In the light of already published and future videos, for the general development and systematization of knowledge, I propose a generalized overview of the genera of the hominid family from the later Sahelanthropes, who lived about 7 million years ago, to Homo sapiens, who appeared from 315 to 200 thousand years ago. This review will help not to fall into the trap of those who like to mislead and systematize their knowledge. Since the video is quite long, for convenience, in the comments there will be a table of contents with a time code, thanks to which you can start or continue watching the video, from the selected genus or species, if you click on the numbers of blue color in the list. 1. Sahelanthropus This genus is represented by only one species: 1.1. The Chadian Sahelanthropus (Sahelanthropus tchadensis) is an extinct species of hominin, about 7 million years old. His skull, named Tumaina, which means "hope for life", was found in the northwest of the Republic of Chad in 2001 by Michel Brunet. The volume of their brain, presumably 380 cubic cm, is approximately the same as that of modern chimpanzees. According to the characteristic location of the occipital foramen, scientists believe that this is the most ancient skull of an upright creature. Sahelanthropus may represent a common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees, but there are still a number of questions about his facial features that may cast doubt on the status of Australopithecus. By the way, the affiliation of sahelanthropes to the human pedigree is disputed by the discoverers of the next genus with the only species Ororin tugensis. 2. Genus Orrorin (Orrorin) includes one species: Orrorin tugensis (Orrorin tugenensis), or man of the millennium, this species was first found in 2000 in the Tugen mountains of Kenya. Its age is about 6 million years. Currently, 20 fossils have been found at 4 sites: these include two parts of the lower jaw; symphyses and several teeth; three fragments of a thigh; partial humerus; proximal phalanx; and the distal phalanx of the thumb. By the way, in Orrorins, the femurs with obvious signs of upright posture, in contrast to the indirect ones in Sahelanthropes. But the rest of the skeleton, except for the skull, indicates that he climbed trees. Orrorins were about 1m tall. 20 centimeters. In addition, related finds indicated that Orrorin did not live in the savannah, but in an evergreen forest environment. By the way, it is this species that is demonstrated by lovers of sensations in anthropology or supporters of ideas about the extraterrestrial origin of people, saying that 6 million years ago aliens visited us. As evidence, they note that in this species the femur is closer to a human than in a later species of Afar Australopithecus, named Lucy, 3 million years old, this is true, but understandable, which scientists did 5 years ago, describing the level of primitiveness of similarity and that it is similar to primates that lived 20 million years ago. But on top of that argument, the TV experts report that Orrorin's reconstructed face is flat and human-like. And then take a close look at the images of the finds and find the parts from which you can assemble the face. Don't you see? Me too, but they are there, according to the authors of the programs! At the same time, fragments of a video about completely different finds are shown. This is calculated on the fact that they are trusted by hundreds of thousands, or even millions of viewers, and they will not check. This is how, mixing truth and fiction, a sensation is obtained, but only in the minds of their adherents, and, unfortunately, there are not a few of them. And this is just one example. 3. Ardipithecus (Ardipithecus), an ancient genus of hominids that lived 5.6-4.4 million years ago. At the moment, only two species are described: 3.1. Ardipithecus kadabba (Ardipithecus kadabba) was found in Ethiopia in the valley of the Middle Awash River in 1997. And in 2000, to the north, a few more finds were found. The finds are represented mainly by teeth and fragments of skeletal bones, from several individuals, 5.6 million years old. The following species from the genus Ardipithecus is more qualitatively described. 3.2. Ardipithecus ramidus (Ardipithecus ramidus) or Ardi, which means earth or root. The remains of Ardi were first discovered near the Ethiopian village of Aramis in 1992 in the Afar depression in the Awash River valley. And in 1994, more fragments were obtained, which accounted for 45% of the total skeleton. This is a very significant find, which combines the features of both monkeys and humans. The age of the finds was determined based on their stratigraphic position between two volcanic layers and amounted to 4.4 Ma. And between 1999 and 2003, scientists discovered the bones and teeth of nine more individuals of the Ardipithecus ramidus species, on the northern bank of the Awash River in Ethiopia, west of Hadar. Ardipithecus is similar to most of the primitive previously recognized hominins, but unlike them, Ardipithecus ramidus had a big toe that retained its grasping ability, adapted for climbing trees. However, scientists argue that other features of its skeleton reflect an adaptation to upright posture. Like late hominins, Ardi had reduced fangs. His brain was about the size of a modern chimpanzee and about 20% the size of a brain. modern man . Their teeth say that they ate both fruits and leaves without preference, and this is already the path to omnivorousness. In terms of social behavior, slight sexual dimorphism may indicate a decrease in aggression and competition between males in a group. The legs of the ramidus are well suited for walking both in the forest and in the conditions of meadows, swamps and lakes. 4. Australopithecus (Australopithecus), here it should immediately be noted that there is also the concept of Australopithecus, which includes 5 more genera and is divided into 3 groups: a) early Australopithecus (7.0 - 3.9 million years ago); b) gracile australopithecines (3.9 - 1.8 million years ago); c) massive australopithecines (2.6 - 0.9 million years ago). But Australopithecus as a genus is a fossil higher primate with signs of upright walking and anthropoid features in the structure of the skull. Who lived in the period from 4.2 to 1.8 million years ago. Let's consider 6 types of Australopithecus: 4.1. The Australopithecus anamensis of Anamen is believed to be the ancestor of humans, who lived about four million years ago. Fossils have been found in Kenya and Ethiopia. The first find of the species was discovered in 1965 near Lake Turkana in Kenya, previously the lake was called Rudolf. Then, in 1989, teeth of this species were found on the northern coast of Turkana, but on the territory of modern Ethiopia. And already in 1994, about a hundred additional fragments from two dozen hominids were discovered, including one complete lower jaw, with teeth resembling human ones. And only in 1995, on the basis of the described finds, the species was identified as Anamsky Australopithecus, which is considered a descendant of the species Ardipithecus ramidus. And in 2006, a new find of the Anaman Australopithecus was announced, in northeastern Ethiopia, about 10 km. from the site of the finds of Ardipithecus ramidus. The age of the Anamese australopithecines is about 4-4.5 million years. Anamsky Australopithecus is considered the ancestor of the following species of Australopithecus. 4.2. The Afar Australopithecus (Australopithecus afarensis), or "Lucy", after the first find, is an extinct hominid that lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years ago. The Afar Australopithecus was closely related to the genus Homo, either as a direct ancestor or close relative of an unknown common ancestor. Lucy herself, 3.2 million years old, was discovered in 1974 in the Afar Basin near the village of Hadar in Ethiopia on November 24. "Lucy" was represented by an almost complete skeleton. And the name "Lucy" was inspired by the Beatles song "Lucy in the sky with diamonds." Afar australopithecines have also been found in other localities such as Omo, Maka, Feige and Belohdeli in Ethiopia and Koobi Fore and Lotagam in Kenya. Representatives of the species had fangs and molars relatively larger than those of modern humans, and the brain was still small - from 380 to 430 cubic cm - the face was with protruding lips. The anatomy of the arms, legs, and shoulder joints suggests that the creatures were partially arboreal and not only terrestrial, although in general anatomy the pelvis is much more human-like. However, due to the anatomical structure, they could already walk with an upright gait. The upright posture of the Afar Australopithecus may just be due to climate change in Africa from the jungle to the savannah. In Tanzania, 20 km from the Sadiman