Modern problems of science and education. Didactic principles, their characteristics What is the nature of didactic knowledge normative

Didactic principles ( principles of didactics) are the main provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its general goals and patterns. Acting as categories of didactics, the principles of learning characterize the ways in which laws and regularities are used in accordance with the intended goals. There are the following generally accepted principles:

– awareness and activity (This principle is based on the logical provisions established by science: the true essence of human education is deeply and independently meaningful knowledge acquired through intense exertion of one's own mental activity; conscious assimilation of knowledge by students depends on a number of conditions and factors: learning motives, the level and nature of students' cognitive activity , the organization of the educational process and the management of the cognitive activity of students, the methods and means of teaching used by the teacher, etc.; cognitive activity student is an important factor in learning and has a decisive influence on the pace, depth and strength of mastering educational material);

- visibility(It is based on the following strictly fixed scientific laws: the human sense organs have different sensitivity to external stimuli. In the vast majority of people, the organs of vision have the greatest sensitivity. They “pass” almost 5 times more information into the brain than the hearing organs, and almost 13 times more than tactile organs.Information entering the brain from the organs of vision (via the optical channel) does not require significant recoding, it is imprinted in the human memory easily, quickly and firmly);

- systematic and consistent(The principle is based on the following scientific principles, which play the role of natural principles: a person has real and effective knowledge only when a clear picture of the external world is reflected in his brain, representing a system of interrelated concepts; a universal means and the main way of forming a system of scientific knowledge is a certain way organized learning; the system of scientific knowledge is created in the sequence that is determined by the internal logic of the educational material and the cognitive capabilities of students; the learning process, consisting of individual steps, proceeds the more successfully and brings the greater results, the fewer interruptions, violations of the sequence, uncontrollable moments in it; if skills are not systematically exercised, they are lost; if students are not accustomed to logical thinking, then they will constantly experience difficulties in their mental activity; if you do not follow the systems and sequences in learning, then the process of student development slows down);

– strength(This principle sums up the theoretical searches of scientists and practical experience many generations of teachers to ensure the lasting assimilation of knowledge. It fixes empirical and theoretical patterns: the assimilation of the content of education and the development of the cognitive forces of students are two interrelated aspects of the learning process; the strength of students' assimilation of educational material depends not only on objective factors: the content and structure of this material, but also on the subjective attitude of students to this educational material, training, teacher; the strength of the assimilation of knowledge by students is determined by the organization of training, the use of various types and methods of training, and also depends on the time of training; the memory of students is selective: the more important and interesting for them this or that educational material, the stronger this material is fixed and lasts longer. The process of solid assimilation of knowledge is very complex. Recently, his study has brought new results. A number of studies have shown, for example, that in many cases involuntary memorization is even more productive than voluntary memorization);

- scientific(The principle of scientific teaching, as you know, requires that students at every step of their learning be offered genuine knowledge firmly established by science for assimilation and, at the same time, teaching methods that are close in nature to the methods of the science under study are used. The principle of scientificity is based on a number of provisions , playing the role of natural principles: the world is cognizable, and human knowledge, tested by practice, gives an objectively true picture of the development of the world; science in human life plays an increasingly important role, so school education is aimed at mastering scientific knowledge, arming the younger generations with a system of knowledge about objective reality ; the scientific nature of education is provided primarily by the content school education, strict observance of the principles of its formation; the scientific nature of teaching depends on the implementation by teachers of the accepted content; the scientific nature of training, the effectiveness of the acquired knowledge depend on the compliance of curricula and programs with the level of social and scientific and technological progress reinforcement of acquired knowledge by practice, from interdisciplinary connections);

- availability(The principle of accessibility is based on the law of the thesaurus: only that which corresponds to his thesaurus is accessible to a person. Latin word tesaurus means "treasure". AT figurative meaning this refers to the amount of knowledge, skills, and ways of thinking accumulated by a person. One can also point to other regularities that underlie the principle of accessibility: the accessibility of education is determined by the age characteristics of schoolchildren and depends on their individual characteristics; the availability of education depends on the organization of the educational process, the teaching methods used by the teacher and is associated with the conditions for the course of the learning process; the availability of training is determined by its background; the higher the level of mental development of schoolchildren and the stock of ideas and concepts they have, the more successfully they can move forward in the study of new knowledge; the gradual increase in learning difficulties and accustoming to overcome them have a positive effect on the development of students and the formation of their moral character; learning at the optimal level of difficulty has a positive effect on the pace and effectiveness of learning, the quality of knowledge);

– connection of theory with practice(The basis of this principle is the central position of classical philosophy and modern epistemology, according to which the point of view of life, practice is the first and main point of view of knowledge.

The principle under consideration is based on many philosophical, pedagogical and psychological provisions that play the role of natural principles: the effectiveness and quality of training are checked, confirmed and guided by practice; practice is the criterion of truth, the source of cognitive activity and the area of application of learning outcomes; correctly delivered upbringing follows from life itself, practice, is inextricably linked with it, prepares the younger generation for active transformative activity; the effectiveness of personality formation depends on its inclusion in labor activity and is determined by the content, types, forms and orientation of the latter; the effectiveness of the connection between learning and life, theory and practice depends on the content of education, the organization of the educational process, the forms and methods of teaching used, the time allotted for labor and polytechnic training, and also on age features students; the more perfect the system of labor and productive activity of students, in which the connection between theory and practice is realized, the higher the quality of their training; the better the productive labor and vocational guidance of schoolchildren are, the more successful is their adaptation to the conditions of modern production; the higher the level).

13. The essence of the concepts of "method" and "reception" of training. Classification of teaching methods.

Teaching method(from the Greek. metodos - literally: the path to something) - this is an ordered activity of the teacher and students aimed at achieving a given learning goal. Teaching methods (didactic methods) are often understood as a set of ways, ways to achieve goals, solve educational problems. In pedagogical literature, the concept of method is sometimes referred only to the activity of a teacher or to the activity of students. In the first case, it is appropriate to talk about teaching methods. And in the second - about teaching methods. If we are talking about the joint work of the teacher and students, then teaching methods are undoubtedly manifested here.

Reception is a method element, its component, a one-time action, a separate step in the implementation of a method, or a modification of a method when the method is small in scope or simple in structure.

Features of the most reasonable classifications of teaching methods.

