specialist who prepares the ground for negotiations between senior government officials." A similar process is observed in body, which is also a monosemantic in English: the Russian semantic system codified body only as “fashionable lingerie”.

Examples of other semantic transformations: narrowing, concretization of meaning - lat. votum "desire" - a vote "a decision taken by a vote" (a vote of no confidence); change of meaning - it. der Maler - "painter" and Russian. painter - “worker for painting buildings, interior spaces”; fr. hasarad - "case" and Russian. passion - "passion, passion, ardor"; Turkic tavar - "cattle, domestic animal" (as an object of exchange) - Russian. goods - “everything that is the subject of trade”, respectively - tavar + is (goods + search) - “companion in the exchange of livestock” and Russian. comrade - "friend, friend."

The description of the process of semantic adaptation will be incomplete without mentioning such a linguistic phenomenon as semantic borrowing. Some words of an earlier period, which came into English and Russian from Latin, Greek and French, in the recent past expanded their semantic structure, first in English, and then it was these new meanings that appeared.

lis in the corresponding Russian words. So, the new LSV of the word menu means “a list of options, usually displayed on a computer screen and offering a set of commands and actions”, and a pirate has acquired the meaning of “a person who infringes on copyright in the field of video and audio products or any other copyright products”.

The process of adaptation is subjected not only to the denotative component of the meaning, but also to the connotative one. As the analysis of the factual material showed, the correlation of new components of the value does not have an unambiguous relationship. For example, the word sequel, which is neutral in English, in Russian acquired a negative assessment of “usually an unsuccessful continuation of a movie or book”, probably under the influence of serial television soap operas. Over time, it, like its etymon, became neutral. And, conversely, the word speech, having appeared in the borrowing language with a positive connotation (speech = official short speech), subsequently changed the sign of the assessment from plus to minus. There are also examples of how both the etymon and the loanword retain a negative connotation: skinhead - skinhead (skin).

It should be noted that most of the latest borrowings are distributed among actively developing thematic and semantic fields existing in the language, such as fashion, sports, computer terminology, economics, etc., so their adaptation is much faster.

The most numerous group is currently formed by words that have not yet become, and many of which will never become facts of the language - foreign inclusions.

Semantic adaptation is a long and complex process associated with the transfer of properties of the original vocabulary to borrowed words, which manifests itself in the gradual (gradual-gradual) formation of lexico-semantic, stylistic, derivational, phraseological and other connections in the system of the borrowing language. These connections are confirmed by new lexico-semantic variants that arise in the semantic structure of a borrowed word as a result of the acquired ability to semantic shifts.

Literature

1. Burova E.A. Lexical gallicisms in modern Russian: a pragmatic aspect: Abstract of the thesis. diss. ... cand. philol. Sciences. - Rostov-on-Don, 2004.

2. Efremova T. F. New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language. -M., 2000.

3. Krysin L.P. Dictionary foreign words. - M., 2001.

4. Maksimova T.V. Borrowings in the context of linguistic cultures: Anglo-Russian parallels // Tauride National University, 2004. - http://www.crimea.edu/

5. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes / Ed. D.N. Ushakov. - M., 1995.

Signs of borrowed words.

Primary a- almost always testifies to the non-Russian origin of the word. Lampshade, scarlet, army, attack, aster, agent, profile, etc. - all these are borrowed words.

The presence of a letter in a word f- a bright foreign language feature: February, cafe, fact, graphics, lantern, rhyme, etc.

Combinations ge, ke, he fundamentally indicate the borrowed nature of the word: rocket, cedar, skeleton, model, cell, coat of arms, hero, helium, agent, legend, scheme, trachea, hairdresser.

Gaping - the neighborhood of two or more vowels in the roots of the word: poet, duel, cocoa, out, baul, theater, halo, etc.

Some combinations of consonants that are uncharacteristic of native Russian words: anecdote, exam, backpack, zigzag, warehouse, etc.

Letter uh occurs almost exclusively in borrowed words: era, floor, evolution, element, echo, peer, ethics, effect, etc.

There are no such combinations in Russian words as pyu, byu, vu, kyu, mu and others: puree, banknote, bureau, engraving, ditch, bust, etc. (9, p.).

Features of the development of borrowed words.

In the process of borrowing foreign vocabulary undergoes assimilation, Russification. A foreign word undergoes graphic, phonetic, grammatical, semantic changes.