volcano, in 1978 footprints of a family of upright hominids were discovered, preserved in volcanic ash south of Olduvai Gorge. Based on sexual dimorphism - the difference in body size between males and females - these creatures most likely lived in small family groups containing one dominant and larger male and several small breeding females. "Lucy" would live in a group culture that involves communication. In 2000, the skeletal remains of what is believed to be a 3-year-old child of Afar australopithecines, who lived 3.3 million years ago, were discovered in the Dikik area. These Australopithecus, according to archaeological finds, used stone tools for cutting meat from animal carcasses and crushing. But this is only the use, not the manufacture of them. 4.3. Australopithecus Bahr el Ghazal (Australopithecus bahrelghazali) or Abel is a fossil hominin, first discovered in 1993 in the Bahr el Ghazal Valley at the archaeological site of Koro Toro in Chad. Abel is approximately 3.6-3 million years old. The find consists of a mandibular fragment, the lower second incisor, both the lower canines and all four of its premolars. AT separate view this australopithecine was in this due to its lower three root premolars. It is also the first australopithecine discovered north of the previous ones, which indicates their wide distribution. 4.4 The African Australopithecus (Australopithecus africanus) was an early hominid that lived 3.3 to 2.1 million years ago during the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene. Unlike the previous species, it had a larger brain and more human-like features. Many scientists believe that he is the ancestor of modern humans. The African Australopithecus has only been found at four sites in southern Africa - Taung in 1924, Sterkfontein in 1935, Makapansgat in 1948 and Gladysvale in 1992. The first find was a baby skull known as the "Taung Baby" and described by Raymond Dart, who named it Australopithecus africanus, meaning "southern monkey of Africa". He claimed that this species was intermediate between apes and humans. Further discoveries confirmed their separation into a new species. This australopithecine was a bipedal hominid with arms slightly longer than legs. Despite its somewhat more human-like cranial features, other more primitive features are present, including simian-like, curved climbing fingers. But the pelvis was more adapted to bipedalism than in the previous species. 4.5. Australopithecus garhi (Australopithecus garhi), 2.5 million years old, was discovered in Ethiopia in the Bowri deposits. "Garhi" means "surprise" in the local Afar language. For the first time, tools similar to the Aldovan culture of stone processing were found along with the remains. 4.6. Australopithecus sediba (Australopithecus sediba) is a species of australopithecines of the early Pleistocene, represented by fossils dating back to about 2 million years. This species is known from four incomplete skeletons found in South Africa in a place called the "cradle of mankind", 50 km northwest of Johannesburg, within the Malapa cave. The discovery was made thanks to the Google Earth service. "Sediba" means "spring" in the Sotho language. Australopithecus sediba, two adults, and one 18-month-old infant were found together. In total, more than 220 fragments have been excavated so far. Australopithecus sediba may have lived in the savannah, but the diet included fruits and other forest products. The height of the sediba was about 1.3 meters. The first specimen of Australopithecus sediba was discovered by 9-year-old Matthew, son of paleoanthropologist Lee Berger, on August 15, 2008. The mandible found was part of a young male whose skull was discovered later in March 2009 by Berger and his team. Also in the area of ​​the cave were found fossils of various animals, including saber-toothed cats, mongooses and antelopes. The volume of the brain of a sediba was about 420-450 cubic cm, which is about three times less than that of modern people. Australopithecus sediba had a remarkably modern hand whose precision of grip suggests the use and manufacture of a tool. Sediba probably belonged to a late South African branch of Australopithecus, which coexisted with members of the genus Homo already living at that time. Currently, some scientists are trying to clarify the dates and look for a connection between Australopithecus sediba and the genus Homo. 5. Paranthropus (Paranthropus) - a genus of fossil higher primates. They have been found in Eastern and South Africa . They are also called massive australopithecines. Paranthropus finds are dated from 2.7 to 1 million years ago. 5.1. Ethiopian Paranthropus (Paranthropus aethiopicus or Australopithecus aethiopicus) The species was described from a 1985 find in the Turkana Lake area, Kenya, known as the "black skull" because of its dark color due to its manganese content. The skull has been dated to 2.5 million years. But later, part of the lower jaw, discovered in 1967 in the Omo River Valley, Ethiopia, was also attributed to this species. Anthropologists believe that the Ethiopian Paranthropus lived between 2.7 and 2.5 million years ago. They were quite primitive and share many features with the Afar Australopithecus, possibly being their direct descendants. Their special feature was strongly protruding jaws. This species is believed to diverge from the Homo lineage on the evolutionary branch of the hominid tree. 5.2. Boise's Paranthropus (Paranthropus boisei) aka Australopithecus boisei, aka "The Nutcracker" was an early hominin described as the largest of the Paranthropus genus. They lived in East Africa during the Pleistocene era from about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago. The largest skull, found in Konso in Ethiopia, dates back to 1.4 million years. They were 1.2-1.5 m tall, and weighed from 40 to 90 kg. The well-preserved skull of the paranthropus bois was first discovered in Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania in 1959 and was given the name Nutcracker, due to its large teeth and thick enamel. It has been dated at 1.75 million. And 10 years later, in 1969, the son of the discoverer of the "Nutcracker" Mary Leakey Richard discovered another skull of paranthropus boyes in Koobi Fora near Lake Turkana in Kenya. Judging by the structure of the jaws, they ate massive plant foods, and lived in forests and shrouds. According to the structure of the skull, scientists believe that the brain of these Paranthropus was quite primitive, up to 550 cubic cm in volume. 5.3. Paranthropus massive (Paranthropus robustus). The first skull of this species was discovered at Kromdraai in South Africa in 1938 by a schoolboy who later traded it for chocolate to anthropologist Robert Broom. Paranthropus or Massive Australopithecus were bipedal hominids that probably evolved from graceful australopithecines. They are characterized by strong skullcaps, and gorilla-like cranial ridges that suggest strong chewing muscles. They lived between 2 and 1.2 million years ago. The remains of massive paranthropes have been found only within South Africa at Kromdraai, Swartkrans, Drimolen, Gondolin and Coopers. The remains of 130 individuals were found in a cave in Swartkrans. Dental studies have shown that massive paranthropes rarely lived to 17 years of age. The approximate height of the males was about 1.2 m, and their weight was about 54 kg. But the females were a little less than 1 meter tall and weighed about 40 kg, which indicates a fairly large sexual dimorphism. Their brain size ranged from 410 to 530 cc. see. They ate rather massive food, such as tubers and nuts, possibly from open forests and savannahs. 6. Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus) a genus of hominids who lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million years ago in the Pliocene. This genus is represented by one species, Kenyanthropus flatface, but some scientists consider it a separate species of Australopithecus, like Australopithecus flatface, while others attribute it to the Afar Australopithecus. 6.1. The flat-faced Kenyanthropus (Kenyanthropus platyops) was found on the Kenyan side of Lake Turkana in 1999. These Kenyanthropes lived from 3.5 to 3.2 million years ago. This species remains a mystery, and suggests that 3.5 - 2 million years ago there were several humanoid species, each of which was well adapted to life in a certain environment. 7. The genus People or Homo includes both extinct species and Homo sapiens. Extinct species classified as ancestral, especially Homo erectus, or as closely related to modern humans. The earliest representatives of the genus, at the moment, date back to 2.5 million years. 