1. Traditional classification teaching methods, originating in ancient philosophical and pedagogical systems and refined for current conditions. This classification distinguishes five methods:

– practical(experience, exercise, educational and productive work );

- visual(illustration, demonstration, observations of students);

- verbal(explanation, clarification, story, conversation, briefing, lecture, discussion, dispute);

- work with the book(reading, studying, summarizing, skimming, quoting, presenting, drawing up a plan, taking notes);

– video method(viewing, learning, exercises under the control of the "electronic teacher", control)

2. Classification of methods according to purpose(M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov). As common feature Classifications are successive stages through which the process of learning in the lesson passes. The following methods are distinguished:

– acquisition of knowledge;

– formation of skills and abilities;

– application of knowledge;

- creative activity;

- fastening;

- test of knowledge, skills, abilities.

3. Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity(I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin). Type of cognitive activity- this is the level of independence (tension) of cognitive activity that students achieve by working according to the training scheme proposed by the teacher. This classification includes the following methods:

- explanatory-illustrative (information-receptive) story, lecture, explanation, work with a textbook, demonstration of paintings, films and filmstrips, etc.;

- reproductive reproduction of actions for the application of knowledge in practice, activities according to the algorithm, programming;

- problem statement When working on this method, the teacher poses a problem to the students and himself shows the way to solve it, revealing the contradictions that arise. The purpose of this method is to show an example of the process of scientific knowledge. At the same time, students follow the logic of solving the problem, get acquainted with the method and technique of scientific thinking, a model of the culture of deploying cognitive actions. ;

– partial search (heuristic). Its essence lies in the fact that the teacher divides the problematic task into subproblems, and the students take separate steps to find its solution. Each step involves creative activity, but a holistic solution to the problem is not yet available.

- research: students are given a cognitive task that they solve on their own, choosing the necessary methods for this and using the help of a teacher.

4. For didactic purposes There are two groups of teaching methods:

- methods that contribute to the primary assimilation of educational material: information-developing methods (oral presentation of the teacher, conversation, work with the book); heuristic (search) teaching methods (heuristic conversation, debate, laboratory work); research method.

– methods that contribute to the consolidation and improvement of acquired knowledge: exercises (according to the model, commented exercises, variable exercises, etc.); practical work.

5 . The most widespread in the didactics of recent decades has received classification of teaching methods proposed by Academician Yu.K. Babansky :

- methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities (verbal, visual, practical, inductive and deductive, reproductive and problem-search, methods of independent work and work under the guidance of a teacher, sources, logic, thinking, management);

– methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity(methods of stimulating and motivating interest in learning, methods of stimulating and motivating duty and responsibility in learning);

– methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities(methods of oral control and self-control, methods of written control and self-control, methods of laboratory and practical control and self-control).

None of the considered classifications of methods is free from shortcomings. Practice is richer and more complex than any of the most skillful constructions and abstract schemes. Therefore, the search for more "perfect classifications that would clarify the conflicting theory of methods and help teachers improve their practice continues.

A distinctive feature of modern didactic concepts is their developmental nature, a new, active way of learning. Consider some concepts of developmental learning.

The concept of L.V. Zankov. The efforts of the scientific team led by L.V. Zankov in the 1950s–1960s. were aimed at developing a new, more effective system of teaching younger students. This concept is based on the following interrelated principles:

· learning at a high level of difficulty;

fast pace of studying program material;

the leading role of theoretical knowledge;

the student's awareness of the learning process;

· purposeful and systematic work on the development of all students, including the weakest ones.

These principles were implemented in specially designed programs and methods for teaching reading, writing, mathematics, natural history and other subjects. The learning system of L.V. Zankova showed high efficiency in experimental testing, but an attempt to introduce it into mass practice, undertaken in the 1960s-1970s, failed, since the vast majority of teachers at that time were unable to master it. The revival of this concept in the late 1980s - early 1990s. caused by the school's focus on student-centered learning.

The concept of meaningful learning developed in the 1960s. a research team led by psychologists V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin also for elementary school. According to this concept, the student in the process of mastering the educational material moves from understanding a specific image to understanding an abstract concept. The subsequent theoretical reproduction is built according to the reverse logic: the student's thought moves from the abstract to the concrete. It is this logic of building the educational process that should contribute to the best learning outcomes for younger students.

The concept of the phased formation of mental actions developed on the basis of the corresponding theory of P.Ya. Galperin and N.F. Talyzina, This theory is based on the following pattern: every mental action originates from a material, from an external action. To form any mental skill, one must first create learning conditions that model it in the form of actions with objects and other material objects, and then transfer its performance to the verbal (verbal) level.

According to the concept of the phased formation of mental actions, the possibilities of the learning process increase significantly if, in the process of learning, children, students go through the following interrelated stages:

1) motivation of activity and preliminary acquaintance of students with the action and the condition for its implementation;

2) students' awareness of the scheme, the algorithm of the upcoming action (at this stage, schemes, instructions, memos are widely used, visually representing individual operations and their sequence);

3) external performance of the action and pronunciation of the action aloud;

4) generalization of the action (usually it is a conclusion expressed aloud, summing up the action performed);

5) the stage of inner speech, the transfer of action from an external form (material) to an internal, mental one;

6) fixing the action in the internal, mental plane, understanding it as personally significant, necessary.

Problem-Based Learning Concept involves the search for reserves of mental development of students: the ability for creative thinking and independent cognitive activity. The scientific substantiation of this concept was made in the 1960s–1970s. works of T.V. Kudryavtseva, A.M. Matyushkina, M.I. Makhmutov, V. Okon and others.

The essence of problem-based learning is the organization by the teacher of problem situations for students, the awareness of these situations, their adoption and solution in the process of joint interaction between students and the teacher with maximum independence of students and the general guiding guidance of the teacher.

Problem situations occur, for example, in the following cases:

if there is a discrepancy between the facts already known to the student and new knowledge;

if students are faced with new conditions for them to use their existing knowledge, skills and abilities;

if it is necessary to choose from the methods known to the student for solving the educational and cognitive problem, the only correct or best one, etc.

When creating problem situations, the teacher should be guided by rules:

Each task should be based on the knowledge and skills that the student already owns;

The unknown that needs to be “discovered” by the student when resolving a problem situation should be subject to assimilation, contribute to the formation of really important knowledge and skills;

The performance of a problematic task should arouse interest in the student, the need for acquired knowledge.

In problem-based learning, it is customary to distinguish four main stage:

1) awareness of the problem situation (“the situation needs to be resolved because…”);

2) analysis of the situation and formulation of the problem (“the problem is that ...”);

3) problem solving: hypotheses and substantiation of solutions, selection of the most logical hypotheses and their consistent verification;

4) checking the correctness of the solution (“the contradiction is eliminated because ...”).