Graphic development- the transfer of a foreign word in writing by means of the Russian alphabet - is observed in words borrowed from languages ​​that have a different graphic system; cf.: English. meeting - Russian rally, etc. recitative - Russian recitative, gr. phantasia - Russian fantasy. For some time, it is possible for a foreign word to preserve the graphics of the language from which it was borrowed (for example, the word vulgar in “Eugene Onegin” by A.S. Pushkin).

Phonetic development- this is a change in the sound image of a word as a result of its adaptation to new phonetic conditions. Phonetic development is manifested regularly, naturally. Changes are observed in the transmission of consonant sounds. In most Indo-European languages, the sound [h] is pronounced with a breath, it can be deaf and voiced. In Russian, words containing this sound are transmitted differently, cf.: English. hobby, hockey - Russian - hobby, hockey; goll. Hol - Russian Goal; German herzog, herra - Russian. duke, cheers; gr. historia - Russian story; Polish harapnik - Russian arapnik. Alveolar, semi-soft Central European sound (l) is transmitted in Russian as [l] or [l"]; class (Latin classic), varnish (German hack), hatch Dutch luik), weather vane (German hiigel). Observed differences associated with the length and shortness of vowels (cf .: English ball - Russian basketball, football), with the phenomenon of reduction of vowels in unstressed positions(cf. Russian pronunciation words notebook, concert, portrait, poem, etc.

The process of phonetic development can be lengthy. So, during the 19th century, the vowel [o] in foreign words was pronounced without reduction: p[o]rtmone, p[o]et. At present, there has been a complete phonetic development of such words, which is enshrined in the modern orthoepic norm. However, in some cases, the duration of phonetic development can lead to the creation of orthoepic variants: pho[n "e] tika and pho[ne] tika, [t "e] mp and [te] mp, [s "e] ssia and [se] Russia.

Grammar development- this is an adaptation of a foreign word to the grammatical system of the Russian language. This process is most clearly observed in the development of nouns. Due to the specifics of the Russian verb, the Russian language, as a rule, borrows the verb stem and the idea of ​​action, and forms the verb according to the models of the Russian language: German. marschieren - rus. march.

Majority foreign nouns obey the system Russian declension, acquires Russian case endings. The exceptions are a few indeclinable nouns type: coffee, kangaroo, movie, coat. Along with a change in the case-grammatical form, some nouns have a change in the gender category. So, in English, where gender is not a grammatically relevant category, the definition of the gender of a noun is carried out on a semantic basis (all inanimate nouns, except for single ones of the ship type “ship”, belong to the middle gender). Borrowed by the Russian language, English nouns with zero ending masculine: jam, raid, record. A similar change in gender is also observed when borrowing from other languages: lat. aguarium (cf.) - Russian. aquarium (m.r.); in French, the words cafe, coat, pince-nez, masculine, in Russian - middle.

When borrowing, it is possible rethinking the form and number of a noun cf .: cake, muffins - English cake (pl. cakes); clips - eng. clip (pl. clips); rail, rails - eng. rail (pl. rails); coconut, coconuts - isp. coco "palm tree" (pl. cocos).

When borrowing, it is possible part of speech change(the word goes into another lexical-grammatical group): Russian. out (n.) - English. out (adv.), Russian quota (n.) - lat. quota (local) ; in Russian major, plenum, piano are nouns, in source languages ​​they are adjectives.

During the borrowing process semantic word transformation. In most cases, the meaning of the word becomes narrower than in the native language, because the lexeme is not borrowed with all the meanings of a polysemantic word, but only with one or several; cf.: English. meeting “meeting, meeting, rally” and Russian. rally; fr. parole “word, speech” and Russian. the password is “secret spoken word”. In the future, in the Russian language, the development of polysemy of a foreign word is possible. The word can change its meaning: cf.: Russian. out as a sports term and translation. "outside state" and English. out "out, out"; Russian epigram "genre satirical work” and gr. epigramma "inscription". (22, pp. 34-35).

Borrowing a word, the Russian language rarely learns it in the form in which it was in the source language. The foreign word is reshaped, adapting to the phonetic, grammatical and semantic laws and rules of the Russian language.

Phonetic development of borrowings. With phonetic mastering, foreign sounds are replaced with their own, as well as the pronunciation of the sounds of the borrowed word is subordinated to the rules of pronunciation (orthoepy) of the Russian language. For example, aspirated [h], which Russian phonetics does not know, is replaced by explosive [x] or [g]: eng. hockey - Russian hockey; German Herzog - Russian. duke; Polish herb (from German Egbe) - Russian. coat of arms; German Losung on Russian soil is pronounced with a hard [l]; fr. portrait does not sound with [o] in the first syllable, but with [a] - P[a]rtret.

