Publication date

On the present stage development of all mankind it is very important for each of us to know the basics of the functioning and development of our own organism, this is of particular importance for those who regularly play sports. All this is due to the fact that our body is an integral and closed system that continuously works and is indicated by a set of interconnected organs, each of which performs certain functions, which ensures the stable operation of the whole organism. But as soon as one link of a well-functioning and seemingly ideal system fails, the whole chain collapses, namely, it experiences a disease.

human physiology is a biological science that is designed to study the vitality and functioning of a healthy human body, as well as its parts, that is, cells, tissues and organ systems. All science can be divided into two types: general and particular. At the same time, the task of general physiology is the study of the patterns of activity and development of tissues, the laws of their excitation and irritation. Private science is engaged in the study of the vital activity of each of the organs, as well as the variety of their interaction in all systems of our body. It is worth noting that normal human physiology also includes sections:

Comparative physiology: the study of any similarity or, conversely, differences in functions and vital activity between representatives of the animal world. This aspect is being studied in order to determine the general patterns and causes of the evolution of body functions. In this case, special attention is paid to the interpretation of the mechanisms of physiological processes.

Evolutionary physiology: the study of general patterns, as well as the mechanisms of formation and development of the functions of the human body.

Applied science: the definition of laws and patterns, as a result of which the functions of the body were changed, the practical tasks of its functioning, living conditions. This section can be divided into several others:

Physiology of labor. Within the framework of this section, the general patterns of the flow of the simplest physiological processes in the human body, as well as the features of their regulation directly during labor activity, are studied.

As a result of such studies, two main tasks are solved: determining the optimal performance characteristics, developing action plans that are aimed at reducing the impact adverse factors on the human body.

Aviation human physiology deals with the study of the characteristics of the body in flight conditions, with a sharp change in pressure, which is associated with a change in altitude, acceleration and vibration.

The space aspect is closely related to the peculiarities of the mechanisms of regulation of human life activity in space flight conditions.

Clinical research is designed to study the organism that needs to be cured, namely the causes, features of the course and treatment of the disease.

Pathological physiology deals with the study of the causes of the unconventional development of the body, deviations from the norm.

Based on this, physiology is defined as a science that deals with research in the field of biochemical, mechanical, as well as physical functions of living organisms. Traditional science shares the physiology of animals and plants, but the foundations of each of the sciences are universal, regardless of the subject of study. That is, certain principles of the functioning of yeast cells can be applied to the human body.

Anatomy and human physiology can help us understand our body, the causes of diseases, features of functioning and many other aspects that will make our life easier. After all, it is very difficult to live in ignorance!

The word physiology

The word physiology in English letters (transliteration) - fiziologiya

The word physiology consists of 10 letters: g s and i and l o o f i

The meaning of the word physiology.

What is physiology?

Physiology

Physiology (from the Greek φύσις - nature and the Greek λόγος - knowledge) is the science of the essence of the living, life in normal and pathological conditions, that is, the laws of functioning and regulation of biological systems of different levels of organization ...

en.wikipedia.org

Physiology (from the Greek phýsis - nature and ... logic) of animals and humans, the science of the life of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues and regulation of physiological functions.

TSB. - 1969-1978

Physiology I Physiology (Greek physis nature + logos doctrine) is a science that studies the vital activity of the whole organism and its parts - systems, organs, tissues and cells.

Medical encyclopedia

Physiology of labor

Physiology of labor, a section of physiology that studies the patterns of the flow of physiological processes and the features of their regulation during human labor activity, that is, the labor process in its physiological manifestations.

TSB. - 1969-1978

PHYSIOLOGY OF LABOR - a special section of physiology devoted to the study of changes in the functional state of the human body under the influence of his labor activity and the physiological justification of the means of organizing the labor process ...

Occupational Safety and Health. - 2007

Labor physiology is a science that studies the functioning of the human body during labor activity. Its task is to develop principles and norms that contribute to the improvement and improvement of working conditions, as well as the regulation of labor.

en.wikipedia.org

plant physiology

Plant physiology, a biological science that studies the general laws governing the vital activity of plant organisms. F. r. studies the processes of absorption of minerals and water by plant organisms, the processes of growth and development ...

TSB. - 1969-1978

Plant physiology (from Greek φύσις - nature, Greek λόγος - teaching) is the science of the functional activity of plant organisms.

en.wikipedia.org

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY, the science of the vital activity of districts, the organization of their functional systems and their interaction in the whole organism. Methodology F. r. based on the idea of ​​district as a complex biol. system, all functions to-roy are interconnected.

Physiology of activity

PHYSIOLOGY OF ACTIVITY - the concept of owls. scientist N. A. Bernshtein (1896–1966), who considers activity as a fundamental property of the organism and gives it theoretical. explanation as a principle...

Philosophical Encyclopedia

PHYSIOLOGY OF ACTIVITY - a concept that interprets the behavior of an organism as an active attitude to the environment, determined by the model of the future required by the organism - the desired result.

Golovin S. Dictionary of practical psychologist

The physiology of activity is a direction of psychophysiology that considers the behavior of an organism as an active attitude to the environment, determined by the model of the future necessary for the organism (the desired result).

Gritsenko V.V. Dictionary of trainer

age physiology

Age physiology, a section of human and animal physiology that studies the patterns of formation and development of the physiological functions of the body throughout ontogenesis - from the fertilization of the egg until the end of life.

AGE PHYSIOLOGY is a branch of physiology that studies the patterns of formation and age-related changes in the functions of an integral organism, its organs and systems in the process of ontogenesis (from fertilization of an egg to the termination of individual existence).

Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia / Ed. V.G. Panov. — 1993

AGE PHYSIOLOGY is a science that studies the characteristics of the vital activity of an organism at different stages of ontogenesis. Tasks of V.F .: study of the features of the functioning of various organs, systems and the body as a whole ...

Pedagogical dictionary of the librarian. - St. Petersburg: RNB, 2005-2007.

environmental physiology

Ecological physiology, a branch of physiology that studies the dependence of the functions of animals and humans on the conditions of life and activity in various physical and geographical zones, at different periods of the year, day, phase of the lunar and tidal rhythms ...

TSB. - 1969-1978

ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY physiology, ecologic(al); German Physiology, okologische. A branch of physiology that studies the dependence of the functions of animals and humans on the conditions of life and activity in various physical and geographic areas. zones, at different times of the year ...

Big Dictionary of Sociology

PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY

PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY, a field of medicine that studies the patterns of occurrence, course and outcome of disease processes and compensatory-adaptive reactions in a diseased organism.

Modern encyclopedia. — 2000

PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY is a field of medicine that studies the patterns of occurrence, course and outcomes of disease processes and compensatory-adaptive reactions in a diseased organism.

Big encyclopedic dictionary

pathological physiology

Pathological physiology, medical scientific discipline, which studies the patterns of occurrence and course of disease processes and compensatory-adaptive reactions in a diseased organism.

Human anatomy and physiology, basic knowledge

Pathological physiology - a branch of medicine and biology that studies the patterns of occurrence, development and outcome of pathological processes; features and nature of dynamic changes in physiological functions in various pathological ...

en.wikipedia.org

PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY, a science that studies the life processes in a diseased organism, the patterns of occurrence, development, course and outcome of diseases.

Russian language

Physi/o/log/i/ya [y/a].

Morphemic spelling dictionary. - 2002

Institute of Physiology

Institute of Physiology - named after I. P. Pavlov (IF) of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Makarov embankment, 6; Pavlovo settlement, Vsevolzhsky district), a research institution and a coordinating center for research on animal and human physiology.

Encyclopedia of St. Petersburg. — 1992

Institute of Physiology. IP Pavlova is one of the institutes of the Department of Biological Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Currently located at St. Petersburg, emb. Makarova, 6 IF RAS conducts fundamental and applied research…

en.wikipedia.org

Physiology Institute named after IP Pavlov of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, a research institution that studies the physiological functions of animals and humans. It was organized in 1925 in Leningrad on the initiative of IP Pavlov (whose name was given to the institute in 1936).

TSB. - 1969-1978

Usage examples for physiology

In Russia, the method has been scientifically tested and confirmed, all physiological and biochemical aspects are taken into account, the physiology of respiration is thought out.

Each person has their own physiology.

Subject, content and tasks of human and animal physiology

Issues under consideration:

1. The main tasks of physiology.

2. Experimental methods.

3. Modeling of functions.

Animal physiology is a biological science that studies the life processes of an animal organism and its constituent parts (cells and subcellular structures, tissues, organs, organ systems) in their unity and relationship with the environment.

Initially, the term physiology (from the Greek physis and logos, literally - natural science) denoted the science of the animal and flora generally.

PHYSIOLOGY

With the accumulation of knowledge (XVI - XVIII centuries), independent biological disciplines emerged from physiology - zoology, botany, anatomy. The task of the latter included not only the description of the structure of the body of animals, but also the study of its functions. Only in the 19th century the section of anatomy that studies the processes of vital activity was singled out as an independent science, which retained its former name - physiology.

The main tasks of animal physiology are:

- study of the patterns of life processes (metabolism, respiration, nutrition, movement, etc.) at different structural levels;

- elucidation of the mechanisms that ensure the interaction of individual parts of the body and the body as a whole with the external environment;

– identification of qualitative differences in physiological functions in animals at different levels evolutionary development or living in different ecological conditions;

- study of the formation of physiological functions, their formation at different stages of individual development.

In accordance with these tasks, a number of independent sections, or disciplines, are distinguished in animal physiology.

General physiology- studies the regularities of life processes inherent in all living organisms (thermodynamic foundations of metabolism and energy, the nature of irritability and movement, electrochemical manifestations of cell vital activity, the essence of growth and aging).