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The question of what to teach is one of the most important in didactics. in different historical eras eminent thinkers tried to answer it, public figures and educators. As a result to early XIX in. two general scientific theories were formed, reflecting two main views on the essence of this issue: the theory of didactic encyclopedism (the theory of the material content of education) and didactic formalism (the theory of the formal content of education).

essence didactic encyclopedism is that the child needs to form a system of scientific knowledge, and the wider it covers various sciences, the deeper the knowledge, the better. Among the famous adherents of this point of view is the ancient philosopher Socrates, the English thinker of the 16th-17th centuries. Francis Bacon and the founder of scientific pedagogy Jan Amos Comenius.

AT didactic formalism the main value is not knowledge in itself, but methods of action, the ability to use knowledge in practice and independently find it. In ancient times, this idea was formulated by Heraclitus ("Much knowledge does not teach the mind"). This theory was followed by such prominent teachers of the past as John Locke, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, Johann Herbart.

Both theories have their strengths and weaknesses: didactic encyclopedism well forms theoretical knowledge, but does not sufficiently provide a connection between learning and life, and didactic formalism equips with practical skills, but limits the development of theoretical thinking. Therefore, there is a third point of view, which in the 2nd half of the XIX century. expressed the Russian teacher K.D. Ushinsky: it is necessary to combine the achievements of both theories, finding the "golden mean" in the ratio of the knowledge formed in the individual and the experience of activity.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. a theory is being created didactic pragmatism(didactic utilitarianism), at the origins of which are John Dewey and Georg Kershensteiner. According to this theory, the content of education should be formed on an interdisciplinary basis, meet the requirements of practical use, as well as the interests and inclinations of the child. Supporters of this theory seek to diversify the content of education as much as possible, but do not require it to be mastered by all students. Variety is needed so that the child (or his parents, persons replacing them) can choose what will most contribute to his self-realization in life. Accounting for individual characteristics is an important advantage of this theory. However, it also has disadvantages:

With mass learning, it is much more difficult to ensure its implementation than the implementation of previous theories;

The variety of possible educational content makes it difficult for a child or his family to make the right choice, which often leads to a decrease in the quality of learning outcomes.

In the XX century. there are new theories of the formation of the content of education. So, the Polish scientist-teacher Vincenty Okon developed the theory functional materialism. In his opinion, the content of education in any academic discipline should be formed on the basis of a certain leading idea that reflects the specifics of this discipline, the features of its functions in the integral system of formation of a scientific worldview in a child. For example, in biology, such an idea will be the idea of evolution, in history - the historical conditioning of socio-cultural phenomena, etc. Thus, each academic subject acquires a single core, which makes it possible to combine the requirements of society and the individual educational needs of students.

Another relatively new theory (mid-20th century) is the theory operational structuring content of education. In this theory, attention is paid not so much to the content of education itself, but to the ways of its structuring: the unity of its parts and the connections between these parts. The structure of the content of education is a very important aspect, since it determines in what form the student will learn the system of knowledge and experience included in the content of education, how this system will be convenient for him for subsequent practical use.

So, to the question "What to teach?" corresponds to the content of education.

In other words, the content of education is what the student must master as a result of training.

The content of education has not remained unchanged for centuries, it continues to change even now. The content of education reflects the social ideal: the ideas existing in society about what should be educated person. The content of education depends on socio-economic and socio-cultural conditions, on the level of development of the education system, on the degree of its control by the state, etc.

1) the purpose of education, expressing the needs of society (briefly, social needs can be formulated as the formation of a person necessary, useful to society);

2) features of a person as a participant in the educational process, the laws of his psychophysical development.

The source of the content of education is the experience of mankind, fixed in material and spiritual culture. However, the experience accumulated by people is so huge that it is impossible to transfer it to the new generation in full. And this is not required, because many special knowledge will never be useful in the life of most people, they will be needed only by professionals. But how to choose from the huge heritage of human culture exactly what all or the vast majority of graduates of a general education school will need - what will become the basis for further successful education and personal development? This is the main the problem of selecting the content of education.

V.V. Kraevsky substantiated the following principles for selecting the content of education:

Compliance of the content of education with the requirements of society, science, culture and personality;

The unity of the content and procedural aspects of education (i.e. the content of education should be selected taking into account the peculiarities of the pedagogical process);

Structural unity of the content of education at different levels of its formation: scientific theory, curriculum, educational material, pedagogical activity, personality of the student, etc.;

Humanitarianization - focus on a person, on creativity and the assimilation of a universal culture (this principle implies the applied value of the knowledge and experience gained for people);

Fundamentalization is the creation of a “foundation” for a self-developing personality (unification of sciences and arts, transfer of knowledge and skills to other sciences and arts, formation of general educational skills, self-education skills).

Didactic concepts of L.V. Zankov and V.V. Davydov

In Russian pedagogy, there are a number of concepts of developmental education related to modern ones.

Since the late 1950s scientific team led by L.V. Zankov, a large-scale experimental study was launched to study the objective patterns and principles of learning. It was undertaken with the aim of developing the ideas and provisions of L.S. Vygotsky on the relationship between education and the general development of schoolchildren.

The efforts of the L.V. Zankov were aimed at developing a system of teaching younger students, which would achieve a much higher level of development of younger students than with traditional teaching methods. Such training was of a complex nature: the content of the experiment was not individual objects, methods and techniques, but "testing the validity and effectiveness of the very principles of the didactic system."

The basis of the learning system according to L.V. Zankov is composed of the following interrelated principles:

· learning at a high level of difficulty; fast pace in the study of program material;

the leading role of theoretical knowledge;

awareness of the learning process by schoolchildren;

· purposeful and systematic work on the development of all students, including the weakest ones.

The principle of learning at a high level of difficulty is characterized, according to L.V. Zankov, not so much by the fact that the “average norm” of difficulty is exceeded, but, first of all, by the fact that the spiritual forces of the child are revealed, they are given scope and direction. At the same time, he had in mind the difficulty associated with understanding the essence of the phenomena being studied, the dependencies between them, with a genuine familiarization of schoolchildren with the values of science and culture.

The most significant thing here is that the assimilation of certain knowledge becomes, at the same time, both the property of the student and the next step, ensuring the transition to a higher level of development. Learning at a high level of difficulty is accompanied by compliance with a measure of difficulty, which is relative.