7.1. Homo gautengensis is a species of hominin that was isolated in 2010 after taking a fresh look at a skull found back in 1977 in Sterkfontein Cave in Johannesburg, South Africa, Gotheng. This species is represented by South African fossil hominins, formerly referred to as Handy Man (Homo habilis), Working Man (Homo ergaster), or in some cases Australopithecus. But Australopithecus sediba, who lived at the same time as Homo Gautengensis, turned out to be much more primitive. Homo gautengensis has been identified from skull fragments, teeth, and other parts found at various times in caves at a site called the Cradle of Humankind in South Africa. The oldest specimens are dated at 1.9-1.8 million years. The youngest specimens from Swartkrans date from about 1.0 million to 600 thousand years. According to the description, Homo Gautengensis had large teeth suitable for chewing plants and a small brain, most likely he consumed a predominantly plant food, in contrast to Homo erectus, Homo sapiens and, probably, Homo habilis. According to scientists, he produced and used stone tools, and judging by the burnt animal bones found with the remains of Homo Gautengensis, these hominins used fire. They were a little over 90 cm tall, and their weight was about 50 kg. Homo Gautengensis walked on two legs, but also spent considerable time in the trees, possibly feeding, sleeping, and sheltering from predators. 7.2. Rudolf man (Homo rudolfensis), a species of the genus Homo, who lived 1.7-2.5 million years ago, was first discovered in 1972 on Lake Turkana in Kenya. However, the remains were first described in 1978 by the Soviet anthropologist Valery Alekseev. Remains have also been found in Malawi in 1991 and in Koobi-fora, Kenya in 2012. Rudolf man coexisted in parallel with Homo habilis or skillful man and they could interact. Possibly ancestral to later Homo species. 7.3. Handyman (Homo habilis) is a species of fossil hominin that is considered to be representative of our ancestors. Lived from about 2.4 to 1.4 million years ago, during the Gelazian Pleistocene. The first finds were discovered in Tanzania in 1962-1964. Homo habilis was thought to be the earliest known species of the genus Homo, until the discovery of Homo Gautengensis in 2010. Homo habilis was short and had disproportionately long arms compared to modern humans, but with a flatter face than Australopithecus. The volume of his skull was less than half compared to modern humans. His finds are often accompanied by primitive stone tools from the Olduvai culture, hence the name "Handyman". And if it is easier to describe, then the body of the habilis resembles Australopithecus, with a more human-like face and smaller teeth. Whether Homo habilis was the first hominid to possess stone tool technology remains debatable, as Australopithecus garhi, dated 2.6 million years old, has been found with similar stone tools, and is at least 100,000 to 200,000 years older than Homo habilis. Homo habilis lived in parallel with other bipedal primates such as Paranthropus boisei. But Homo habilis, perhaps through the use of a tool and a more varied diet, appears to have been the forerunner of a whole line of new species by dental analysis, while the remains of Paranthropus boisei have not been found again. It is also possible that Homo habilis coexisted with Homo erectus around 500,000 years ago. 7.4. Homo ergaster is an extinct but one of the earliest species of Homo that lived in eastern and southern Africa during the early Pleistocene, 1.8 - 1.3 million years ago. Named for his advanced hand tool technology, he is sometimes referred to as the African Homo erectus. Some researchers consider the working man to be the ancestor of the Acheulian culture, while other scientists give the palm to the early erectus. There is also evidence of their use of fire. The remains were first discovered in 1949 in southern Africa. And the most complete skeleton was found in Kenya on the western shore of Lake Turkana, it belonged to a teenager and was called "The Boy from Turkana" or also "Nariokotome Boy", his age was 1.6 million years. Often this find is classified as Homo erectus. Homo ergaster is believed to have diverged from the Homo habilis lineage between 1.9 and 1.8 million years ago and existed for about half a million years in Africa. Scientists also believe that they quickly became sexually mature, even in their youth. Its distinguishing feature was also rather tall, about 180 cm. The worker also has less sexual dimorphism than Austropithecus, and this may mean more prosocial behavior. His brain was already larger, up to 900 cubic centimeters. Some scientists believe that they could use a proto-language based on the structure of the cervical vertebrae, but this is only speculation at the moment. 7.5. The Dmanisian hominid (Homo georgicus) or (Homo erectus georgicus) is the first member of the Homo genus to leave Africa. Finds dating back to 1.8 million years were discovered in Georgia in August 1991, described in different years also as Georgian Man (Homo georgicus), Homo erectus georgicus, Dmanisi hominid (Dmanisi) and as Working Man (Homo ergaster). But it was singled out as a separate species and, together with erectus and ergaster, they are also often called archanthropes, or if we add here the Heidelberg man of Europe and Sinanthropus from China, we will already get Pithecanthropes. In 1991 by David Lordkipanidze. Along with ancient human remains, tools and animal bones were found. The brain volume of Dmanisian hominids is approximately 600-700 cubic centimeters - two times less than that of modern humans. This is the smallest hominid brain found outside of Africa, other than the Floresian man (Homo floresiensis). The Dmanisian hominid was bipedal and shorter than the abnormally tall ergaster, the average height of males was about 1.2m. Dental conditions indicate omnivory. But among the archaeological finds, evidence of the use of fire was not found. Possibly a descendant of Rudolf Man. 7.6. Homo erectus, or simply Erectus, is an extinct species of hominin that lived from the end of the Pliocene to the late Pleistocene, approximately 1.9 million to 300,000 years ago. About 2 million years ago, the climate in Africa just changed to drier. The long time of existence and migration could not but create many different views of scientists on this species. According to the available data and their interpretation, the species originated in Africa, then migrated to India, China and to the island of Java. In general, Homo erectus settled in the warm parts of Eurasia. But some scientists suggest that erectus appeared in Asia and only then migrated to Africa. Erectus have existed for over a million years, longer than other human species. The classification and lineage of Homo erectus is quite controversial. But there are some subspecies of erectus. 7.6.1 Pithecanthropus or "Javanese Man" - Homo erectus erectus 7.6.2 Yuanmou Man - Homo erectus yuanmouensis 7.6.3 Lantian Man - Homo erectus lantianensis 7.6.4 Nanjing Man - Homo erectus nankinensis 7.6.5 Sinanthropus or "Beijing Man" - Homo erectus pekinensis 7.6.6 Meganthrope - Homo erectus palaeojavanicus 7.6.7 Javanthrope or Soloyan man - Homo erectus soloensis 7.6.8 Man from Totavel - Homo erectus tautavelensis 7.6.9 Dmanisian hominid - Homo erectus georgicus 7.6.10 Man from Bilzingsleben - Homo erectus bilzingslebenensis 7. 6.11 Atlantrop or Moorish man - Homo erectus mauritanicus 7.6.12 Cerpano man - Homo cepranensis, some scientists distinguish it, like many other subspecies, into a separate species, but the 1994 find in the vicinity of Rome is represented only by a cranium, so there is little data for more thorough analysis. Homo erectus got its name for a reason, its legs were adapted for both walking and running. Temperature metabolism was increased by thinner and shorter body hair. It is possible that erectus have already become hunters. Smaller teeth may indicate a change in diet, most likely due to fire treatment. And this is already a way to increase the brain, the volume of which in erectus varied from 850 to 1200 cubic cm. They were up to 178 cm tall. Erectus sexual dimorphism was less than that of its predecessors. They lived in hunter-gatherer groups and hunted together. They used fire both for warmth and cooking, and to scare away predators. They made tools, hand axes, flakes, and in general were carriers of the Acheulean culture. In 1998, there were suggestions that they were building rafts. 7.7. Homo antecessor is an extinct human species, between 1.2 million and 800,000 years old. Found in the Sierra de Atapuerca in 1994. The fossil of the upper jaw and part of the skull, 900 thousand years old, discovered in Spain, belonged to a boy of a maximum of 15 years. Many bones, both animal and human, were found nearby, bearing marks that could indicate cannibalism. Nearly all of those eaten were teenagers or children. At the same time, there was no evidence indicating a lack of food in the vicinity at that time. They were about 160-180 cm tall and weighed about 90 kg. The volume of the human brain of the previous (Homo antecessor) was about 1000-1150 cubic centimeters. Scientists suggest a rudimentary ability to speak. 