Private (special) physiology- explores the features of physiological functions in individual zoological subtypes, groups, classes of animals (for example, insects, fish, birds, domestic or wild mammals).

Evolutionary and ecological physiology- considers the emergence and development of functions in the process of evolution of the animal world, as well as the mechanisms of adaptation of animals to specific (sometimes unusual) living conditions.

age physiology- studies the dynamics of development and extinction of physiological functions in the process of ontogenesis. With regard to domestic animals, the periods of growth, puberty and productive activity are of greatest interest.

This division of physiology is conditional, it reflects only the prevailing trends in the development scientific research. In the training course (which, of course, cannot completely copy this or that science), information from all the listed sections is given to the extent that they are necessary for a particular specialty or specialization (animal engineer, veterinarian, biology teacher, etc.). .).

Animal physiology is closely related to other biological disciplines - anatomy, histology, embryology, biochemistry, biophysics, biotechnology, uses their methods and achievements. In turn, animal physiology contributes to the development of these sciences.

Combining, integrating all obtained biological knowledge, physiology provides systems approach to the study of the life of the organism, considering it as a complex, integral and dynamic system that actively interacts with the environment.

The purpose of the physiology of farm animals is to study and change the functions of animals in the direction necessary for man in order to increase their productivity and fertility, improve product quality and maintain good health.

Intensive technology makes higher demands on the animals themselves, the physiological load on which increases significantly. They must have a high genetic potential and natural resistance, the ability to quickly adapt to new conditions without reducing productivity, high efficiency in the conversion of energy and feed nutrients into livestock products, and good reproductive qualities.

Naturally, all work to improve economically useful traits and improve the health of livestock should be carried out with the help of new, accelerated breeding methods and biotechnological methods based on the achievements of physiology, biochemistry and other biological sciences.

Animal physiology is an experimental science, its main method is experiment (experiment). It is the latter that serves as a source of knowledge about life processes, which are then generalized in the form of hypotheses or theories.

Experiments on laboratory and farm animals require the use of special devices and installations for influencing the body (for the purpose of stimulating or, conversely, suppressing a function), as well as for recording a response (recording mechanical work, secretory activity, and especially the electrical activity of organs). Therefore, in the physiological experiment are widely used devices based on the achievements of physics, chemistry, electronics and automation. Thanks to the progress of experimental technology, it has become possible to study processes not only in the whole organism and its organs, but also in individual cells (for example, a neuron, muscle fiber) and even in subcellular structures.

The experimental method can be applied in three versions: in the form of acute experience, chronic experience and in the form of function modeling.

At acute experience (vivisection) the animal is subjected to anesthesia and an operation is performed, the purpose of which is to gain temporary access to internal organs, and then act on them (electrical irritation of nerves or muscles, ligation of blood vessels, the use of targeted pharmacological drugs, etc.).

The effect is recorded if necessary.

A variety of acute experiments is the technique of isolated organs. The vital activity of the latter is supported by special techniques that ensure a metabolism close to normal (perfusion of the heart, liver, mammary gland) or simply by placing the organs in nutrient media, isotonic blood solutions.

Sometimes the organ is not completely (experiments in vivo or in situ, i.e. in the place of their usual location). In this case, the blood supply system is blocked, and the organ is connected to a heart-lung machine.

Through research chemical composition blood and organ or introduction into the bloodstream of biologically active substances, if necessary, labeled with radioisotopes, study the characteristics of metabolism and regulation of organ functions. In recent years, this method has received a lot of new valuable information about the functions of the liver, mammary gland, and rumen of ruminants.

In general, the method of acute experiments in physiology is little used, it is more often used for educational purposes.

Chronic (long-term) experiences usually carried out on specially trained animals, i.e. previously operated under aseptic conditions and recovered from the consequences of the operation. The purpose of the latter may be the imposition of fistulas on the stomach or intestines, the removal of the ducts of the digestive glands or ureters, the implantation of electrodes to irritate the organ or the removal of biopotentials, the removal of individual organs or their parts (for example, the thyroid gland, parts of the brain), the imposition of catheters on the vessels of the internal organs for regular blood sampling, etc.

Chronic experiments are carried out on intact animals. For this, special equipment is used. Thus, to study energy costs or the effect of gas composition and air temperature on the body, as well as to study higher nervous activity, animals are placed for a certain period in special chambers equipped with appropriate equipment (sensors, sources of irritation, devices for collecting exhaled air, urine and feces). ).

A method of recording physiological functions converted into electrical signals at a distance is gaining ground. In this case, miniature radio transmitters are used, introduced inside the body (“radio pills”) or strengthened from the outside, as well as telemetry and video recording systems. This method makes it possible to register physiological functions (respiration, cardiac activity, etc.) during the free behavior of animals or during the performance of certain work, for example, when moving under saddle.

In the future, the preliminary operational impact on animals during chronic experiments will generally be reduced to a minimum.

Feature Modeling in physiology is based on the consideration of the organism as a bio-cybernetic system.

Physiological models are diverse in form. Theoretical models include, in particular, speculative hypotheses and schemes based on logical constructions, as well as mathematical formulas and equations describing the patterns of the process (for example, an animal growth curve or a linear dynamic model of milk production).

Physical models are devices that imitate a particular function and are built on the basis of experimentally obtained quantitative parameters (an electronic model of a nerve cell, a model of an "artificial scar" in ruminants, etc.).

The modeling method allows, on the one hand, to test the correctness of physiological hypotheses outside the body, and on the other hand, to reproduce elements of certain functions on the model or to develop devices that temporarily replace certain organs.

However, it must be remembered that any physical or mathematical model cannot fully capture the biological pattern, which is the result of a complex chain of interactions. Therefore, physiological modeling involves simplification of the problem of a complex function and has limits of applicability.

In conclusion, it should be noted that physicochemical research methods are widely and fruitfully used in animal physiology: colorimetry, spectrophotometry, radiography, electron microscopy, and the method of radioactive tracers.

Laboratory animals (dogs, rabbits, guinea pigs, frogs) or farm animals (poultry, sheep, goats, pigs, cattle, horses) are used as experimental subjects. Experimental animals are kept in conditions that meet the criteria for humane treatment. These criteria combine the veterinary and sanitary environment, damage prevention, exclusion of stressful effects, satisfaction of the basic physiological needs of animals. From scientific and academic work experiments that are painful (without anesthesia) or painful for animals should be excluded.

Experimental data obtained in experiments on laboratory and farm animals can be used to explain the corresponding functions in humans. However, a complete analogy cannot be drawn here. Physiological processes in humans, especially those associated with higher forms of behavior, are qualitatively unique, which is due to the common influence of biological and social factors on him. Therefore, the features of physiological functions in humans are studied by special methodological techniques and are the subject of a special section of physiology - human physiology.

Test questions:

1. Main tasks and sections of physiology.

2.Experimental methods for the study of human and animal physiologists.

3. Modeling of the functions of the human and animal organisms.

⇐ Previous12345678910Next ⇒

Publication date: 2014-12-30; Read: 257 | Page copyright infringement

Studopedia.org - Studopedia.Org - 2014-2018. (0.003 s) ...

excretory organs

The structure of the kidney: 1 - cortical layer, 2 - medulla, 3 - renal pelvis The structure of the kidneys and their significance.

What do human anatomy and physiology study

In the process of dissimilation, decay products are formed in the body, which are subject to excretion: ...

Organ of vision (Table)

The organ of vision (Table) The structure of the eye: 1- albuginea, 2- choroid. 3-vitreous body, 4 - retina, 5 - optic nerve, 6 - blind spot, 7 - cornea, 8 - lens, 9 - pupil, ...

Nervous system (Table)

Nervous system (Table) Large hemisphere of the human brain - side view Central nervous system Nervous system brain Spinal cord large ...

Metabolism

Metabolism Metabolism of matter and energy is the main property of living things. In the cytoplasm of cells of organs and tissues, the process of synthesis of complex high-molecular compounds is constantly going on and at the same time ...

Nervous system

Nervous system In the human body, the work of all its organs is closely interconnected, and therefore the body functions as a whole. The coordination of the functions of the internal organs is provided by the nervous ...

Muscles (Table)

Part of the body: Head Name of muscles Attachment of muscles Type of muscle tissue Nature of work Functions Chewing One end to the temporal bone of the skull, the other to the jaw Striated Arbitrary Movement ...

Muscles, their structure and significance

Muscles, their structure and significance Muscle contraction ensures the movement of the body and keeping it in a vertical position. Together with the skeleton, muscles give shape to the body. Associated with muscle activity...

Urinary system (Table)

Urinary system (Table) Scheme of the structure of the urinary system: 1 - adrenal gland, 2 - kidney gate, 3 - aorta, 4 - vein, 5 - ureter, 6 - bladder, 7 - urethra ...

Blood

Blood The internal environment of the body. The exchange of substances between the body and the external environment consists in the entry of oxygen and nutrients into the body and the subsequent release of the formed ...

Skin (Table)

Skin (Table) Scheme of the structure of the skin 1 - epidermis, 2 - dermis, 3 - subcutaneous fatty tissue, 4 - hair, 5 - sebaceous gland, 6 - hair bag, 7 - hair root, 8 - sweat gland, 9 - cutaneous artery, ...

Skin The skin consists of two layers: the cuticle, or outer layer, and the actual skin, the inner layer. The cuticle, or epidermis, is the superficial layer of the skin of ectodermal origin, ...

Immunity

Immunity The general meaning of immunity Immunity is understood as the body's defense systems that work against everything foreign, united under the general name of "antigen". As an antigen...