Another principle is organically connected with the principle of learning at a high level of difficulty: when studying program material, you need to move forward at a fast pace. This implies the rejection of the monotonous repetition of the past. However, this principle should not be confused with haste in academic work, one should not strive also for a large number of tasks performed by schoolchildren. More important is the enrichment of the student's mind with versatile content and the creation of favorable conditions for a deep understanding of the information received.

An effective tool that allows both strong and weak students to go at a fast pace is the use of a differentiated methodology, the specificity of which lies in the fact that different students go through the same questions of the program with unequal depth.

The next principle of L.V. Zankov - the leading role of theoretical knowledge already in primary school which are the leading means of development of schoolchildren and the basis for mastering skills and abilities. This principle was put forward as a counterweight to the traditional ideas about the concreteness of the thinking of younger students, since modern psychology does not provide a basis for such a conclusion. On the contrary, experimental studies in the field educational psychology, without denying the role of figurative representations of students, show the leading role of theoretical knowledge in primary education (G.S. Kostyuk, V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.).

Younger students are capable of mastering terms that cannot be considered as a simple memorization of definitions. Mastering a scientific term is an important condition for the correct generalization and, consequently, the formation of a concept.

This principle applies to all subjects. But it does not reduce the importance of the formation of schoolchildren's skills and abilities. In the system of education L.V. Zankov, the formation of skills occurs on the basis of a full-fledged general development, on the basis of a deep understanding of the relevant concepts, relationships, and dependencies.

The principle of awareness of the learning process by schoolchildren follows from the generally accepted didactic principle of consciousness. L.V. Zankov, analyzing its various interpretations (S.V. Ivanova, M.N. Skatkina, N.G. Kazansky, I.I. Ganelin, etc.), emphasized the importance of understanding the educational material, the ability to apply theoretical knowledge in practice, recognized the need mastery of mental operations (comparison, analysis, synthesis, generalization), the importance of a positive attitude of schoolchildren to educational work. All this, according to L.V. Zankov is necessary, but not sufficient. An important condition for the development of a student is the fact that the process of mastering knowledge and skills is the object of his awareness.

According to the traditional methodology, when passing the multiplication table, various techniques are used to help memorize it. This allows us to reduce the time of its study and eliminate many difficulties. According to the system of L.V. Zankov, the educational process is built in such a way that the student understands the grounds for the arrangement of the material, the need to memorize certain of its elements.

A special place in its system is occupied by the principle of purposeful and systematic work on the development of all students, including the weakest ones. L.V. Zankov explained this by the fact that an avalanche of training exercises falls upon weak students. According to the traditional methodology, this measure is necessary to overcome the failure of schoolchildren. Experience L.V. Zankova showed the opposite: overloading the underachievers with training tasks does not contribute to the development of children. It only increases their backlog. The underachievers, no less, but more than other students, need systematic work to develop them. Experiments have shown that such work leads to shifts in the development of weak students and to better results in the assimilation of knowledge and skills.

The considered principles were concretized in the programs and methods of teaching grammar, reading, mathematics, history, natural history and other subjects.

Proposed by L.V. Zankov didactic system proved to be effective for all stages of the learning process. However, despite its productivity in the development of the student, it remains an unrealized concept to date. In the 1960s and 1970s attempts to implement it in mass school practice did not give the expected results, since teachers were unable to provide new programs with appropriate teaching technologies.

School orientation in the late 1980s and early 1990s on personality-developmental education has led to a revival of this concept.

One of the modern didactic concepts is the concept of meaningful learning. In the 1960s a scientific team was created under the guidance of psychologists V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin, who tried to establish the role and importance of the younger school age in the mental development of man. It was found that in modern conditions at this age it is possible to solve specific educational tasks, provided that students develop abstract theoretical thinking and voluntary behavior control.

Research has also shown that the traditional elementary education does not ensure the full development of the majority of younger students. This means that it does not create the necessary zones of proximal development in work with children, but trains and consolidates those mental functions that basically arose and began to develop back in preschool age(sensory observation, empirical thinking, utilitarian memory, etc.). It follows from this that training should be aimed at creating the necessary zones of proximal development, which would eventually turn into mental neoplasms.

Such training is focused not only on familiarization with the facts, but also on the knowledge of the relationship between them, the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships, and the transformation of relations into an object of study. Based on this, V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin associates their concept of developing education, first of all, with the content of educational subjects and the logic (methods) of its deployment in the educational process.

From their point of view, the orientation of the content and teaching methods mainly on the formation of the foundations of empirical thinking in schoolchildren in elementary school is not the most effective way for the development of children. The construction of educational subjects should involve the formation of theoretical thinking in schoolchildren, which has its own special, different from empirical, content.

At the heart of the developmental education of schoolchildren, according to V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin, lies the theory of formation learning activities and its subject in the process of mastering theoretical knowledge through analysis, planning and reflection. In this theory, we are not talking about the assimilation of knowledge and skills by a person in general, but about the assimilation that occurs in the form of a specific educational activity. In the process of its implementation, the student acquires theoretical knowledge. Their content reflects what is happening, the formation and development of any subject. At the same time, the theoretical reproduction of the real, concrete as a unity of diversity is carried out by the movement of thought from the abstract to the concrete.

Starting to master any educational subject, with the help of a teacher, schoolchildren analyze the content of the educational material, single out some initial general relation in it, discovering at the same time that it manifests itself in many other particular cases. By fixing the selected initial general relationship in a sign form, they create a meaningful abstraction of the subject under study.

Continuing the analysis of the educational material, with the help of the teacher, the students reveal the natural connection of this initial relationship with its various manifestations and thereby obtain a meaningful generalization of the subject being studied. Students then use meaningful abstractions and generalizations to sequentially create other, more specific abstractions with the help of the teacher and combine them into a coherent academic subject. In this case, they transform the initial mental formations into a concept, which later serves as a general principle for their orientation in all the variety of actual educational material.

This way of acquiring knowledge has two character traits. First, the students' thoughts purposefully move from the general to the particular. Secondly, assimilation is aimed at identifying by students the conditions for the origin of the content of the concepts they assimilate.

Familiarization with the leading theoretical provisions should be closer to the beginning of the study of the subject. Facts are easier to assimilate if they are studied in relation to theoretical ideas, grouped and systematized with their help.

The learning task is solved by means of a system of actions. The first of them is the acceptance of a learning task, the second is the transformation of the situation included in it. The task is aimed at finding the genetically initial relationship of the subject conditions of the situation, the orientation to which serves as a general basis for the subsequent solution of all other problems. With the help of other educational activities, students model and study this initial attitude, single it out in private conditions, control and evaluate it.