7.8. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) or protanthropus (Protanthropus heidelbergensis) is an extinct species of the genus Homo, which may be the direct ancestor of both Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis), if we consider its development in Europe, and Homo sapiens, but only in Africa. The discovered remains were dated from 800 to 150 thousand years. The first records of this species were made in 1907 by Daniel Hartmann in the village of Mauer in southwestern Germany. After that, representatives of the species were found in France, Italy, Spain, Greece and China. Also in 1994, a discovery was made in England near the village of Boxgrove, hence the name "Man from Boxgrove" (Boxgrove Man). However, there is also the name of the area - "horse slaughterhouse", which involves butchering horse carcasses with stone tools. Heidelberg man used the tools of the Acheulean culture, sometimes with transitions to the Mousterian culture. They were on average 170 cm tall, and in South Africa there were finds of individuals 213 cm tall and dated from 500 to 300 thousand years. Heidelberg man may have been the first species to bury their dead, based on 28 remains found in Atapuerca, Spain. He may have used tongue and red ocher as decoration, as evidenced by finds at Terra Amata near Nice on the slopes of Mount Boron. Dental analysis suggests they were right-handed. Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) was an advanced hunter, judging by hunting tools such as spears from Schöningen in Germany. 7.8.1. Rhodesian man (Homo rhodesiensis) is an extinct subspecies of hominins that lived from 400 to 125 thousand years ago. The Kabwe fossil skull is a typical specimen of this species, found in the Broken Hill Caves in Northern Rhodesia, now Zambia, by the Swiss miner Tom Zwieglaar in 1921. Previously, it stood out as a separate species. The Rhodesian man was massive, with very large eyebrows and a broad face. He is sometimes called the "African Neanderthal", although he has intermediate features between sapiens and Neanderthals. 7.9. Florisbad (Homo helmei) is described as an "archaic" Homo sapiens that lived 260,000 years ago. Represented by a partially preserved skull that was discovered in 1932 by Professor Dreyer within the archaeological and paleontological site of Florisbad near Bloemfontein in South Africa. It may be an intermediate form between Heidelberg man (Homo heidelbergensis) and Homo sapiens. Florisbad was the same size as a modern human, but with a large brain volume of about 1400 cubic cm. 7.10 The Neanderthal (Homo neanderthalensis) is an extinct species or subspecies within the genus Homo, closely related to, and interbred with, modern humans. The term "Neanderthal" comes from the modern spelling of the Neander Valley in Germany, where the species was first discovered in the Feldhofer Cave. Neanderthals existed, according to genetic data from 600 thousand years ago. years ago, and according to archaeological finds from 250 to 28 thousand years ago, with the last refuge in Gibraltar. The finds are currently being intensively studied and it makes no sense to describe in more detail, since I will return to this species again and possibly more than once. 7.11. Homo Naledi Fossils were discovered in 2013 in the Dinaledi Chamber, Rising Star Cave System, Gauteng Province in South Africa and were quickly recognized as the remains of a new species in 2015, and distinct from those previously found. In 2017, the finds are dated from 335 to 236 thousand years ago. The remains of fifteen individuals, both male and female, were recovered from the cave, among them were children. The new species has been named Homo naledi and has an unexpected combination of modern and primitive features, including a fairly small brain. The growth of "Naledi" was about one and a half meters, the volume of the brain was from 450 to 610 cubic meters. See The word "ice" means "star" in the Sotho-Tswana languages. 7.12. Floresian man (Homo floresiensis) or Hobbit is an extinct dwarf species of the genus Homo. The Floresian man lived from 100 to 60 thousand years ago. Archaeological remains were discovered by Mike Morewood in 2003 on the island of Flores in Indonesia. Incomplete skeletons of nine individuals have been recovered, including one complete skull, from Liang Bua Cave. A distinctive feature of hobbits, as the name implies, is their height, about 1 meter and a small brain, about 400 cm3. Stone tools were found along with skeletal remains. There is still debate about the Floresian man, whether he could make tools with such a brain. The theory was put forward that the found skull is a microcephalic. But most likely this species evolved from erectus or other species in isolation on the island. 7.13. Denisovans (Denisova hominin) are Paleolithic members of the genus Homo that may belong to earlier unknown species person. It is believed to be the third person, from the Pleistocene, to have demonstrated a level of adaptation previously thought to be unique to modern humans and Neanderthals. Denisovans occupied large territories, stretching from cold Siberia to the tropical rainforests of Indonesia. In 2008, Russian scientists, in Denisova Cave or Ayu-Tash, in the Altai Mountains, a distal phalanx of a girl's finger was discovered, from which mitochondrial DNA was later isolated. The mistress of the phalanx lived in a cave about 41 thousand years ago. This cave was also inhabited by Neanderthals and modern humans in different time. In general, there are not many finds, including teeth and part of the phalanx of the toe, as well as various tools and jewelry, including a bracelet not made of local material. Analysis of the mitochondrial DNA of the finger bone showed that Denisovans are genetically different from Neanderthals and modern humans. They may have split from the Neanderthal line after the split with the Homo sapiens line. Recent analyzes have also shown that they overlapped with our species, and even interbred multiple times, at different times. Up to 5-6% of the DNA of the Melanesians and Australian Aborigines contain Denisovan admixtures. And modern non-Africans have about 2-3% impurities. In 2017, in China, fragments of skulls were found, with a large brain volume, up to 1800 cubic cm and an age of 105-125 thousand years. Some scientists based on their description suggested that they could belong to the Denisovans, but these versions are currently controversial. 7.14. Idaltu (Homo sapiens idaltu) is an extinct subspecies of Homo sapiens that lived about 160 thousand years ago in Africa. "Idaltu" means "firstborn". Fossils of Homo sapiens idaltu were discovered in 1997 by Tim White at Kherto Buri in Ethiopia. Although the morphology of the skulls indicates archaic features that are not found in later Homo sapiens, they are still considered by scientists to be the direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens sapiens. 7.15. Homo sapiens is a species of the hominin family from a large detachment of primates. And it is the only living species of this genus, that is, us. If someone is reading or listening to this is not of our kind, write in the comments ...). Representatives of the species first appeared in Africa about 200 or 315 thousand years ago, given the latest data from Jebel Irhud, but there are still many questions. Then they spread almost all over the planet. Although in a more modern form as Homo sapiens sapiens, well, very reasonable person, appeared just over 100 thousand years ago, according to some anthropologists. Also in early times, in parallel with people, other species and populations developed, such as Neanderthals and Denisovans, as well as the Soloy man or Javanthropus, the Ngandong man and the Callao Man, as well as others that do not fit into the species. A reasonable man, but according to dating, who lived at the same time. As for example: 7.15.1. The Red Deer Cave people are an extinct population of humans, the latest known to science, that does not fit within the variability of Homo sapiens. And possibly belongs to another species of the genus Homo. They were discovered in the south of China in the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region in the Longlin cave in 1979. The age of the remains is from 11.5 to 14.3 thousand years. Although they may well be the results of cross-breeding between different populations that lived at that time. These issues will still be discussed on the channel, so a brief description is enough for now. And now, who watched the video from beginning to end, put the letter "P" in the comments, and if in parts then "H", only to be honest!