Endocrine glands (Table)

Endocrine glands (Table) Glands Location Structure Hormones Effect on the body norm hyperfunction (excessive action) hypofunction…

visual analyzer

Visual analyzer Visual analyzer. It is represented by the perceiving department - the receptors of the retina, the optic nerves, the conduction system and the corresponding areas ...

Endocrine glands

Endocrine glands Biologically active substances - hormones - are important in the life of humans and animals. They are produced by special glands, which are rich in ...

Respiratory system (Table)

Respiratory system (Table) Scheme of the structure of the respiratory tract: 1 - nasal cavity, 2 - nasopharynx, 3 - larynx, 4 - trachea, 5 - bronchus, 6 - bronchiole, 7 - alveoli, 8 - diaphragm, ...

Respiratory system

Respiratory system Breathing is the process of gas exchange between the body and the environment. Human life is closely related to the reactions of biological oxidation ...

The internal environment of the body (Table)

The internal environment of the body (Table) Internal environment Composition Location Source and place of formation Functions Blood Plasma (50-60% of blood volume): water ...

Introduction. The concept of growth and development of the body. Age physiology studies the age-related features of body functions, their formation, preservation, extinction

Age physiology studies age features body functions, their formation, preservation, extinction, loss, compensation and restoration throughout the life cycle. In other words, age physiology is the physiology of ontogeny. In the study of human ontogeny, primarily indicators of growth and development are used.

The word physiology

The last two concepts are basic for age-related physiology, there are significant differences between them. Growth is usually called either in the exact sense the process of increasing the size and mass of the body (or its parts) due to an increase in the number and size of cells and non-cellular structures as a result of the predominance of anabolism processes in the metabolism and energy, or, to put it simply, an indicator of body length from the crown head to the plantar support of the foot. Thus growth - this is quantitative characteristics of age-related changes.

The development of an organism is an irreversible, naturally directed, continuously flowing process of not only quantitative, but also qualitative changes in the body, expressed in the complication of structure, functional specialization, improvement and the emergence of new functions, which has three components in its morphological basis: body growth, cell differentiation , tissues and organs, shaping (morphogenesis). The individual development of the organism is initially progressive (embryonic and postembryonic development until adulthood), and then regressive (aging). Consequently, development includes predominantly qualitative changes organism throughout the life cycle.

The processes of growth and development are in a certain dependence on each other, due to metabolic processes and functional changes in the cells and tissues of the body, and proceed more intensively, the younger the body. Up to 20-22 years, both processes are continuous, but the speed of their flow is not always constant: periods of intensification and acceleration of growth and development are replaced by periods of weakening and slowing down, and vice versa. Human development does not stop with the cessation of growth, it acquires new age characteristics. Among other living beings, man has the longest duration of growth and development.

In the modern sense, ontogeny is not only growth and development until the period of maturity of the body, but the entire sequence of life processes, starting from the moment a fertilized egg (zygote) appears and ending with old age and death. A significant part of life is the process of maturation.

Maturation - this is the acquisition in the course of development of such a perfection of functions that provides adequate and effective reactions and forms of behavior necessary for the preservation of life and health, the implementation of socially useful activities, the creation of a family and the reproduction of offspring.

Growth, development and maturation are different aspects of a single process of the body's vital activity, which is based on the metabolism and energy, the improvement of homeostasis mechanisms and the increase in the adaptability (adaptation) of the body during changes. environment and social requirements.

Ontogeny is a series of qualitative transformations in the body, hereditarily determined and carried out under the influence of the external environment. Heredity is the transmission of parental traits and qualities to children. Some of these qualities are detected without any special studies (external data, posture, gait, voice, behavior, abilities) ^ others can only be detected through laboratory diagnostics (chromosome set, blood group, metabolic processes, etc.). Heredity can be favorable or burdened (unfavorable), but both are relative. So, the inclinations that ensure the development of abilities, under favorable conditions, are clearly manifested, and under unfavorable circumstances, they fade away, not reaching the level of development of the giftedness of parents. Burdened heredity, although

and limits the development of the child, but is not a "final verdict", it can be controlled, amenable to correction. However, hereditary traits are stable and can be traced over many generations.

Human development is unthinkable without the influence of the environment in which it is located. Numerous environmental factors can be conditionally divided into physical, chemical, biological, social, but in reality a complex of factors always acts on the body. Emphasizing the role of the environment in human development, I.M. Sechenov argued: "An organism without an external environment that supports its existence is impossible, therefore, the scientific definition of an organism must also include the environment that affects it." Considering the importance of heredity and environment for human development, one should not give preference to one of the two, or neglect one of them.

Based on numerous studies of the development of children, L.S. Vygotsky made the following generalizations formulated in the form of laws and applicable to any age. First law or first singularity child development, lies in the fact that "this is a process that takes place in time, but proceeds cyclically ... The second basic law of child development says that certain aspects of the child do not develop evenly and not proportionally."

The goal of age physiology, as defined by A.A. Markosyan, is the study of the patterns of "the formation and development of the physiological functions of the body throughout its life path from fertilization to the end of life. The main tasks of age-related physiology at present are the study of the features of the functions of organs, systems and the whole organism in ontogenesis; identification of the main factors that determine the development of the body in different age periods; establishment of objective criteria for each age period (age standards).

1. Heredity and environment.

Wednesday is the totality of the conditions surrounding a person. These conditions are made up of factors:

ü Inorganic nature (light, temperature, oxygen content);

ü Factors of organic nature (various effects exerted on a person by other living beings);

ü social factors 9mother, family, nursery, kindergarten, school, etc.)

From the environment, the body receives all the substances necessary for life, and releases unnecessary metabolic products into the environment.

Heredity- the ability of parental organisms to transmit all their characteristics and properties to their offspring. This is a property of nature.

A person's genotype determines his phenotype (external properties).

1) Prenatal development (embryonic). The formation of organs and functional systems of the child in the process of embryogenesis is under the control of the genotype, but environmental factors play an important role. For the embryo, the primary environment is the maternal organism. Many factors affecting the maternal organism affect the development of the embryo. Critical periods - the greatest sensitivity to the action of external factors: the beginning of prenatal development the first 3 weeks (all the most important organs are laid), 4-7 weeks (further development of all organs).

By the time of birth, all organs are formed in general terms.

2) Postnatal development of the child (after birth). Methods for studying the specific value of the environment and heredity: 2 groups of the same genotype are distinguished and placed in different conditions, twin - they study morphological similarity, the influence of various living conditions. Using the method, the importance of the environment in the development of many morphological properties- height, weight, physical development, and for the development of a person's mental abilities - the properties of memory, the power of voluntary attention, mental activity, character traits.

In newborns, the brain is immature in morphological and functional terms (80-90% nerve cells mature after birth). In special experiments it was shown that the child's ability to solve complex problems depends on his experience and training.

Giftedness is inherited, but the degree of development of his abilities will depend entirely on education.

Heredity determines only the potential limits of the physical and mental development children and adolescents, the degree of development of physical. And psycho. characteristics of the child depends on environmental factors.

human physiology

WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY? Don't you know yet? Probably, sooner or later, every person asks the question: how does his body work? Why do we go to bed every night and wake up in the morning? Why do we dream? How does a person grow? Why is it suddenly getting better? The search for answers to these and many other questions is engaged in science, which is called "PHYSIOLOGY OF MAN AND ANIMALS". The word "physiology" is of Greek origin: physiologia; physis- nature, natural property; logos- teaching, science. If translated literally, it turns out that human and animal physiology is the science of the nature of the human body and animals. Physiology is interested in how the human body works, and where the properties that make it such a unique phenomenon in the Universe come from. What distinguishes living from non-living? Science has not yet arrived at a generally accepted definition of life. However, it is often defined as a way of existence of protein bodies, an integral property of which is the exchange of matter and energy with the external environment. It is now believed that life is also possible on a non-protein basis (for example, there may be flint life). Consequently, the main thing in the definition of life is the presence in a system that claims to be called living, certain properties, the prerogative of studying which, as follows from the definition given above, belongs to physiology.

At the present time there is a crisis in physiology. According to the outstanding Russian physiologist A.M. Ugolev 1 : "physiology - one of the greatest sciences about life - by the middle of the 20th century gave way to its place of honor to new young sciences born in its depths: biophysics, biochemistry, biological mathematics and others."

The roots of many unsolvable fundamental problems of our time are associated with the development of narrow specializations. And only a physiologist can solve the problem of longevity, the treatment of systemic diseases, the mechanism of mental processes, and, accordingly, the creation of artificial intelligence, and many others.

Human and animal physiology is the theoretical basis of medicine. Until we learn all the intricacies of the structure of the human body, we will not learn how to treat its breakdowns. How much do we know today about the nature of the human body? Probably not much, if according to statistics, even in the USA, when doctors go on strike, the death rate decreases.

The main reason for his pessimism is the state of the problem of the mechanisms of the brain. According to S. Lem, the current level of our knowledge about the mechanisms of the brain is so far from their solution that he lost faith in artificial intelligence, since in his view knowledge human brain and the creation of artificial intelligence are two interrelated problems.

To answer numerous questions about human nature, the researcher has to go down (and can go up) to the cellular level. Without comprehending the nature of living things in general, it is impossible to understand how the multicellular ensemble of the human body works. Therefore, the subject of its study is not only organs and tissues, but also life at the level of individual cells. Indeed, by and large, we are no more and no less than colonies of unicellular organisms.