The assimilation of theoretical knowledge through appropriate actions requires focusing on the essential relationships of the subjects being studied, which involves the implementation of analysis, planning and reflection of a meaningful nature. Therefore, during the assimilation of theoretical knowledge, conditions arise for the development of precisely these mental actions as important components of theoretical thinking.

The concept of developing education V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonina is aimed primarily at the development of creativity as the basis of personality. It is this type of developmental learning that they oppose to the traditional one. It should be noted that many provisions of this concept have been confirmed in the course of long-term experimental work. Its development and approbation continues at the present time. However, this concept is not yet sufficiently implemented in mass educational practice.

Problem-Based Learning Concept

The concept of problem-based learning is related to intensification traditional learning which involves the search for reserves of mental development of students and, above all, creative thinking, the ability for independent cognitive activity. The development of the concept is due to the fact that in last years The total amount of scientific knowledge is growing rapidly: according to scientists, it doubles every eight years. The rapidly growing flow of scientific information leads to the fact that every year the gap between the total amount of scientific knowledge and that part of it that is acquired at school or university increases. None educational institution not able to give a person all the knowledge that he will need for work. You will have to study all your life, to replenish your knowledge, in order to keep up with the rapid pace of life, the rapid progress of science and technology.

Fundamental works on the theory and practice of problem-based learning appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s. (T.V. Kudryavtsev, A.M. Matyushkin, M.I. Makhmutov, V. Okon and others).

The essence of problem-based learning lies in creating (organizing) problem situations for students, understanding, accepting and solving these situations in the process of joint activities of students and teachers with maximum independence of the former and under the general guidance of the latter, who directs the activities of students.

Problem-based learning, unlike any other learning, contributes not only to the formation of the necessary system of knowledge and skills in students, but also to the achievement high level mental development of schoolchildren, the development of their ability to self-learning, self-education. Both of these tasks can be implemented with great success precisely in the process of problem-based learning, since the assimilation of educational material occurs in the course of active search activity of students, in the process of solving a system of problem-cognitive tasks. One more important goal of problem-based learning should be noted: the formation of a special style of mental activity, research activity and independence of students.

Problem learning in general view consists in the following: students are given a problem, and they, with the direct participation of the teacher or on their own, explore ways and means of solving it, i.e. they build a hypothesis, outline and discuss ways to test its truth, argue, conduct experiments, observations, analyze their results, argue, prove. These are, for example, tasks for independent "discovery" of rules, laws, formulas, theorems, independent derivation of the law of physics, spelling rules, mathematical formulas.

At the same time, the teacher is like an experienced conductor organizing an exploratory search. In one case, he can conduct this search himself with the help of students. Having posed a problem, the teacher reveals the way to solve it, argues with the students, makes assumptions, discusses them together with them, refutes objections, proves the truth. In other words, the teacher shows the students the path of scientific thinking, makes them follow the dialectical movement of thought towards the truth, makes them, as it were, accomplices in scientific search. Otherwise, the role of the teacher may be minimal. It gives students the opportunity to independently look for ways to solve problems. But even here the teacher does not take a passive position, but, if necessary, imperceptibly directs the students' thoughts in order to avoid fruitless attempts, unnecessary loss of time.

The use of problem-based learning technology in this regard makes it possible to teach students to think logically, scientifically; promotes the transition of knowledge into beliefs; evokes deep intellectual feelings in them, including feelings of satisfaction and confidence in their abilities and strengths; develops students' interest in scientific knowledge. It has been established that independently “discovered” truths, patterns are not so easily forgotten, and in case of forgetting, they can be restored faster.

As already noted, the main thing in problem-based learning is the creation of a problem situation. A problem situation characterizes a certain psychological state of a student that arises in the process of completing a task, for which there are no ready-made means and which requires the assimilation of new knowledge about the subject, methods or conditions. The condition for the emergence of a problem situation is the need to disclose a new relationship, property or mode of action.

A problematic situation means that in the course of activity a person came across something incomprehensible, unknown, disturbing, etc. The process of thinking begins with the analysis of the problem situation, the result of which is the formulation of the task (problem). The emergence of the problem means that it was possible to preliminarily dissect the given (known) and the unknown (sought). Establishing a connection, a relationship between the known and the unknown allows you to search for and find something new (A.V. Brushlinsky).

The first sign of a problematic situation in learning is that it creates a difficulty that the student can overcome only as a result of his own mental activity. The problem situation must be meaningful to the student. Its occurrence should, as far as possible, be connected with the interests and previous experience of the students. Finally, a more general problem situation should contain a number of more particular ones.

The problem task offered to the student should correspond to his intellectual capabilities. As a rule, it precedes the explanation of the educational material to be mastered. Educational tasks, questions, practical tasks, etc. can serve as problematic tasks. However, one should not mix a problem task and a problem situation. A problem task in itself is not a problem situation, it can cause a problem situation. The same problem situation can be caused by different types of tasks.

The modern didactic concept is characterized by the following features:

it is based on a systematic approach to understanding the learning process;
its essence is the combination of pedagogical management with students' own initiative and independence;
she changed the approach to the content of education, combining the principles of classical theory with the latest theories of learning.

Didactic laws are probabilistic and static in nature. They are divided into general and specific. At the core general laws there are actions that cover the entire system of the educational process, specific ones act on individual components of the system.

Specific learning patterns:

didactic - the results are directly proportional to the duration of training and are directly dependent on the awareness of the learning objectives; the productivity of assimilation is inversely proportional to the amount of material and complexity;
epistemological - productivity is directly proportional to the volume of educational activity, practical application, ability to learn; mental development is directly proportional to the assimilation of the volume of interrelated knowledge and experience; learning outcomes depend on the ability to include the subject being studied in connection with the previously realized and on the regularity and systematic completion of homework;
psychological - the productivity of training is directly proportional to the interest, learning opportunities, the number of training sessions, exercises, training intensity; the effectiveness of activities depends on the level of formation of skills and abilities; the number of repetitions has a strong impact on the productivity of learning, the percentage of retention of the memorized material is inversely proportional to the volume;
cybernetic - efficiency is inversely proportional to frequency; the quality of knowledge depends on the effectiveness of control; the quality of education is directly proportional to the quality of management of the learning process; management efficiency is directly proportional to the quantity and quality of management information;
sociological - the development of an individual is conditioned by the development of other individuals with whom he is in communication; the productivity of learning depends on the intensity of cognitive contacts; the effectiveness of education depends on the level of the intellectual environment, the intensity of mutual learning, it increases in terms of cognitive orientation caused by competitions;
organizational - efficiency depends on the organization of the educational process, the need to learn, the formation of cognitive interests; the results are inversely proportional to the attitude of the student to the educational performance of the student and teacher.