Phonetically undeveloped vocabulary in Russian is not pronounced according to the laws of Russian orthoepy. So, in a certain style of speech, pre-stressed [o] can be preserved: p[o]et, w[o]se, s[o]no, p[o]rtret, l[o]rnet; in proper names: Sh[o]pen, M[o]em.

Some of the borrowed words retain the hardness of the consonant before the front vowel [e]: porridge[ne], [de]lta, [re]ket. Sometimes, over time, the word adapts to Russian pronunciation, and a variant arises: pho[ne]teak and pho[n "e]teak, pa[ne]eh and pa[n "e]eh, or the pronunciation with a soft consonant becomes the only normative: shea[n "e]eh. In Russian, on this basis, semantically different pairs of words (quasi-mononyms) may arise: meter - meter. Masters of the word play with this feature of borrowed vocabulary for artistic purposes. So, in the film by S. Gerasimov “Mothers and Daughters”, one of the Muscovite girls, talking with the heroine who came from the orphanage from the Urals, showing off in front of her, says: "And we are on punishment[ce]lyah…”. On the other hand, the hero of the stories M. Zoshchenko, an illiterate person with a claim to culture, says: [ Shap "en] – "Chopin", [ part "er] - "parterre" (artistic reading).

Grammatical development of borrowings. During grammatical assimilation, someone else's word obeys the rules of Russian grammar: nouns, for example, acquire Russian case endings, the gender of words often changes; so, Latin nouns in - mind (aguarium, consilium) became words not of the middle, but of the masculine gender; the words cafe, muffler, coat and others, having in fr. masculine language, have become neuter nouns. Sometimes the number is rethought. So, the form pl. German numbers. Klappen was understood as a singular form (cf.: valve - valves).

But the most significant changes in borrowing should be considered a complete grammatical rethinking and lexicalization (in Russian, the transformation of a phrase into one word). The words that belong to one part of speech in the source language and to another part in Russian are completely rethought grammatically. For example, the French adjective royal (royal) has turned into the noun “piano” in Russian, the word “plywood” etymologically goes back to the French verb fournir. cologne - lexicalized French phrase eau de Cologne (literally - "Cologne water"); corps de ballet(French corps de ballet, etc.).

Grammatically unlearned loanwords are not inflected at all, e.g. coat, highway, cinema, subway; or may belong to a different gender than is determined by the phonetic structure of the word: coffee - male, tulle, shampoo - masculine gender (although in new editions the word coffee already allowed to be considered as a neuter noun - see "Encyclopedia of a young philologist").

AT last years new words arise from mastered foreign words by truncation, thus, grammatically mastered borrowing is eliminated: guarantee(It was: guarantee), gallant(from gallant, the name of the store in Krasnoyarsk), perfume(from perfumery), pro(from a professional) and others: " called perfume stupid, but, admittedly, the aroma is pleasant "(D. Dontsova).

Lexical mastering of borrowing is the semantic mastering of a word. It can be considered lexically mastered when it names an object, a phenomenon characteristic of our Russian reality, when nothing remains in its meaning that would indicate its foreign language origin. For example, words such as coat(fr.), sport(English), baggage(fr.), cutlet(fr.), jeans(English), accountant(German), shoe(Turk.).

In addition to lexically mastered borrowed words, in texts and in colloquial speech there are words of foreign origin, naming objects, phenomena that are not characteristic of Russian life - exoticisms, for example: lunch, mister, lord(English); burgher, wehrmacht, waiter(German); ozhan, centime(fr.) and others (see EXOTISMS).

From exoticism should be distinguished barbarisms- foreign words interspersed in the Russian text (see BARVARISMS).

Graphic development of borrowing. With such development in the Russian language, a certain graphic image of the word should be created. Some words can be spelled differently for a long time: tunnel - tunnel, zero - zero, daising - dasing. The same spelling instability applies to proper names: Leipzig - Leipzig; Van Clyburn – Van Cliburn etc. Some terms do not obey the rules of Russian spelling, so there are transcription and transcription(See also: Bulokhov V.Ya. Dictionary of spelling options. Krasnoyarsk: RIO GOU VPO "KSPU named after V.P. Astafiev", 2004. 176 p.).

Completely not mastered graphically barbarisms, which in the Russian text are transmitted in Latin script (from European languages, from others - in Cyrillic).