Therefore, physiology is the greatest of sciences. She studies the fundamental problems of our time: the life processes of unicellular and multicellular organisms and their associated manifestations. The modern physiologist must know the nature of living organisms, starting from cellular level, from the simplest multicellular organisms, otherwise one cannot comprehend the nature of man. Physiology is a synthetic science, it synthesizes the knowledge of many areas of human knowledge about the nature of the living. Physiology is more than a branch of biology, it is a philosophy of living organisms, it is a philosophy of life on our planet, and a physiologist is a philosopher of biology.

One of the reasons for the crisis of physiological science, according to A.M. Ugolev, is the division of integral physiological processes into parts and consideration of them separately: respiration, digestion, blood circulation, etc. Subsequent attempts at mechanical addition do not allow us to characterize the body as a system of well-coordinated other serial and parallel operations. It is possible to understand the essence of life by combining the disparate facts obtained by many biological sciences, and only a classical physiologist can do this.

One of actual problems modern science is the creation of artificial intelligence. In the sixties, science fiction writer, futurist S. Lem was impressed by the success new science cybernetics predicted the creation of an artificial thinking machine by the end of the 20th century. Not so long ago, in an interview with Computerra magazine No. 392, the same S. Lem admitted that he was disappointed in the prospects for creating artificial intelligence in the near and distant future.

Thus, physiology faces a number of urgent fundamental problems, without the solution of which society will not be able to develop effectively.

Physiology has the following private sections, for example: physiology of the central nervous system (CNS) - exploring the functions of the nervous system; physiology of the cardiovascular system, digestion, physiology of the kidneys, endocrine system, reproductive system, etc.

Some sections of physiology may have a target orientation, for example: age physiology, space, comparative, labor, evolutionary; ecological physiology - a branch of physiology that studies the characteristics of the life of an organism depending on climatic and geographical conditions and a specific habitat; aviation physiology - studies the reactions of the human body to the impact of aviation flight factors in order to develop methods and means of protecting flight personnel from adverse effects.

1. Ugolev A.M. Evolution of digestion and principles of evolution of functions. L.: Nauka, 1985.

Physiology is the science of how the organs and systems of living organisms function. What does the science of physiology study? More than any other, it studies biological processes at an elementary level in order to explain how each individual organ and the whole organism works.

The concept of "physiology"

As one famous physiologist Ernest Starling once said, physiology of today is the medicine of tomorrow. is the science of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of man. which serves as the basis for modern medicine. As a discipline, it is relevant to areas such as medicine and health care and provides a foundation for understanding how the human body adapts to stress, disease, and physical activity.

Modern research in the field of human physiology contributes to the emergence of new ways to ensure and improve the quality of life, the development of new medical methods of treatment. The basic principle, which is the basis for the study of human physiology, is the maintenance of homeostasis through the functioning complex systems management, covering all levels of the hierarchy of human structure and functions (cells, tissues, organs and organ systems).

human physiology

As science deals with the study of the mechanical, physical and biochemical functions of a person in good health, his organs and the cells of which they are composed. The main level of attention of physiology is the functional level of all organs and systems. Ultimately, science provides insight into the complex functions of the organism as a whole.

Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study, anatomy studies forms and physiology studies functions. What does human physiology study? This biological discipline deals with the study of how the body functions in a normal state, and also explores the possible dysfunctions of the body and various diseases.

What does the science of physiology study? Physiology provides answers to questions about how the body works, what happens when a person is born and develops, how the body's systems adapt to stresses such as physical exercises or extreme environmental conditions, and how bodily functions change in disease states. Physiology affects functions at all levels, from nerves to muscles, from the brain to hormones, from molecules and cells to organs and systems.

Human body systems

Human physiology as a science studies the functions of the organs of the human body. The physique includes several systems that work together for the proper functioning of the entire body. Some systems are interconnected, and one or more elements of one system may be part of or serve as another.

There are 10 major body systems:

1) The cardiovascular system is responsible for pumping blood through the veins and arteries. Blood must flow into the body, constantly producing fuel and gas for the organs, skin and muscles.

2) The gastrointestinal tract is responsible for processing food, digesting it and converting it into energy for the body.

3) is responsible for reproduction.

4) consists of all the key glands responsible for the production of secretions.

5) is the so-called "container" for the body, to protect the internal organs. Her main organ, the skin, is covered with a large number of sensors that transmit external sensory signals to the brain.

6) Musculoskeletal system: The skeleton and muscles are responsible for the overall structure and shape of the human body.

7) The respiratory system is represented by the nose, trachea and lungs and is responsible for breathing.

8) helps the body get rid of unwanted waste.

9) Nervous System: A network of nerves connects the brain to the rest of the body. This system is responsible for human senses: sight, smell, taste, touch and hearing.

10) The immune system protects or tries to protect the body from disease and disease. If foreign bodies enter the body, the system begins to produce antibodies to protect the body and destroy unwanted guests.

Who needs to know human physiology and why?

What the science of human physiology studies can be a fascinating topic for physicians and surgeons. In addition to medicine, other areas of knowledge are also affected. Human physiology data is essential for sports professionals such as coaches and physiotherapists. In addition, within the framework of the world practice of medicine, various types of therapy are used, for example, massage, where it is also important to know how the body works so that the treatment is as effective as possible and brings only benefit, not harm.

The role of microorganisms

Microorganisms play a key role in nature. They make possible the recycling of materials and energy, they can be used as cellular "factories" for the production of antibiotics, enzymes and food products, they can also cause infectious diseases in humans (eg foodborne contamination), animals and plants. Their existence directly depends on the ability to adapt to a changeable environment, the availability of nutrients and light, the pH factor also plays an important role, such categories as pressure, temperature and many others.

Physiology of microorganisms

The basis of the vital activity of microorganisms and all other living beings is the exchange of substances with the environment (metabolism). In the study of such a discipline as the physiology of microorganisms, metabolism plays an important role. This is the process of building chemical compounds in the cell and their destruction in the course of activity to obtain the necessary energy and building elements.

Metabolism includes anabolism (assimilation) and catabolism (dissimilation). The physiology of microorganisms studies the processes of growth, development, nutrition, ways of obtaining energy for the implementation of these processes, as well as their interaction with the environment.

Does everyone know what physiology studies and what tasks it performs? Physiology - this science is engaged in research in the field of vital activity of the human body. This includes biological processes, the interaction of individual organs, systems, cells, tissues, mechanisms for regulating certain processes. The definition is quite capacious, so you need to understand it in more detail.

feature of science

To answer the question of what physiology is, you need to understand what exactly it does. This science studies the vital activity of a living organism, as well as its individual parts and systems.

It is divided into two parts:

• General (deals with the study of the patterns of activity of excitable tissues, the laws of their irritation).
• Private (studies the manifestation of the vital activity of individual organs, their message and communication with others, general interaction all systems).

This science is considered the basis for research and development in modern methods of treatment, as it allows us to understand the structural features of the organs of the human body, the possibility of its adaptation to different conditions and influences, stresses or developing pathologies. Thanks to the latest developments and advances in this discipline, there are discoveries in the field of health care and various therapeutic methods.

As already mentioned, the science of physiology studies the features of the functioning of the organs of the human body. All of them are interconnected, and health depends on the harmony of functioning.

Here are the main systems that are closely studied by the discipline:

• Cardiovascular organs (responsible for pumping blood through the venous system).
• Gastrointestinal tract (responsible for processing food and converting it into useful components).
• Reproductive system (the possibility of offspring depends on its normal operation).
• Endocrine system (responsible for the production of secretion individuals for normal development and life).
• The skin (which is responsible for protecting the internal organs from bacteria and harmful microorganisms).
• The musculoskeletal system (without it, a person could not move normally).
• The respiratory system (responsible for filling tissues and blood with oxygen).
• Excretory system (responsible for removing toxins, toxins and other waste from the body).
• Nervous system (provides sensitivity and transmission of impulses and signals throughout the body).
• Protective system, immunity (prevents the penetration of pathogenic microbes and microorganisms into the body).

But this is not all that studies human physiology, since in addition to the field of medicine, science also affects related disciplines. To study the influence of certain processes on the functioning of systems, to identify their reaction to various changes.

Physiology is the theoretical basis of medicine, a kind of "foundation" for the entire health care system. However, these are far from all areas with which this science intersects. Physiology is used in biology, biochemistry, anatomy, histology, etc. Even without physics, it is impossible to find a normal explanation for the processes occurring in many human tissues.

Chemistry is involved at the moment when it is required to express on paper the passage of metabolism, the breakdown of food in the stomach, the entry of oxygen into the lungs, etc. All processes of oxidation, splitting of elements and other things, do not do without knowledge and intersection with this discipline.

Human anatomy and physiology are closely related, because they have one subject of study. A characteristic feature of the latter is a broader study of many processes in physiology, as well as immersion in the scientific substantiation of certain reactions. Here are a few features that distinguish physiology, and distinguish it as an independent discipline, are:

• The study of the basic laws of the life of the human body and their mechanisms.
• Study of individual cells, physiological systems and organs.
• Consideration of specific objects, such as evolution.
• The study of the features of the interaction of the psyche, the central nervous system and internal structure generally.

Many specialists of related professions are engaged in the development of knowledge in the field of physiology, for example, massage therapists, sports trainers, physiotherapists, chiropractors, etc. This is required in order to understand the peculiarities of the course of certain processes inside the body or organ, and to carry out adequate and effective therapy or first aid, correctly exerting an impact.

Consonant in name, but with other subjects of study, psychophysiology attracts no less attention today than physiology. She studies the physiological foundations of human behavior.