Modern didactic principles of higher education:

Developmental and educational training
Scientific and accessible.
Consciousness and creative activity of students.
Visibility and development of theoretical thinking.
Systematic and systematic training.
The transition from learning to self-education.
Linking learning to practice professional activity.
The collective nature of learning.
Humanization and humanitarization of education.
Computerization of education.
Integrativeness of teaching, taking into account interdisciplinary connections.
Innovative learning.

In the 60-70s. L.V. Zankov supplemented the didactic principles with new ones:

training should be carried out at a high level of difficulty;
in training, it is necessary to observe a fast pace in the passage of the material;
the mastery of theoretical knowledge is of paramount importance in teaching.

"MODERN DIDACTIC CONCEPTS - REGULARITIES AND PRINCIPLES"

Introduction

1. Didactic concepts of L.V. Zankov and V.V. Davydov

2. The concept of problem-based learning

Conclusion

List of used literature

The learning process is based on psychological and pedagogical concepts, which are often also called didactic systems. The didactic system is a set of elements that form a single integral structure and serve to achieve the goals of education. There are three main didactic concepts: traditional, pedocentric and modern system didactics.

The division of concepts into three groups is based on how the learning process is understood. In the traditional system of education, teaching, the activity of the teacher, plays a dominant role. It consists of the didactic concepts of such teachers as J. Comenius, I. Pestalozzi, I. Herbart. Herbart's didactics is characterized by such words as management, teacher's guidance, regulations, rules, prescriptions. The structure of learning traditionally consists of 4 steps: presentation, understanding, generalization, application. The logic of the learning process consists in moving from the presentation of the material through explanation to understanding, generalization, application of knowledge.

Herbart sought to organize and systematize the activities of the teacher, which was important for didactics.

By the beginning of the XX century. this system has been criticized for being authoritarian, bookish, isolated from the needs and interests of the child and from life, for the fact that such a system of education only transfers ready-made knowledge to the child, but does not contribute to the development of thinking, activity, creativity, and suppresses the independence of the student. Therefore, at the beginning of the XX century. new approaches are born.

Among the new approaches, a pedocentric concept is singled out, in which the main role is given to learning - the activity of the child. This approach is based on the system of the American teacher D. Dewey, the labor school of G. Kershenstein, V. Lai. The name "pedocentric" concept is because Dewey proposed to build the learning process based on the needs, interests and abilities of the child, seeking to develop the mental abilities and various skills of children, teaching them in the "school of work, life", when learning is independent, natural, spontaneous character, and the acquisition of knowledge by students occurs in the course of their spontaneous activity, i.e. "learning by doing".

The modern didactic system proceeds from the fact that both sides - teaching and learning - constitute the learning process. The modern didactic concept is created by such areas as programmed, problem-based learning, developmental learning (P. Galperin, L. Zankov, V. Davydov), humanistic psychology (K. Rogers), cognitive psychology(Bruner), pedagogical technology, collaboration pedagogy.

In Russian pedagogy, there are a number of concepts of developmental education related to modern ones.

The basis of the learning system according to L.V. Zankov is composed of the following interrelated principles:

· learning at a high level of difficulty;

fast pace in the study of program material;

the leading role of theoretical knowledge;

awareness of the learning process by schoolchildren;

· purposeful and systematic work on the development of all students, including the weakest ones.

For example, the program for grade III includes the topic “Meaning of cases of nouns (verbals). Some basic meanings. This topic has a rather high level of difficulty for a given age, but its study stimulates the development of schoolchildren's thinking. Before this topic, they have studied the first, second and third declensions of nouns and are already familiar with the endings of nouns related to different types declension, but standing in the same case. Now students should abstract from the differences that are characteristic of all types of declension, and comprehend the meaning of a particular case in a generalized form. Thus, the unprepositional instrumental case, which depends on the verb, is shown in its most typical meaning of the instrument or means by which the action is performed (cut with an ax, draw with a brush, write with a pen, etc.). Such a generalization represents a transition to a higher level of thinking.

Another principle is organically connected with the principle of learning at a high level of difficulty: when studying program material, you need to move forward at a fast pace. This implies the rejection of the monotonous repetition of the past. However, this principle should not be confused with haste in academic work, nor should one strive for a large number of tasks performed by schoolchildren. More important is the enrichment of the student's mind with versatile content and the creation of favorable conditions for a deep understanding of the information received.

The next principle of L.V. Zankova - the leading role of theoretical knowledge already in elementary school, which are the leading means of development of schoolchildren and the basis for mastering skills and abilities. This principle was put forward as a counterweight to the traditional ideas about the concreteness of the thinking of younger students, since modern psychology does not provide a basis for such a conclusion. On the contrary, experimental studies in the field of educational psychology, without denying the role of figurative representations of students, show the leading role of theoretical knowledge in primary education (G.S. Kostyuk, V.V. Davydov, D.B. Elkonin, etc.).

The considered principles were concretized in the programs and methods of teaching grammar, reading, mathematics, history, natural history and other subjects.

School orientation in the late 1980s and early 1990s on personality-developmental education has led to a revival of this concept.

One of the modern didactic concepts is the concept of meaningful learning. In the 1960s a scientific team was created under the guidance of psychologists V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin, who tried to establish the role and significance of primary school age in the mental development of a person. It was found that in modern conditions at this age it is possible to solve specific educational tasks, provided that students develop abstract theoretical thinking and voluntary behavior control.

Studies have also found that traditional primary education does not provide the full development of the majority of younger students. This means that it does not create the necessary zones of proximal development in work with children, but trains and consolidates those mental functions that basically arose and began to develop as early as preschool age (sensory observation, empirical thinking, utilitarian memory, etc.). ). It follows from this that training should be aimed at creating the necessary zones of proximal development, which would eventually turn into mental neoplasms.

At the heart of the developmental education of schoolchildren, according to V.V. Davydov and D.B. Elkonin, lies the theory of the formation of educational activity and its subject in the process of mastering theoretical knowledge through analysis, planning and reflection. In this theory, we are not talking about the assimilation of knowledge and skills by a person in general, but about the assimilation that occurs in the form of a specific educational activity. In the process of its implementation, the student acquires theoretical knowledge. Their content reflects what is happening, the formation and development of any subject. At the same time, the theoretical reproduction of the real, concrete as a unity of diversity is carried out by the movement of thought from the abstract to the concrete.