Homosapiens- a species that includes four subspecies - Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences Anatoly DEREVYANKO

Photo ITAR-TASS

Until recently, it was believed that a modern human species originated in Africa about 200 thousand years ago.

"Modern biological type" means in this case us. That is, we, today's people, are homo sapiens (more precisely, Homosapienssapiens) are direct descendants of certain creatures that appeared exactly there and then. Previously, they were called Cro-Magnons, but today this designation is considered obsolete.

About 80 thousand years ago, this "modern man" began his victorious march across the planet. Victorious in the literal sense: it is believed that in that campaign he ousted other human forms from life - for example, the famous Neanderthals.

But recently, evidence has emerged that this is not entirely true ...

The following circumstances led to this conclusion.

A few years ago, an expedition of Russian archaeologists and specialists in other sciences, led by Academician Anatoly Derevyanko, director of the Institute of Archeology and Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, discovered the remains of an ancient man in Denisovskaya Cave in Altai.

Culturally, he fully corresponded to the level of contemporary sapiens: tools were at the same technological level, and love for jewelry indicated a fairly high stage for those times. community development. But biologically...

It turned out that the DNA structure of the found remains differs from the genetic code of living people. But this was not the main sensation. It turned out that this - according to all, we repeat, technological and cultural signs - a reasonable person turned out to be ... an “alien”. According to genetics, he moved away from the common line of ancestors with us at least 800 thousand years ago! Yes, even Neanderthals are kinder to us!

“We are apparently talking about a new species of man that was not previously known to world science,” said Svante Paabo, legendary director of the department of evolutionary genetics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, on this occasion. Well, he knows better: it was he who analyzed the DNA of an unexpected find.

So what happens? While we humans were climbing the evolutionary ladder, was some competitive “humanity” climbing up in parallel with us?

Yes, Academician Derevianko believes. Moreover: in his opinion, there may be at least four such centers where different groups of people aspired to the title of a reasonable person in parallel and independently of each other!

He told ITAR-TASS about the main provisions of the new concept, sometimes already called the "new revolution in anthropology".

Before getting to the heart of the matter, let's start with the "pre-revolutionary situation". What was before the current events, what was the picture of human evolution?

We can confidently say that humanity originated in Africa. The first traces of creatures that have learned to make tools are found today in the East African Rift, which stretches in the meridional direction from the Dead Sea depression through the Red Sea and further through Ethiopia, Kenya, and Tanzania.

The spread of the first people to Eurasia and their settlement of vast territories in Asia and Europe took place in the mode of gradual development of the most favorable ecological niches for living and then moving to adjacent areas. Scientists attribute the beginning of the process of human penetration into Eurasia to a wide chronological range from 2 to 1 million years ago.

The most numerous population of ancient Homo that emerged from Africa was associated with the species Homo ergaster-erectus and the so-called Aldovan industry. Industry in this context means a certain technology, a culture of stone processing. Oldowan or Oldowan - the most primitive of them, when a stone, most often pebbles, which is why this culture is also called pebble, was split in half to get a sharp edge without additional processing.

About 450–350 thousand years ago, the movement of the second global migration flow from the Middle East began to the east of Eurasia. It is associated with the spread of the late Acheulian industry, in which people made macroliths - stone axes, flakes.

During its advancement, a new human population in many territories met the population of the first migration wave, and therefore there is a mixture of two industries - pebble and late Acheulean.

But here's what's interesting: judging by the nature of the finds, the second wave reached the territory of only India and Mongolia. She didn't go further. In any case, there is a noticeable difference in the whole industry of Eastern and South-East Asia from the industry of the rest of Eurasia. And this means, in turn, that since the first appearance of the oldest human populations in East and Southeast Asia 1.8–1.3 million years ago, there has been a continuous and independent development of both the physical type of man and his culture. And this alone contradicts the theory of the monocentric origin of the modern type of man.

- But you just said that man originated in Africa? ..

It is very important to emphasize, and I didn’t do it by chance: we are talking about a person of a modern anatomical type. According to the monocentric hypothesis, it formed 200–150 thousand years ago in Africa, and 80–60 thousand years ago it began to spread to Eurasia and Australia.

However, this hypothesis leaves many problems unresolved.

For example, researchers are primarily faced with the question: why, if a person of a modern physical type arose at least 150 thousand years ago, then the culture of the Upper Paleolithic, which is associated with Homo sapiens, appeared only 50–40 thousand years ago?

Or: if the Upper Paleolithic culture spread to other continents with modern man, then why did its products appear almost simultaneously in very remote regions of Eurasia? And besides, they differ significantly from each other in terms of the main technical and typological characteristics?

And further. According to archaeological data, a person of a modern physical type settled in Australia 50, or maybe 60 thousand years ago, while in the territories adjacent to East Africa on the African continent itself, he appeared ... later! In South Africa, judging by anthropological finds, it was about 40 thousand years ago, in Central and Western Africa, apparently, about 30 thousand years ago, and only in North Africa, about 50 thousand years ago. How to explain the fact that modern man first penetrated into Australia, and only then settled on the African continent?

And how, from the point of view of monocentrism, to explain the fact that Homo sapiens was able to overcome a gigantic distance (more than 10 thousand km) in 5-10 thousand years without leaving any traces on the path of its movement? Indeed, in South, Southeast and East Asia 80–30 thousand years ago, in the event of the replacement of the autochthonous population by newcomers, a complete change in the industry should have occurred, but this is not at all traceable in the east of Asia. Moreover, between the regions with the Upper Paleolithic industry there were territories where the Middle Paleolithic culture continued to exist.

Sailed on something, as some suggest? But in South and East Africa, at the sites of the final stage of the middle and early stages of the Upper Paleolithic, no means of navigation have been found. Moreover, in these industries there are no tools for working wood, and without them it is impossible to build boats and other similar means by which it was possible to go to Australia.