To answer the question of what psychophysiology studies, one should dive a little deeper. This is a special branch of science that has linked psychology and physiology together, putting in the first place the study of the role of biological factors on the psyche of each individual. The main tasks in this area are:

• The study of the transfer of data from the central nervous system to various areas of the human body.
• The study of the features of making certain decisions and their implementation at the level of brain activity.
• The study of memory, the influence of motivation, thinking and movement, as physiological bases.
• Study of emotional response to stress factors and at rest.
• The study of the occurrence of disorders in the body, the cause of which was a mental factor.

Psychophysiology aims to learn how to use the dynamics of physical processes for diagnosis mental stability. Involve psycho-correction to have a positive impact on the health of patients and improve their general condition.

Physiology provides answers to many undisclosed topics, about how our body works, how it reacts to stimuli, helps to expand the possibilities for diagnosing disorders and developing various pathologies. Therefore, its importance for modern medicine cannot be overestimated.

Physiology literally means the study of nature. This is a science that studies the life processes of an organism, its constituent physiological systems, individual organs, tissues, cells and subcellular structures, the mechanisms of regulation of these processes, as well as the effect of environmental factors on the dynamics of life processes.

History of the development of physiology

Initially, ideas about the functions of the body were formed on the basis of the work of scientists Ancient Greece and Rome: Aristotle, Hippocrates, Gallen, and others, as well as scientists from China and India.

Physiology became an independent science in the 17th century, when, along with the method of observing the activity of the body, the development of experimental research methods began. This was facilitated by the work of Harvey, who studied the mechanisms of blood circulation; Descartes, who described the reflex mechanism.

In the 19th and 20th centuries physiology is developing rapidly. So, studies of tissue excitability were carried out by K. Bernard, Lapik. A significant contribution was made by scientists: Ludwig, Dubois-Reymond, Helmholtz, Pfluger, Bell, Langley, Hodgkin and domestic scientists: Ovsyanikov, Nislavsky, Zion, Pashutin, Vvedensky.

Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov is called the father of Russian physiology. Of outstanding importance were his works on the study of the functions of the nervous system (central or Sechenov's inhibition), respiration, fatigue processes, etc. In his work "Reflexes of the Brain" (1863), he developed the idea of ​​the reflex nature of the processes occurring in the brain, including thought processes. Sechenov proved that the psyche is determined by external conditions, i.e. its dependence on external factors.

An experimental substantiation of Sechenov's provisions was carried out by his student Ivan Petrovich Pavlov. He expanded and developed the reflex theory, investigated the functions of the digestive organs, the mechanisms of regulation of digestion, blood circulation, developed new approaches to conducting physiological experience "methods of chronic experience". For work on digestion in 1904 he was awarded the Nobel Prize. Pavlov studied the main processes occurring in the cerebral cortex. Using the method of conditioned reflexes developed by him, he laid the foundations of the science of higher nervous activity. In 1935, at the World Congress of Physiologists I.P. Pavlov was called the patriarch of the physiologists of the world.

Purpose, tasks, subject of physiology

Animal experiments provide a lot of information for understanding the functioning of the body. However, the physiological processes occurring in the human body have significant differences. Therefore, in general physiology, a special science is distinguished - human physiology. The subject of human physiology is a healthy human body.

Main goals:

1. study of the mechanisms of functioning of cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, the body as a whole;

2. study of the mechanisms of regulation of the functions of organs and organ systems;

3. identification of the reactions of the body and its systems to changes in the external and internal environment, as well as the study of the mechanisms of emerging reactions.

Experiment and its role.

Physiology is an experimental science and its main method is experiment:

1. Sharp experience or vivisection ("live cutting"). In its process, under anesthesia, a surgical intervention is performed and the function of an open or closed organ is examined. After the experience, the survival of the animal is not achieved. The duration of such experiments is from several minutes to several hours. For example, the destruction of the cerebellum in a frog. The shortcomings of the acute experience are the short duration of the experience, the side effects of anesthesia, blood loss and subsequent death of the animal.

2. chronic experience is carried out by carrying out surgical intervention at the preparatory stage to access the organ, and after healing, they begin research. For example, the imposition of a salivary duct fistula in a dog. These experiences last up to several years.

3. Sometimes isolated subacute experience. Its duration is weeks, months.

Experiments on humans are fundamentally different from classical ones:

1. most studies are carried out in a non-invasive way (ECG, EEG);

2. studies that do not harm the health of the subject;

3. clinical experiments - the study of the functions of organs and systems in case of their damage or pathology in the centers of their regulation.

Registration of physiological functions carried out by various methods:

1. simple observations;

2. graphic registration.

In 1847, Ludwig proposed a kymograph and a mercury manometer for recording blood pressure. This made it possible to minimize experimental errors and facilitate the analysis of the obtained data. The invention of the string galvanometer made it possible to record the ECG.

At present, registration of the bioelectric activity of tissues and organs and the microelectronic method are of great importance in physiology. The mechanical activity of organs is recorded using mechano-electrical transducers. The structure and function of internal organs are studied using ultrasonic waves, nuclear magnetic resonance, and computed tomography.

All data obtained using these methods are fed to electric writing devices and recorded on paper, photographic film, in computer memory and subsequently analyzed.

The word physiology in English letters (transliteration) - fiziologiya

The word physiology consists of 10 letters: g s and i and l o o f i

The meaning of the word physiology. What is physiology?

Physiology

Physiology (from the Greek φύσις - nature and the Greek λόγος - knowledge) is the science of the essence of the living, life in normal and pathological conditions, that is, the laws of functioning and regulation of biological systems of different levels of organization ...

en.wikipedia.org

Physiology (from the Greek phýsis - nature and ...ology) of animals and humans, the science of the vital activity of organisms, their individual systems, organs and tissues and the regulation of physiological functions.

TSB. - 1969-1978

Physiology I Physiology (Greek physis nature + logos doctrine) is a science that studies the vital activity of the whole organism and its parts - systems, organs, tissues and cells.

Medical encyclopedia

Physiology of labor

Physiology of labor, a section of physiology that studies the patterns of the flow of physiological processes and the features of their regulation during human labor activity, that is, the labor process in its physiological manifestations.

TSB. - 1969-1978

PHYSIOLOGY OF LABOR - a special section of physiology devoted to the study of changes in the functional state of the human body under the influence of his labor activity and the physiological justification of the means of organizing the labor process ...

Occupational Safety and Health. - 2007

Labor physiology is a science that studies the functioning of the human body during labor activity. Its task is to develop principles and norms that contribute to the improvement and improvement of working conditions, as well as the regulation of labor.

en.wikipedia.org

plant physiology

Plant physiology, a biological science that studies the general laws governing the vital activity of plant organisms. F. r. studies the processes of absorption of minerals and water by plant organisms, the processes of growth and development ...

TSB. - 1969-1978

Plant physiology (from Greek φύσις - nature, Greek λόγος - teaching) is the science of the functional activity of plant organisms.

en.wikipedia.org

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY, the science of the vital activity of districts, the organization of their functional systems and their interaction in the whole organism. Methodology F. r. based on the idea of ​​district as a complex biol. system, all functions to-roy are interconnected.

Physiology of activity

PHYSIOLOGY OF ACTIVITY - the concept of owls. scientist N. A. Bernshtein (1896–1966), who considers activity as a fundamental property of the organism and gives it theoretical. explanation as a principle...

Philosophical Encyclopedia

PHYSIOLOGY OF ACTIVITY - a concept that interprets the behavior of an organism as an active attitude to the environment, determined by the model of the future required by the organism - the desired result.

Golovin S. Dictionary of practical psychologist

The physiology of activity is a direction of psychophysiology that considers the behavior of an organism as an active attitude to the environment, determined by the model of the future necessary for the organism (the desired result).

Gritsenko V.V. Dictionary of trainer

age physiology

Age physiology, a section of human and animal physiology that studies the patterns of formation and development of the physiological functions of the body throughout ontogenesis - from the fertilization of the egg until the end of life.

TSB. - 1969-1978

AGE PHYSIOLOGY is a branch of physiology that studies the patterns of formation and age-related changes in the functions of an integral organism, its organs and systems in the process of ontogenesis (from fertilization of an egg to the termination of individual existence).

Russian Pedagogical Encyclopedia / Ed. V.G. Panov. — 1993

AGE PHYSIOLOGY is a science that studies the characteristics of the vital activity of an organism at different stages of ontogenesis. Tasks of V.F .: study of the features of the functioning of various organs, systems and the body as a whole ...

Pedagogical dictionary of the librarian. - St. Petersburg: RNB, 2005-2007.

environmental physiology

Ecological physiology, a branch of physiology that studies the dependence of the functions of animals and humans on the conditions of life and activity in various physical and geographical zones, at different periods of the year, day, phase of the lunar and tidal rhythms ...

TSB. - 1969-1978

ENVIRONMENTAL PHYSIOLOGY physiology, ecologic(al); German Physiology, okologische. A branch of physiology that studies the dependence of the functions of animals and humans on the conditions of life and activity in various physical and geographic areas. zones, at different times of the year ...

Big Dictionary of Sociology

PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY

PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY, a field of medicine that studies the patterns of occurrence, course and outcome of disease processes and compensatory-adaptive reactions in a diseased organism.

Modern encyclopedia. — 2000

PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY is a field of medicine that studies the patterns of occurrence, course and outcomes of disease processes and compensatory-adaptive reactions in a diseased organism.

Big encyclopedic dictionary

pathological physiology

Pathological physiology, a medical scientific discipline that studies the patterns of occurrence and course of disease processes and compensatory-adaptive reactions in a diseased organism.

TSB. - 1969-1978

Pathological physiology - a branch of medicine and biology that studies the patterns of occurrence, development and outcome of pathological processes; features and nature of dynamic changes in physiological functions in various pathological ...

en.wikipedia.org

PATHOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGY, a science that studies the life processes in a diseased organism, the patterns of occurrence, development, course and outcome of diseases.