This way of assimilation of knowledge has two characteristic features. First, the students' thoughts purposefully move from the general to the particular. Secondly, assimilation is aimed at identifying by students the conditions for the origin of the content of the concepts they assimilate.

For example, even in elementary school, children get an idea of the common plants of their area - the trees and shrubs of the forest, park, garden, vegetable and field crops, learn to distinguish them by their external features, learn how a person uses them. This is the first stage of acquaintance with the plant world, the result of which is the knowledge of the sensory-concrete. After that, the children proceed to a detailed study of the individual organs of a flowering plant, their structure and functions. At this stage of knowledge, abstractions are formed that reflect individual aspects of the whole - the structure, functions and patterns of life of a seed, root, stem, leaf, flower. At the next stage, relying on previously formed abstractions, the entire vegetable world in his historical development. It is no longer sensory-concrete, but conceptual-concrete, reproduced on the basis of abstractions and cognitive patterns.

The learning task is solved by means of a system of actions. The first of them is the acceptance of the learning task, the second is the transformation of the situation included in it. The task is aimed at finding the genetically initial relationship of the subject conditions of the situation, the orientation to which serves as a general basis for the subsequent solution of all other problems. With the help of other educational activities, students model and study this initial attitude, single it out in private conditions, control and evaluate it.

The concept of problem-based learning is associated with the intensification of traditional learning, which involves the search for reserves of mental development of students and, above all, creative thinking, the ability for independent cognitive activity. The development of the concept is due to the fact that in recent years the total amount of scientific knowledge has been rapidly increasing: according to scientists, it doubles every eight years. The rapidly growing flow of scientific information leads to the fact that every year the gap between the total amount of scientific knowledge and that part of it that is acquired at school or university increases. Not a single educational institution is able to give a person all the knowledge that he will need for work. You will have to study all your life, to replenish your knowledge, in order to keep up with the rapid pace of life, the rapid progress of science and technology.

Fundamental works on the theory and practice of problem-based learning appeared in the late 1960s and early 1970s. (T.V. Kudryavtsev, A.M. Matyushkin, M.I. Makhmutov, V. Okon and others).

Problem-based learning, unlike any other learning, contributes not only to the formation of the necessary system of knowledge and skills in students, but also to the achievement of a high level of mental development of schoolchildren, the development of their ability for self-learning, self-education. Both of these tasks can be implemented with great success precisely in the process of problem-based learning, since the assimilation of educational material occurs in the course of active search activity of students, in the process of solving a system of problem-cognitive tasks. One more important goal of problem-based learning should be noted: the formation of a special style of mental activity, research activity and independence of students.

Problem-based learning in general is as follows: students are given a problem, and they, with the direct participation of the teacher or independently, explore ways and means of solving it, i.e. they build a hypothesis, outline and discuss ways to test its truth, argue, conduct experiments, observations, analyze their results, argue, prove. These are, for example, tasks for independent "discovery" of rules, laws, formulas, theorems, independent derivation of the law of physics, spelling rules, mathematical formulas.

The considered concepts of developmental education make it possible to conclude that personality-developing education, which is proclaimed a priority today, remains declared, and not real for domestic educational practice. This is due to the fact that the main ideas of the concepts are aimed at the general mental development or the development of thinking, the formation of mental actions, a strong assimilation of educational material. Moreover, the solution of these problems relates mainly to the younger school age.

The transformation of traditional education into a personality-developing one turned out to be difficult for the authors of the concepts. This is due to the fact that the personal idea in the 50-70s. 20th century (namely, during this time interval these concepts of education appeared) did not yet have the necessary theoretical, methodological and methodological basis, without which personal developmental education remained only a highly valuable idea, far from theoretical and practical implementation.

The goals of education in these modern approaches include not only the formation of knowledge, but also the general development of students, their intellectual, labor, artistic skills, the satisfaction of the cognitive and spiritual needs of students. The teacher directs the educational and cognitive activities of students, while stimulating their independent work, activity and creative search. Pedagogical cooperation is a humanistic idea of joint developmental activities of children and teachers based on mutual understanding, penetration into each other's spiritual world, collective analysis of the course and results of this activity. The lessons of cooperation, co-creation is a long process of restructuring the thinking of students from the scheme "heard - remembered - retold" to the scheme "learned (by searching together with the teacher and classmates) - comprehended - said - remembered"

1. Babansky Yu.K. Selected pedagogical works / Comp. M.Yu. Babanskiy. - M., 1989.

2. Didactics of secondary school / Ed. M.N. Skatkin. - M., 1982.

3. Lednev V.S. The content of education. - M., 1989.

4. Lerner I.Ya. Developing education from didactic positions // Pedagogy. - 1996. - No. 2. - P. 7.

5. Logvinov I.I. Actual problems of domestic didactics. - M., 2005.

6. Pedagogy./ edited by P.I. piddly. M., 1995.

7. Petrovsky V.A. Subjectivity: a new paradigm in education // Psychological science and education. - 1996. - No. 3.

8. Slastenin V.A. etc. Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook institutions / V.A. Slastenin, I.F. Isaev, E.N. Shiyanov; Ed. V.A. Slastenin. - M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002. - 576 p.

9. Shiyanov E.N., Kotova I.B. Development of personality in learning. - M., 1999.

The basis of the learning process are didactic concepts, or the so-called didactic systems. Based on how the learning process is understood, there are three basic didactic concepts: traditional, pedocentric and modern.

Knowledge as a subject of assimilation has three related parties:

1) theoretical (facts, theoretical ideas and concepts);

2) practical (ability and skills to apply knowledge in various life situations);

3) ideological and moral (ideological and moral and aesthetic ideas contained in knowledge).

With properly delivered training, students master all these aspects of the material being studied, namely:

1) master the theory (concepts, rules, conclusions, laws);

2) develop skills and abilities to apply the theory in practice;

3) develop ways of creative activity;

4) deeply comprehend ideological and moral-aesthetic ideas.

This means that in the learning process, the following occurs simultaneously and in an inseparable unity:

1) enrichment of the individual with scientific knowledge;

2) development of her intellectual and creative abilities;

3) the formation of her worldview and moral and aesthetic culture, which makes learning a very important means of education.

Based on the above facts, different concepts of learning emerge. The main difference between them lies in the understanding of the learning process.

Traditional concept. This concept can also be called pedagogocentric. The main role in this system is played by the teacher. A similar doctrine was developed by such educators as Comenius, Pestalozzi, Herbart. The principle of this doctrine is such concepts as leadership, management, rule. The learning process is based on the authoritarian influence of the teacher on the student, on the explanation of the material.