What about genetic data? After all, they show that all modern people are descendants of one “father”, who lived just in Africa and just about 80 thousand years ago ...

Well, in fact, monocentrists, based on the study of DNA variability in modern people, suggest that it was in the period of 80-60 thousand years ago that a population explosion occurred in Africa, and as a result of a sharp increase in population and lack of food resources, the migration wave splashed into Eurasia .

But with all due respect to the data of genetic studies, it is impossible to believe in the infallibility of these conclusions without any convincing archaeological and anthropological evidence to confirm them. Meanwhile, there are none!

Look here. It must be borne in mind that with an average life expectancy at that time of about 25 years, offspring in most cases remained without parents even at an immature age. With high postnatal and infant mortality, as well as mortality among adolescents due to the early loss of parents, there is no reason to talk about a population explosion.

But even if we agree that 80 - 60 thousand years ago in East Africa there was a rapid population growth, which determined the need to search for new food resources and, accordingly, the settlement of new territories, the question arises: why were migration flows initially directed far to the east? all the way to Australia?

In a word, the vast archaeological material of the studied Paleolithic sites of South, Southeast and East Asia in the range of 60–30 thousand years ago does not allow us to trace the wave of migration of anatomically modern people from Africa. In these territories, there is not only a change in culture, which should have occurred in the event of the replacement of the autochthonous population by newcomers, but also well-defined innovations indicating acculturation. Such authoritative researchers as F.J. Khabgood and N.R. Franklin's conclusion is unambiguous: Indigenous Australians never had the full African "package" of innovations because they were not of African descent.

Or take China. Extensive archaeological material from hundreds of studied Paleolithic sites in East and Southeast Asia testifies to the continuity of the development of the industry in this territory over the past million years. Perhaps, as a result of paleoecological catastrophes (cooling, etc.), the range of ancient human populations in the Sino-Malay zone narrowed, but the archanthropes never left it. Here both the man himself and his culture developed evolutionarily, without any significant outside influences. There is no resemblance to African industries in the chronological interval of 70–30 thousand years ago in Southeast and East Asia. According to the available extensive archaeological material, no migration of people from the west to the territory of China in the chronological interval of 120-30 thousand years ago is also traced.

On the other hand, over the past 50 years, numerous finds have been discovered in China, which make it possible to trace the continuity not only between the ancient anthropological type and modern Chinese populations, but also between Homo erectus and Homo sapiens. In addition, they exhibit mosaic morphological features. This indicates a gradual transition from one species to another and indicates that human evolution in China is characterized by continuity and hybridization or interspecific crossing.

In other words, in East and Southeast Asia, for more than 1 million years, there has been evolutionary development Asian Homo erectus. This does not exclude the arrival of small populations from adjacent regions and the possibility of gene exchange, especially in the territories bordering with neighboring populations. But given the proximity of the Paleolithic industries of East and Southeast Asia and their difference from the industries of adjacent western regions, it can be argued that at the end of the Middle - beginning of the Upper Pleistocene, a person of the modern physical type Homo sapiens orientalensis was formed on the basis of the autochthonous erectoid form Homo in East and Southeast Asia, along with Africa.

That is, it turns out that the path to sapiens was traversed by different, independent descendants of erectus? From one cutting, different shoots developed, which then again intertwined into one trunk? How can this be?

Let's look at the history of the Neanderthals to understand this process. Moreover, over 150 years of research, hundreds of different sites, settlements, burials of this species have been studied.

Neanderthals settled mainly in Europe. Their morphological type was adapted to the harsh climatic conditions of northern latitudes. In addition, their Paleolithic locations have also been discovered in the Near East, Western and Central Asia, and southern Siberia.

They were short stocky people with great physical strength. The volume of their brain was 1400 cubic centimeters and was not inferior to the average brain volume of modern people. Many archaeologists drew attention to the great efficiency of the Neanderthal industry at the final stage of the Middle Paleolithic and the presence of many of the behavioral elements characteristic of a modern human anatomical type. There is much evidence of deliberate burial by Neanderthals of their relatives. They used tools similar to those that developed in parallel in Africa and the East. They exhibited many other elements of modern human behavior. It is no coincidence that this species - or subspecies - is also referred to as "intelligent" today: Homo sapiens neanderthalensis.

But he was born in the period of 250 - 300 thousand years ago! That is, it also developed in parallel, not under the influence of the "African" man, which can be designated as Homo sapiens africaniensis . And we are left with only one solution: to consider the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic in Western and Central Europe as an autochthonous phenomenon.

- Yes, but there are no Neanderthals today! Like there is no Chinese Homosapiensorientalensis…

Yes, according to many researchers, subsequently Neanderthals were replaced in Europe by a man of a modern anatomical type who came out of Africa. But others believe that perhaps the fate of the Neanderthals is not so sad. One of the largest anthropologists, Eric Trinkaus, comparing 75 signs of Neanderthals and modern people, came to the conclusion that about a quarter of the signs are characteristic of both Neanderthals and modern people, the same number - only Neanderthals and about half - modern people.

In addition, data from genetic studies show that up to 4 percent of the genome in modern non-Africans is borrowed from Neanderthals. The well-known researcher Richard Green with co-authors, including geneticists, anthropologists and archaeologists, made a very important remark: "... Neanderthals are equally closely related to the Chinese, Papuans and French." He notes that the results of studying the Neanderthal genome may not be compatible with the hypothesis of the origin of modern humans from a small African population, then crowding out all other forms of Homo and settling around the planet.

At the present level of research, there is no doubt that in the border areas inhabited by Neanderthals and people of modern type, or in the territories of their cross-settlement, there were processes not only of diffusion of cultures, but also of hybridization and assimilation. Homo sapiens neanderthalensis undoubtedly contributed to the morphology and genome of modern humans.

Now is the time to remember your sensational discovery in the Denisovskaya cave in Altai, where another species or subspecies of an ancient man was discovered. And also - the tools are quite sapiens, but genetically - they are not of African origin, and there are more differences with Homo sapiens than with Neanderthals. Although he is not a Neanderthal either ...

As a result of field research in Altai over the past quarter of a century, more than 70 cultural horizons belonging to the Early, Middle and Upper Paleolithic have been identified at nine cave sites and more than 10 open sites. The chronological range of 100–30 thousand years ago includes about 60 cultural horizons, saturated to varying degrees with archaeological and paleontological material.

Based on the extensive material obtained from field and laboratory studies, it is possible to with good reason argue that the development of human culture in this area occurred as a result of the evolutionary development of the Middle Paleolithic industry without any noticeable influences associated with the infiltration of populations with another culture.

- That is, no one came and did no innovations?

Judge for yourself. In Denisova Cave, 14 cultural layers have been identified, in some of them several habitation horizons have been traced. The most ancient finds, apparently related to the late Acheulian time - early Middle Paleolithic, were recorded in the 22nd layer - 282 ± 56 thousand years ago. Next is the gap. The following cultural horizons from 20 to 12 belong to the Middle Paleolithic, and layers 11 and 9 are Upper Paleolithic. Note that there is no gap here.