Russian language

Physi/o/log/i/ya [y/a].

Morphemic spelling dictionary. - 2002

Institute of Physiology

Institute of Physiology - named after I. P. Pavlov (IF) of the USSR Academy of Sciences (Makarov embankment, 6; Pavlovo settlement, Vsevolzhsky district), a research institution and a coordinating center for research on animal and human physiology.

Encyclopedia of St. Petersburg. — 1992

Institute of Physiology. IP Pavlova is one of the institutes of the Department of Biological Sciences of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Currently located at St. Petersburg, emb. Makarova, 6 IF RAS conducts fundamental and applied research…

en.wikipedia.org

Physiology Institute named after IP Pavlov of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, a research institution that studies the physiological functions of animals and humans. It was organized in 1925 in Leningrad on the initiative of IP Pavlov (whose name was given to the institute in 1936).

TSB. - 1969-1978

Usage examples for physiology

In Russia, the method has been scientifically tested and confirmed, all physiological and biochemical aspects are taken into account, the physiology of respiration is thought out.

Each person has their own physiology.

General concept of physiology

Physiology(from Greek words: physis - nature, logos - doctrine, science) the science of functions and processes occurring in the body or its constituent systems, organs, tissues, cells, and mechanisms of their regulation, ensuring the vital activity of man and animal in their interaction with the environment.

Under function understand the specific activity of a system or organ. For example, the functions of the gastrointestinal tract are motor, secretory, absorption; respiratory function exchange of O2 and CO2; the function of the circulatory system is the movement of blood through the vessels; myocardial function contraction and relaxation; the function of the neuron is excitation and inhibition, etc.

Process defined as a successive change of phenomena or states in the development of any action or a set of successive actions aimed at achieving a certain result.

System in physiology, it means a set of organs or tissues related by a common function.

For example, the cardiovascular system, which provides, with the help of the heart and blood vessels, the delivery of nutrients, regulatory, protective substances and oxygen to tissues, as well as the removal of metabolic and heat transfer products. The motor speech system is a set of formations that normally ensure the implementation of a person's speech ability in the form of reproduction of oral and vocal speech.

Reliability of biological systems- the property of cells, organs, systems of the body to perform specific functions, maintaining their characteristic values ​​for a certain time.

The main characteristic of system reliability is the probability of failure-free operation. The body increases its reliability in various ways:

1) by enhancing regenerative processes that restore dead cells,

2) pairing of organs (kidneys, lobes of the lung, etc.),

3) the use of cells and capillaries in the working and non-working mode: as the function increases, previously non-functioning ones are switched on,

4) using protective braking,

5) achievement of the same result by different behavioral actions.

Physiology studies the vital activity of an organism in a normal way.

The word physiology

Norm- these are the limits of the optimal functioning of a living system, are interpreted in different ways:

a) as an average value characterizing any set of events, phenomena, processes,

b) as an average value,

c) as a generally accepted rule, a sample.

The physiological norm is biological optimum of vital activity; normal organism it is an optimally functioning system. The optimal functioning of a living system is understood as the most coordinated and efficient combination of all its processes, the best of the really possible states, corresponding to certain conditions for the activity of this system.

Mechanism– the way in which a process or function is controlled.

In physiology, it is customary to consider the mechanisms of regulation; local(for example, vasodilatation with an increase in blood pressure), humoral(influence on the functions and processes of hormones or humoral agents), nervous(intensification or weakening of processes during excitation or inhibition of impulsation in the first), central(command sendings from the central nervous system).

Under regulation understand the minimization of deviations of functions or their change in order to ensure the activity of organs and systems.

This term is used only in physiology, and in technical and interdisciplinary sciences it corresponds to the concepts of "management" and "regulation". In this case automatic regulation is called either maintaining the constancy of some controlled variable, or changing it according to a given law (software regulation), or according to some mutable external process (following regulation).Automatic control called a more extensive set of actions aimed at maintaining or improving the functioning of a managed object in accordance with the goal of management.

In addition to solving control problems, automatic control covers self-tuning mechanisms (adaptations) control systems in accordance with changes in the parameters of the object or external influences, automatic selection of the best modes from several possible ones.

Because of this, the term "control" more accurately reflects the principles of regulation in living systems. In the case of software regulation, regulation is carried out "out of indignation" in the case of a follower - "by deviation".

reaction called changes (intensification or weakening) of the activity of the body or its components in response to irritation(internal or external).

Reactions can be simple(eg, muscle contraction, secretion from a gland) or complex(food processing). They can be passive arising from external mechanical forces, or active in the form of a purposeful action carried out as a result of nervous or humoral influences, or under the control of consciousness and will.

Secret- a specific product of the vital activity of a cell that performs a specific function and is released onto the surface of the epithelium or into the internal environment of the body.

The process of generating and isolating a secret is called secretion. By nature, the secret is divided into proteinaceous(serous), slimy(mucoid), mixed and lipid.

Irritation- impact on living tissue of external or internal irritants. The stronger the irritation, the stronger (up to a certain limit) the response of the tissue; the longer the irritation, the stronger (up to a certain limit) and the response of the tissue.

Stimulus– factors of external and internal environment or their changes, which have an effect on organs and tissues, expressed in a change in the activity of the latter.

In accordance with the physical nature of the impact, stimuli are divided into mechanical, electrical, chemical, temperature, sound, etc. The stimulus can be threshold, those. having minimal effective impact; maximum the presentation of which causes effects that do not change with increasing stimulus; super strong the action of which can have a damaging and painful effect, or lead to inadequate sensations.

reflex reaction- a response action or process in the body (system, organ, tissue, cell) caused by reflex.

Reflex- the emergence, change or cessation of the functional activity of organs, tissues or the whole organism, carried out with the participation of the central nervous system in response to irritation nerve endings(receptors).

Under the influence of various stimuli, due to the properties of the living protoplasm of excitability, the processes of excitation and inhibition are carried out in the body.

Excitability - the ability of living cells to perceive changes in the external environment and respond to these changes with an excitation reaction. The lower the threshold strength of the stimulus, the higher the excitability, and vice versa. Excitation - an active physiological process by which some living cells (nerve, muscle, glandular) respond to external influences.

Excitable tissues - tissues capable of moving from a state of physiological rest to a state of excitation in response to the action of a stimulus. In principle, all living cells are excitable, but in physiology it is customary to refer to these tissues mainly as nervous, muscular, and glandular. The result of excitation is the emergence of the activity of the organism or its components; consequence braking is the suppression or inhibition of the activity of cells, tissues or organs, i.e.

a process leading to a reduction or prevention of excitation. Excitation and inhibition are mutually opposite and interrelated processes. Thus, excitation can, when it is strengthened, turn into inhibition, and inhibition can enhance subsequent excitation.

To cause excitation, the stimulus must be of a certain strength, equal to or greater than arousal threshold, which is understood as the minimum force of irritation at which the minimum response of the irritated tissue occurs.

Automation- the property of some cells, tissues and organs to be excited under the influence of impulses arising in them, without the influence of external stimuli. For example, automatism of the heart is the ability of the myocardium to contract rhythmically under the influence of impulses that arise in itself.

Lability- a property of living tissue that determines its functional state.

Lability is understood as the rate of reactions underlying excitation, i.e. the ability of a tissue to carry out a single process of excitation in a certain period of time. The limiting rhythm of impulses that an excitable tissue is able to reproduce per unit time is measure of lability or functional mobility fabrics.

An important feature of man and higher animals is constancy chemical composition and physico-chemical properties of the internal environment of the body.

To denote this constancy, the concept is used homeostasis(homeostasis) - a set of physiological mechanisms that maintain the biological constants of the body at an optimal level. Such constants are: body temperature, osmotic pressure of blood and tissue fluid, the content of sodium, potassium, calcium, chlorine and phosphorus ions, as well as proteins and sugar, the concentration of hydrogen ions, etc.

This constancy of the composition, physicochemical and biological properties of the internal environment is not absolute, but relative and dynamic; it is constantly correlated depending on changes in the external environment and as a result of the vital activity of the organism.

The internal environment of the body- a set of fluids (blood, lymph, tissue fluid) that are directly involved in the processes of metabolism and maintaining homeostasis in the body.

Metabolism and energy consists in entering the body from the external environment various substances, in their change and assimilation with the subsequent release of the decay products formed from them.

Metabolism (metabolism) is a set of chemical transformations occurring in living organisms that ensure their growth, vital activity, reproduction, constant contact and exchange with the environment. Metabolic processes are divided into two groups: assimilatory and dissimilatory.

Under assimilation understand the processes of assimilation of substances entering the body from the external environment; the formation of more complex chemical compounds from simple ones, as well as the synthesis of living protoplasm occurring in the body.

Dissimilation - this is the destruction, disintegration, splitting of the substances that make up the protoplasm, in particular, protein compounds.

Compensatory mechanisms- adaptive responses aimed at eliminating or weakening functional changes in the body caused by inadequate environmental factors.

These are dynamic, rapidly emerging physiological means of emergency support for the body. They are mobilized as soon as the body enters inadequate conditions, and gradually fade as it develops. adaptation process.(For example, under the influence of cold, the processes of production and conservation of thermal energy increase, metabolism increases, as a result of reflex constriction of peripheral vessels (especially the skin), heat transfer decreases.

Compensatory mechanisms serve integral part reserve forces of the body. Possessing high efficiency, they can maintain relatively stable homeostasis long enough for the development of stable forms of the adaptation process).