The traditional concept has recently been criticized a lot for being authoritarian. It is believed that this system does not contribute to the development of the student's creative thinking, since the material is provided in finished form and does not give the student the opportunity to independently find knowledge.

Pedocentric concept. This theory puts the child and his activities at the forefront. Adherents and developers of this doctrine are considered J. Dewey, G. Kershenstein, V. Lai. Teachers strive to build the learning process in such a way that it is interesting first of all to the child, based on his needs, life experience. In this case, learning is natural. The child himself is aware of the need to obtain certain knowledge.

When confronted with a problem, the student should be motivated to overcome it. The teacher's problem in this case is to help solve the problem, show ways out of the situation, but in no case insist on completing the task. The pedocentric concept is called “pedagogy of action”, because learning is conducted through the active activity of the student. It is believed (and not without reason) that this doctrine promotes the development of creative thinking.

However, the pedocentric concept overestimates the child's ability for active independent activity, which often leads to an unreasonable waste of time and a decrease in the level of learning. Knowledge is random.

Since neither pedocentric nor pedagogical systems can meet the needs of modern didactics, a modern didactic system.

Its essence is to use the positive aspects of both one and the other doctrine. The modern concept believes that both learning and teaching are integral components of the learning process. This system is designed and based on the concepts proposed by P. Galperin, L. Zamkov, V. Davydov, K. Rogers, Brunenr. The elements of the modern concept are such areas as problem-based learning, programming, developmental learning, and cooperation pedagogy.

The modern didactic concept is based on the interaction and mutual understanding of the teacher and the student. The educational process is built on the transition from the reproductive to the search activity of the student. The task of the teacher is to set a goal, a problem; he is an active assistant in finding a way out of a difficult educational situation. But, unlike the pedocentric concept, the teacher is not forced to wait until the student finds the problem, he artificially creates it. In the course of the joint activity of the teacher and the student, the problem must be solved. Teamwork and knowledge analysis are encouraged in training.

In modern Russian school the traditional class-lesson system is still strong, in which the teacher is an indisputable authority. But in modernization modern school traditional concepts are being replaced by new pedagogical directions that contribute to solving many problems in the modern school.

At the moment, two contradictions have been identified in didactics: between theory and practice (that is, didactics and teaching practice) and between education and training (within the theory itself). According to the theory, the content of education is divided into 4 types:

1) knowledge about nature, society, technology, man, art, etc.;

2) methods of activity (skills and habits) that a person needs to master in order to preserve and replenish culture;

3) experience of creative activity;

4) the experience of an emotional and value attitude to reality, to people, to oneself.

This theory shows the place of knowledge, skills and abilities in the structure of the content of education and, therefore, shows the difference between education and the content of education. The essences of education and training in activity are characterized by content and objectivity. This means that the presented theory should be valid for both learning and education, and also perform the function of unifying between them and eliminating contradictions. This theory has two foundations:

1) composition invariant;

2) the invariant of the types of human activity in the development of the content of human experience.

By the mid 80s. 20th century didactics had two theories of the content of education, each of which had the right to exist.

New theory of educational content- this is an open, dynamic, humanitarian-axiological, polyfunctional system, consisting of an invariant composition of the content of education in all its socio-cultural completeness and an invariant structure of activities, which reflects the psychological aspect of human activity.

In connection with new ideas about the personal orientation of training and education, the object of didactics also turns out to be the most likely: the chain education - training - the relationship between them as an important element in the dynamics of development. The difference between education and training lies in the fact that between them there are not only content-educational relationships, but also functional-historical ones. We show the functional relationship between them. It is well known that education is characterized by autonomy, the logic of self-development, continuity and is above the situation.

Learning, in turn, is purposefulness(or given results in a limited time frame), manageability, discretion. An educational institution (school or lyceum) has viability and prospects if its development is consistent with the strategy for the development and self-development of education. In addition, if the logic of education management takes into account the logic of self-development of education, then the education system will be more favorable and sustainable.

Issues of didactic research:

1) self-knowledge and self-realization in the consideration of education;

2) correlation of scientific and educational knowledge in the process of education; knowledge and self-knowledge in the structure of human activity as a subject of comprehension in didactics;

3) the ratio of the logic of education management and the logic of its self-development in the conditions of the gradual stabilization of society and in the conditions of a dynamically changing society.

Laws of materialistic dialectics- the main forms of reflection of reality in cognition. At the same time, they can act as methodological principles of scientific and theoretical activity. The general scheme of the process of cognition is expressed in the position V. I. Lenin:"From living contemplation to abstract thinking and from it to practice."

Modern studies of the neurophysiological mechanisms of human cognitive activity point to the reality of the difference in the physiological support of concrete-figurative and abstract thinking, that is, the existence of specific, territorially separated structures with which various forms thinking. This information was obtained by studying the functional asymmetry of the human brain, the functional specialization of each of its hemispheres.

It has been proven that all types of speech activity, as well as reading, writing, counting operations, are functions of the left hemisphere, while the right one provides the spatial orientation of the body. In addition, it was found that the right hemisphere specializes in processing primary information, single features of objects and reflects a specific material picture of the world, while the left hemisphere, using memory standards (verbal symbols, signs), reflects a schematized, devoid of specific details, the essential image of the world, deep causal - Investigative links.

At the same time, in conditions of functional disunity, the activity of each of the hemispheres is characterized by a certain emotional tone, i.e., different types of cognitive activity are characterized by different emotional support: creative activity is due mainly to a positive emotional tone, imaginative thinking is associated with negative emotional states, arising mainly in conditions unfavorable for individuals.

At the same time, the spatial division of the physiological support of concrete-figurative and abstract thinking is relative. The most complete, adequate reflection of the external world is achieved through a complex and contradictory interaction of both hemispheres: the integration of the functions of the right and left hemispheres contributes to the optimization of mental activity in general.

However, for the relationship between the concrete and the abstract in the student's cognitive activity, it is important to pay attention to the features of the subject being studied. If we talk about literature, then earlier the goal of artistic activity was to reunite into a concrete integrity those endless abstract definitions into which the system of division of labor in the capitalist formation divided the social person.

Similarly, the method of reproducing reality in consciousness in the desired epistemological form should have consisted in ascending from the abstract to the concrete. Today, this idea consists in overcoming the concrete integrity and completeness of sensual poetic contemplation and in developing general abstract ideas and formal logical concepts.

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