In all Middle Paleolithic horizons, a continuous evolution of the stone industry is traced. Of particular importance are materials from cultural horizons 18–12, which belong to the chronological interval of 90–50 thousand years ago. But what is especially important: these are things, in general, of the same level that a person of our biological type had. Vivid confirmation of the “modern” behavior of the population of Gorny Altai 50–40 thousand years ago is the bone industry (needles, awls, bases for composite tools) and non-utilitarian items made of bone, stone, shells (beads, pendants, etc.). An unexpected find turned out to be a fragment of a stone bracelet, the design of which used several techniques: grinding, polishing, sawing and drilling.

About 45 thousand years ago, the Mousterian-type industry appeared in Altai. This is the Neanderthal culture. That is, some group of them got here and settled for a while. Apparently, this small population was driven out of Central Asia (for example, Uzbekistan, Teshik-Tash cave) by a man of a modern physical type.

It did not last long on the territory of Altai. Its fate is unknown: either it was assimilated by the autochthonous population, or it died out.

As a result, we see that all the archaeological material accumulated as a result of almost 30 years of field research of multilayer cave sites and open-type sites in Altai convincingly testifies to the autochthonous, independent formation here 50–45 thousand years ago of the Upper Paleolithic industry, one of the most striking and expressive in Eurasia. This means that the formation of the culture of the Upper Paleolithic, characteristic of modern humans, occurs in Altai as a result of the evolutionary development of the autochthonous Middle Paleolithic industry.

At the same time, genetically they are not “our” people, right? A study conducted by the famous Svante Paabo showed that we are even less related to them than to Neanderthals ...

We did not expect this! After all, judging by the stone and bone industry, the presence of a large number of non-utilitarian items, the methods and techniques of life support, the presence of items obtained by exchange over many hundreds of kilometers, the people who lived in Altai had modern human behavior. And we, archaeologists, were sure that genetically this population belonged to people of the modern anatomical type.

However, the results of the decoding of human nuclear DNA, made on the phalanx of a finger from the Denisova Cave at the same Institute of Population Genetics, were unexpected for everyone. The Denisovan genome deviated from the reference human genome 804 thousand years ago! And they split with the Neanderthals 640,000 years ago.

But there were no Neanderthals back then, were there?

Yes, and this means that the common ancestral population for Denisovans and Neanderthals left Africa more than 800 thousand years ago. And settled, apparently, in the Middle East. And about 600 thousand years ago, part of another part of the population migrated from the Middle East. At the same time, the ancestors of modern man remained in Africa and developed there in their own way.
But on the other hand, Denisovans left 4-6 percent of their genetic material in the genomes of modern Melanesians. Like Neanderthals in Europeans. So, although they did not survive to our time in their appearance, they cannot be attributed to a dead-end branch in human evolution. They are in us!

Thus, in general, human evolution can be represented as follows.

At the heart of the entire chain leading to the emergence of a modern anatomical type in Africa and Eurasia is the ancestral basis of Homo erectus sensu lato. Apparently, the entire evolution of the sapient line of human development is connected with this polytypic species.

The second migration wave of erectoid forms came to Central Asia, South Siberia and Altai about 300 thousand years ago, probably from the Middle East. From this chronological milestone, we trace in Denisova Cave and other locations in caves and open-type sites in Altai the continuous convergent development of stone industries, and, consequently, the very physical type of man.

The industry here was by no means primitive or archaic compared to the rest of Eurasia and Africa. It was focused on the ecological conditions of this particular region. In the Sino-Malay zone, the evolutionary development of both the industry and the anatomical type of the person himself took place on the basis of erectoid forms. This makes it possible to single out a modern type of man, formed in this territory, as a subspecies of Homo sapiens orientalensis.

In the same way, Homo sapiens altaiensis and its material and spiritual culture developed convergently in Southern Siberia.

In turn, Homo sapiens neanderthalensis developed autochthonously in Europe. Here, however, there is a less pure case, since people of the modern type from Africa got here. The form of the relationship between these two subspecies is disputed, but genetics in any case shows that part of the Neanderthal genome is present in modern humans.

Thus, it remains to draw only one conclusion: Homo sapiens is a species that includes four subspecies. These are Homo sapiens africaniensis (Africa), Homo sapiens orientalensis (Southeast and East Asia), Homo sapiens Neanderthalensis (Europe), and Homo sapiens altaiensis (North and Central Asia). All archaeological, anthropological and genetic studies, from our point of view, testify to this!

Alexander Tsyganov (ITAR-TASS, Moscow)

Subsections

Where did Homo sapiens come from

We humans are so different! Black, yellow and white, tall and short, brunettes and blonds, smart and not very smart... But the blue-eyed Scandinavian giant, and the dark-skinned pygmy from the Andaman Islands, and the dark-skinned nomad from the African Sahara - they are all just part of one, united humanity. And this statement is not a poetic image, but a strictly established scientific fact supported by the latest data from molecular biology. But where to look for the origins of this many-sided living ocean? Where, when and how did the first human being appear on the planet? It is amazing, but even in our enlightened time, almost half of the inhabitants of the United States and a significant proportion of Europeans give their votes to the divine act of creation, and among the rest there are many supporters of alien intervention, which, in fact, is not much different from God's providence. However, even standing on firm scientific evolutionary positions, it is unambiguously impossible to answer this question.

"Man has no reason to be ashamed
ape-like ancestors. I'd rather be ashamed
come from a vain and talkative person,
who, not content with dubious success
in its own activities, intervenes
into scientific disputes about which he has no
representation".

T. Huxley (1869)

Not everyone knows that the roots of the version of the origin of man, different from the biblical one, are in European science go back to the vague 1600s, when the works of the Italian philosopher L. Vanini and the English lord, lawyer and theologian M. Hale with the eloquent titles “On the Original Origin of Man” (1615) and “The Original Origin of the Human Race, Considered and Tested” were published. according to the light of nature" (1671).

The baton of thinkers who recognized the relationship of man and animals such as monkeys in the 18th century. was picked up by the French diplomat B. De Malier, and then by D. Burnett, Lord Monboddo, who proposed the idea of ​​a common origin of all anthropoids, including humans and chimpanzees. And the French naturalist J.-L. Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, in his multi-volume Natural History of Animals, published a century before Charles Darwin's scientific bestseller The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection (1871), directly stated that man descended from apes.

So to late XIX in. the idea of ​​man as a product of a long evolution of more primitive humanoid beings was fully formed and matured. Moreover, in 1863, the German evolutionary biologist E. Haeckel even christened a hypothetical creature that should serve as an intermediate link between man and ape, Pithecanthropus alatus, i.e., an ape-man, devoid of speech (from the Greek pitekos - monkey and anthropos - man). The only thing left was to find this Pithecanthropus "in the flesh", which was done in the early 1890s. Dutch anthropologist E. Dubois, who found on about. Java remains of a primitive hominin.

From that moment on, primitive man received an “official residence permit” on planet Earth, and the issue of geographical centers and the course of anthropogenesis became on the agenda - no less acute and debatable than the very origin of man from ape-like ancestors. And thanks to the amazing discoveries of recent decades, made jointly by archaeologists, anthropologists and paleogenetics, the problem of the formation of a modern type of man again, as in Darwin's time, received a huge public outcry, going beyond the scope of ordinary scientific discussion.