Adaptation- the process of adaptation of the body to changing environmental conditions. As an important component of the adaptive response of the body is stress syndrome - the sum of non-specific reactions that create conditions for the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal system, increasing the flow of adaptive hormones, corticosteroids and catecholamines into the blood and tissues, stimulating the activity of homeostatic systems.

The adaptive role of nonspecific reactions lies in their ability to increase resistance(resistance) of the body to various environmental factors.

Although physiology is a unified and holistic science of the functions of animal and human organisms, it is divided into several, largely independent, but closely related areas. In this regard, general and particular physiology, comparative and evolutionary, as well as special (or applied) physiology and human physiology are usually distinguished.

General physiology explores the nature of the processes common to organisms of various species, as well as the patterns of reactions of the organism and its structures to the effects of the external environment.

In this regard, such processes and properties as contractility, excitability, irritability, inhibition, energy and metabolic processes, general properties biological membranes, cells, tissues.

private physiology studies the functions of tissues (muscular, nervous, etc.), organs (brain, heart, kidneys, etc.), systems (digestion, circulation, respiration, etc.).

Comparative physiology is devoted to the study of the similarities and differences of any functions in different representatives of the animal world in order to identify the causes and general patterns of changes in functions or the emergence of new ones.

Particular attention is paid to the elucidation of the mechanisms of qualitative and quantitative changes in physiological processes that have appeared during the species and individual development of living beings.

evolutionary physiology combines studies of general biological patterns and mechanisms of the emergence, development and formation of physiological functions in humans and animals in onto- and phylogenesis.

Special (applied) physiology studies the patterns of changes in body functions in connection with its specific activity, practical tasks or specific living conditions.

In practical terms, the physiology of farm animals is of great importance. Some sections of human physiology (aviation, space, underwater physiology, etc.) are sometimes referred to as problems of special physiology.

In terms of tasks human physiology stand out:

1) Aviation physiology - section of physiology and aviation medicine, focused on the study of the reactions of the human body when exposed to air flights in order to develop methods and means of protecting the flight crew from adverse production factors.

2) Military physiology - section of physiology and military medicine, within the framework of which the patterns of regulation of body functions are studied in the conditions of combat training and combat situations.

3) Age physiology - investigating the age-related features of the formation and extinction of the functions of organs, systems and the human body from the moment of inception to the cessation of its individual (ontogenetic) development.

4) Clinical Physiology - within the framework of which the role and nature of changes in physiological processes in the human body are studied during the development and establishment of pathological conditions in its organs or systems.

5) Space physiology - section of physiology and space medicine, associated with the study of the reactions of the human body to the impact of space flight factors (weightlessness, hypodynamia, etc.) in order to develop methods and means of protecting a person from their adverse effects.

6) Psychophysiology - the field of human psychology and physiology, which consists in the study of objectively recorded shifts in physiological functions that accompany the mental processes of perception, memorization, thinking, emotions, etc.

7) physiology of sports investigating the functions of the human body during training and competitive exercises.

8) Physiology of labor- studying physiological processes and features of their regulation during human labor activity in order to physiologically substantiate the ways and means of organization.

Founders of scientific fields and Nobel Prize winners in physiology

Physiology of man and animals, as a science of the vital activity of a healthy organism and the functions of its constituent parts - cells, tissues, organs and systems, originated in the 17th century. The founder of experimental physiology is an English doctor, anatomist, physiologist and embryologist William Harvey(1578-1657), who, as a result of many years of observations and experiments, created the doctrine of blood circulation (see p. 386).

The history of physiology, like any other field of knowledge, is inextricably linked with the names of scientists who, with their scientific searches and discoveries, contributed to the progress in the study of Nature, in this case, the vital activity of the human and animal organisms. This explains the first attempt to present the development of physiology as a set of data characterizing the contribution of famous scientists and Nobel Prize winners to the development of cell physiology, general physiology of the nervous and muscular systems, physiology of the central nervous system, physiology of the sense organs and physiology of visceral systems.

cell physiology

An outstanding achievement in cell physiology is the substantiation in the late 40s - 50s of the XX century of the membrane theory of the occurrence of bioelectric potentials (A. Hodgkin, E. Huxley and B. Katz).

In 1963, the Australian neurophysiologist was awarded the Nobel Prize John C. Eccles(b. 1903) and English physiologists Andrew F. Huxley(R.

1917) and Alan L. Hodgkin(b. 1914) for studying the ionic mechanisms of excitation and inhibition in the peripheral and central parts of the membranes of nerve cells.

D. Eccles was the first to carry out intracellular assignment of electrical processes in the cells of the central nervous system, determined the electrophysiological characteristics of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in individual nerve cells, and discovered presynaptic inhibition.

E. Huxley and A. Hodgkin showed the role of sodium ions in the genesis of the membrane action potential, and also found that at rest the concentration of potassium ions inside the nerve cell is higher than outside, and the concentration of sodium ions, on the contrary, is higher outside. Hodgkin for the first time measured the absolute value of the membrane potential and described the dynamics of changes in this value during the generation of a nerve impulse. Huxley is responsible for the discovery of the now widely known sodium pump in the mechanism of generation and transmission of nerve impulses, the creation of the theory of muscle contraction.

The Nobel Prize was awarded for studies of the structural and functional organization of the cell. Its laureates were Belgian scientists - biologist Albert Claude(1899- 1983) and biochemist Christian R. De Duve(b.1917), as well as an American physiologist and cytologist Georg E. Palade(b. 1912). Studying subcellular fractions, A. Claude showed that the activity of the main oxidation enzymes is associated with mitochondria, and also isolated a fraction of subcellular particles enriched in RNA (Claude microsomes).

R. De Duve discovered a new class of subcellular particles, which he called lysosomes, found out their nature and developed the concept of their function, determined the participation of lysosomes in physiological and pathological processes in the cell. G. Palada belongs to the discovery and description of ribosomes.

Russian biochemist Vladimir Alexandrovich Engelhardt(1894-1984) established (jointly with M.N. Lyubimova) that the contractile muscle protein, myosin, has adenosine triphosphatase activity.

The authors showed that when artificially prepared myosin filaments interact with ATP, their mechanical properties change. These data were developed by the American biochemist Albert Szent-Györgyi(1893-1986), who discovered the protein actin in muscle and showed that actomyosin filaments shorten under the influence of ATP.

As a result of these discoveries and further research, the unity of the principle of functioning, chemical dynamics and energy of various cells of the body with mobility was revealed.

General physiology of the nervous and muscular systems

Italian naturalist Giovanni A. Borelli(1608-1679) connected the process of muscle contraction during their movement with the activity of nerves.

He established the role of the intercostal muscles in the act of breathing and for the first time presented the movement of the heart as a muscle contraction.

In 1771 the Italian physicist and anatomist Luigi Galvani(1737-1798) discovered electrical currents in the muscles, which he called "animal electricity". He owns the development of the theory,

according to which muscles and nerves are charged with electricity, like a Leyden jar. Galvani is the founder of electrophysiology.

For the first time, the German physiologist characterized the effects of electric current on excitable tissues Emile du Bois-Reymond(1818-1896).

He discovered the phenomenon of physical electric tone, showed that the cross-section of the nerve is electronegative with respect to its length (resting current), established that the "negative oscillation" of the resting current is an expression of the active state of tissues. A number of discoveries belong to the students of Du Bois-Reymond. Ludimar Hermann(1838-1914) explained the origin of rest currents in the nerve and muscle, created the theory of the propagation of excitation along the nerve.

He experimentally determined the speed of propagation of the contraction wave in human muscles. Edward F.V. Pfluger(1829-1910) formulated the laws of physiological electrotone, contraction and the polar law, which formed the basis of ideas about the processes of excitation in living tissues. Rudolf P.G. Heidenhain(1834-1897) managed to register the release of heat during a single muscle contraction and to discover the dependence of heat generation in muscles on blood circulation, load, intensity of irritation, etc.

PHYSIOLOGY

Julius Bernstein(1839-1917) showed that the contraction wave and the action current in the skeletal muscle propagate at the same speed. In 1902, he proposed a membrane theory of the origin of bioelectric potentials in excitable tissues, which had a significant impact on the subsequent development of electrophysiology.

German physiologist Hermann

L.F. Helmholtz(1821-1894) discovered and measured the duration of a single muscle contraction, and also developed the theory of its prolonged tetanic contraction.

He was the first to determine the rate of propagation of excitation in the nerves. By measuring heat generation in a muscle during its contraction, Helmholtz laid the foundations for the theory of the energy of muscle work. German physiologist Adolf Fick(1829-1901) showed that nitrogen-free substances, primarily carbohydrates (and not proteins) are the source of energy for muscle activity.

Problems of general physiology of the nervous and muscular systems were successfully developed in Russia.

Niko-lai Evgenievich Vvedensky(1852-1922) discovered the rhythmic nature of the excitation process and proved the indefatigability of the nerve, established the patterns of optimum and pessimum frequency and strength of stimulation, on the basis of which he introduced the concept of lability into physiology and determined it for different tissues. Vvedensky proposed the theory of nervous inhibition as a qualitative modification of the process of

Alexander Ivanovich Babukhin(1835-1891) showed that the nerve fiber conducts excitation in both directions (the law of bilateral conduction). The discovery and description of the phenomenon of Catholic depression is associated with works Bronislav Fortunatovich Verigo(1860-1925), who found that galvanic current blocks the conduction of impulses along the motor and sensory nerve fibers.

Vasily Yakovlevich Danilevsky(1852-1939) proved the fact of an increase in heat generation in the muscle during its contraction. Based on the works of G. Helmholtz, R. Heidenhain, Danilevsky and other scientists, the idea of chemical sources muscle contraction energy.

Vasily Yurievich Chagovets(1873-1941) first proposed the ionic theory of origin electrical phenomena in a living organism. Views close to his theory were expressed by the American physiologist Jacques Loeb(1859-1924).

In 1906, Chagovets proposed the capacitor theory of tissue irritation and proved that the exciting effect of electric current is due to the accumulation of capacitor ions on the semipermeable membranes of living tissues.

Nobel Prize for 1922 awarded to an English physiologist Archibald W. Hill(1886-1977) and German biochemist Otto F. Meyerhof(1884-1951).

A. Hill owns the discovery of the phenomenon of latent heat generation in muscles, as well as the determination of the amount of heat released by the muscle at rest and during contraction. Together with A. Downing and R. Gerard, he discovered the effect of heat generation in the nerve during its excitation. Meyerhof described the relationship between anaerobic breakdown and aerobic carbohydrate synthesis in a working and resting muscle, traced the path of lactic acid conversion (Pasteur-Meyerhof cycle).

Together with a German biochemist Karl Loman(1898-1978) Meyerhof discovered adenosine triphosphoric acid (ATP) - they established its formula and for the first time calculated the amount of energy released during the breakdown of this compound. Later, ATP was recognized as a universal source of energy in the body.

One of the achievements of physiology of the 20th century is the discovery of mediators (neurotransmitters) and the creation of the doctrine of chemical mechanism transmission of nerve impulses at synapses.

The foundations of this doctrine were laid by the Austrian physiologist Otto Leah(1873-1961) and an English physiologist Henry H. Dale(1875-1968), who were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1936 "for the discovery of the chemical nature of the transmission of a nervous reaction."

American physiologists Joseph Erlanger(1874-1965) and Herbert S. Gasser(1888-1963) discovered the complex structure of mixed nerves, establishing the presence of three types of fibers in them and proving their functional differences.

They formulated the law of directly proportional dependence of the speed of impulse conduction on the diameter of the nerve fiber. For the discovery of highly differentiated functions of single nerve fibers, Erlanger and Gasser in 1944 became laureates of the A. Nobel Prize.

In 1970 Nobel Prize"the discovery of signal substances in the contact organs of nerve cells and the mechanisms of their accumulation, release and deactivation" was noted.

It was about studies that marked a new stage in the development of the theory of mediators, carried out by the Swedish physiologist Ulf von Eile-rum(1905-1983), American pharmacologist Julius Axelro-dom(b. 1912) and an English physiologist and biophysicist Bernard Katz(b. 1911). W. Euler, studying the process of transmission of nerve impulses in the synaptic nervous system, found that norepinephrine serves as a mediator in this process.

D. Axelrod showed the mechanism of action of substances that block the conduction of a nerve impulse in synapses. B. Katz belongs to the discovery of the mechanism of release of acetylcholine in the neuromuscular transmission of excitation. Physiological properties nerve fibers and, in particular, the patterns of changes in the excitability and refractoriness of nerves during the spread of excitation were studied by the English physiologist Keith Lucas(1879-1916), who proved that the law "all or nothing" also applies to the activity of the neuromuscular apparatus.

Developing the teachings of N.E. Vvedensky about lability and parabiosis Alexey Alekseevich Ukhtomsky(1875-1942) showed that the lability of organs and tissues is not constant, the adaptation of organisms to changing environmental conditions is achieved as a result of the restructuring of various organs and systems to a new level of lability.

Alexander Filippovich Samoilov(1867-1930) found that during the transmission of an impulse in a nerve, physical processes predominate, and in the transmission link (synapse) - chemical processes. He proved that the basis of central inhibition is the release of a chemical substance.

Daniil Semenovich Vorontsov(1886-1965) showed that nerve excitability lost under the influence of monovalent cations is restored by the anode, and changes in excitability caused by the use of divalent cations are restored by the cathode (Vorontsov phenomenon). Vorontsov owns the discovery of the so-called trace electronegativity, which develops after the nerve action potential, as well as the proof

The reasons for pessimal inhibition are the interaction of successive impulses in the region of nerve endings.

VIEW MORE:

Physiology

Physiology is the science of the laws governing the life of an organism. The basis of life activity are physiological processes - a complex form of unity of physical and chemical processes that have received new content in living matter. Physiological processes underlie physiological functions.

Physiological function- this is a manifestation of the interaction between individual parts, elements of the structure of a living system.

In physiological functions, the vital activity of both the whole organism and its individual parts is manifested.

The external manifestation of a physiological function (functioning), as a rule, does not give an idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe intimate physiological processes. Physiology studies both the visible, phenomenological side of phenomena and their intimate essence, i.e.

Physiology

e. physiological mechanisms. The normal functioning of an organ or organism as a whole is closely related to its structure, morphological features. Any violation in the structure leads to a breakdown in function.

"Morphological and physiological phenomena, form and function mutually determine each other."

The nature of physiological reactions, their correspondence to the changing conditions of the external environment are fixed in the genotypic program, they become a form of information from the external environment realized “for oneself”.

Thus, the way of interaction between the organism and the environment, implemented in the genotype, is a programmed form of reactivity (“reaction rate”). Consequently, reactivity is a concrete form of realization of information from the external environment, in which adequate ways of responding to the action of stimuli are fixed.

"Human Physiology", N.A.

Structural and functional prerequisites for the development of an organism The development of an organism includes both gradual quantitative changes (for example, an increase in the number of cells in the process of tissue growth and differentiation) and qualitative leaps.

These processes are in dialectical unity, they are unthinkable in isolation from each other. In the process of age development, the morphological complication of living structures leads to the appearance of qualitatively new ...

The needs of a living organism can be satisfied only as a result of its active interaction with the external environment. Thanks to this interaction, a living organism grows, develops, accumulates energy in the form of plastic substances and energy-rich chemical compounds.

This energy is spent on the performance of various types of work inherent in a living organism: mechanical, chemical, electrical, osmotic, etc. The program of the energy system of the body ...

Heterochrony in the development of individual organs and systems is clearly manifested at various stages of ontogeny.

Thus, the structural differentiation of the afferent part of the nervous system in a child is completed by the age of 6-7, while its efferent part is improved before the onset of adulthood.

The central projections of the motor analyzer mature in a teenager by the age of 13-14, and its peripheral sections ...

The movement of energy flows in the body is determined mainly by synthesis, the accumulation of free energy in organophosphorus compounds such as ATP and the accumulation of electrical energy on mitochondrial membranes.

The nature of these processes is generally similar in all living organisms, from anaerobic microbes to higher animals. The management of vital processes in the body is based on the principle of systemic hierarchy: elementary processes of vital activity are subordinated to complex ...

According to Tanner, from 1880 to 1950 in Europe and the USA for each decade, the height of 5-7-year-old children increased by 1.5 cm, and their weight increased by 0.5 kg.

In 13-15-year-olds, this increase was 2.5 cm and 2 kg, respectively. An increase in body size is accompanied by corresponding changes in the size of internal organs. Diameter…

Physiology(Greek physis nature + logos doctrine) - a science that studies the vital activity of an integral organism and its parts - systems, organs, tissues and cells. An independent science, separated from botany, is physiology plants.

The physiology of man and animals is divided into general, particular and applied.

General physiology studies processes common to organisms of different species (for example, excitation, inhibition), as well as the general patterns of reaction (of the body to the influence of the external environment.

In general physiology, in turn, there are electrophysiology, comparative physiology (studies the physiological processes in the phylogenesis of different animal species), which is the basis of evolutionary physiology (devoted to the origin and evolution of life processes in connection with general evolution organic world), age physiology (studies the patterns of formation and development of the physiological functions of the body in the process of ontogenesis), environmental physiology (studies the basics adaptation to different conditions of existence).

Private physiology explores the processes of vital activity in certain groups or species of animals (for example, in farm animals, birds, insects), incl. in humans, as well as the characteristics of tissues and systems (for example, muscular, nervous), organs (for example, the liver, kidneys), the patterns of their association into functional systems organism.

The branch of physiology that studies the functions of the nervous system, information processing processes in the nervous tissue, as well as the mechanisms underlying the behavior of animals and humans, is neurophysiology. Applied physiology studies the general and particular patterns of activity of living organisms, and above all of man, in accordance with special tasks.

Applied physiology includes: labor physiology; aviation physiology and space physiology (they study the reactions of the human body to the adverse effects of various factors during atmospheric and space flights in order to develop methods for protecting flight personnel from it; underwater physiology; sports physiology; nutritional physiology, etc.

Physiology is also conditionally subdivided into normal physiology, which mainly studies the regularities of the functions of a healthy organism in its interaction with the environment, and pathological physiology, on the basis of which the clinical physiology, which studies the occurrence and course of functional functions (circulation, digestion, etc.) in various diseases.

As a branch of biology, physiology is closely related to the morphological sciences - anatomy, histology, cytology, biochemistry, biophysics, cybernetics, mathematics and other sciences, widely using the principles and methods of research adopted in them, as well as medicine.

The main research methods in physiology are experiment, incl. acute experiment or vivisection, and chronic experiment (eg artificial fistula), as well as clinical and functional tests.

The main problems and directions of research in modern physiology are: the mechanisms of mental activity of humans and animals, physiology labor, problems of human adaptation, especially to the action of extreme factors ( emotional stress etc.); mechanisms of interaction of artificial organs with the recipient's body: molecular mechanisms of nervous excitation processes; functions of cell membranes; physiological changes in the body due to environmental pollution (see.

Ecology) and etc.: physiology visceral functions, and primarily homeostasis.

Attention! Article ' Physiology‘ is given for informational purposes only and should not be used for self-medication