African cradle

The history of the search for the ancestral home of modern man, full of amazing discoveries and unexpected plot twists, at the initial stages was a chronicle of anthropological findings. The attention of naturalists was primarily attracted by the Asian continent, including Southeast Asia, where Dubois discovered the bone remains of the first hominin, later named Homo erectus (Homo erectus). Then in the 1920-1930s. in Central Asia, in the Zhoukoudian cave in Northern China, numerous fragments of the skeletons of 44 individuals that lived there 460-230 thousand years ago were found. These people named synanthropes, at one time was considered the oldest link in the human genealogy.

In the history of science, it is difficult to find a more exciting and controversial problem that attracts general interest than the problem of the origin of life and the formation of its intellectual peak - humanity.

Gradually, however, Africa emerged as the "cradle of mankind". In 1925, fossil remains of a hominin named australopithecine, and in the next 80 years, hundreds of similar remains were discovered in the south and east of this continent, "age" from 1.5 to 7 million years.

In the region of the East African rift, which stretches in the meridional direction from the Dead Sea depression through the Red Sea and further through the territory of Ethiopia, Kenya and Tanzania, the most ancient sites with stone products of the Olduvai type (choppers, choppings, roughly retouched flakes, etc.) P.). including in the river basin. Over 3,000 primitive stone tools created by the first representative of the genus Homo- skillful person Homo habilis.

Mankind has drastically “aged”: it became obvious that no later than 6-7 million years ago, the common evolutionary trunk was divided into two separate “branches” - apes and Australopithecus, the latter of which laid the foundation for a new, “reasonable” path of development. In the same place, in Africa, the earliest fossil remains of people of the modern anatomical type were discovered - Homo sapiens Homo sapiens, which appeared about 200-150 thousand years ago. Thus, by the 1990s. the theory of the "African" origin of man, supported by the results of genetic studies of different human populations, is becoming generally accepted.

However, between two extreme points counting - the most ancient ancestors of man and modern mankind - lie at least six million years, during which man not only acquired his modern appearance, but also occupied almost the entire habitable territory of the planet. And if Homo sapiens appeared at first only in the African part of the world, then when and how did it populate other continents?

Three outcomes

About 1.8-2.0 million years ago, the distant ancestor of modern man - Homo erectus Homo erectus or close to him Homo ergaster first went beyond Africa and began to conquer Eurasia. This was the beginning of the first Great Migration - a long and gradual process that took hundreds of millennia, which can be traced by the finds of fossil remains and typical tools of the archaic stone industry.

In the first migration flow of the most ancient populations of hominins, two main directions can be outlined - to the north and to the east. The first direction went through the Middle East and the Iranian Plateau to the Caucasus (and, possibly, to Asia Minor) and further to Europe. Evidence of this is the oldest Paleolithic sites in Dmanisi (Eastern Georgia) and Atapuerca (Spain), dated at 1.7-1.6 and 1.2-1.1 million years ago, respectively.

To the east, the earliest evidence of human presence - pebble tools 1.65-1.35 million years old - were found in the caves of South Arabia. Further to the east of Asia, the most ancient people moved in two ways: the northern one went to Central Asia, the southern one went to East and Southeast Asia through the territory of modern Pakistan and India. Judging by the dating of quartzite tool sites in Pakistan (1.9 Ma) and China (1.8-1.5 Ma), as well as anthropological finds in Indonesia (1.8-1.6 Ma), early hominins settled the spaces of South, Southeast and East Asia no later than 1.5 million years ago. And on the border of Central and North Asia, in Southern Siberia on the territory of Altai, the Early Paleolithic Karama site was discovered, in the sediments of which four layers were distinguished with an archaic pebble industry 800-600 thousand years old.

At all the most ancient sites of Eurasia, left by the migrants of the first wave, pebble tools were found, characteristic of the most archaic Olduvai stone industry. At about the same time or somewhat later, representatives of other early hominins came from Africa to Eurasia - carriers of the microlithic stone industry, characterized by the predominance of small-sized items that moved almost in the same ways as their predecessors. These two ancient technological traditions of stone processing played a key role in the formation of the tool activity of primitive mankind.

To date, relatively few bone remains of an ancient person have been found. The main material available to archaeologists is stone tools. According to them, one can trace how the methods of stone processing were improved, how the development of human intellectual abilities took place.

The second global wave of migrants from Africa spread to the Middle East about 1.5 million years ago. Who were the new migrants? Probably, Homo heidelbergensis (Heidelberg man) - a new kind of people, combining both Neanderthaloid and sapiens traits. You can distinguish these "new Africans" by stone tools Acheulean industry made with the help of more advanced stone processing technologies - the so-called levallois splitting technique and methods of two-sided stone processing. Moving east, this migration wave in many territories met with the descendants of the first wave of hominins, which was accompanied by a mixture of two industrial traditions - pebble and late Acheulean.

At the turn of 600 thousand years ago, these immigrants from Africa reached Europe, where Neanderthals subsequently formed - the species closest to modern man. About 450-350 thousand years ago, the bearers of the Acheulean traditions penetrated the east of Eurasia, reaching India and Central Mongolia, but they never reached the eastern and southeastern regions of Asia.

The third exodus from Africa is already associated with a human of a modern anatomical species, which appeared there on the evolutionary arena, as mentioned above, 200-150 thousand years ago. It is assumed that approximately 80-60 thousand years ago Homo sapiens, traditionally considered the bearer of the cultural traditions of the Upper Paleolithic, began to populate other continents: first, the eastern part of Eurasia and Australia, and later - Central Asia and Europe.

And here we come to the most dramatic and controversial part of our history. As genetic studies have proven, today's humanity consists entirely of representatives of one species. Homo sapiens, if you do not take into account creatures such as the mythical yeti. But what happened to the ancient human populations - the descendants of the first and second migration waves from the African continent, who lived in the territories of Eurasia for tens or even hundreds of thousands of years? Have they left their mark on the evolutionary history of our species, and if so, how great was their contribution to modern humanity?

According to the answer to this question, researchers can be divided into two different groups - monocentrists and polycentrists.

Two models of anthropogenesis

At the end of the last century in anthropogenesis, the monocentric point of view on the process of the emergence of Homo sapiens- the hypothesis of the "African Exodus", according to which the only ancestral home of Homo sapiens is the "black continent", from where he settled around the world. Based on the results of the study of genetic variability in modern people, its supporters suggest that 80-60 thousand years ago a population explosion occurred in Africa, and as a result of a sharp increase in population and a lack of food resources, another migration wave “splashed” into Eurasia. Unable to withstand competition with a more evolutionarily perfect species, other modern hominins, such as Neanderthals, fell off the evolutionary distance about 30-25 thousand years ago.

The views of the monocentrists themselves on the course of this process differ. Some believe that the new human populations exterminated or forced out the natives to less convenient areas, where their mortality increased, especially in children, and the birth rate decreased. Others do not exclude the possibility in some cases of long-term coexistence of Neanderthals with people of a modern species (for example, in the south of the Pyrenees), which could have resulted in diffusion of cultures, and sometimes hybridization. Finally, according to the third point of view, there was a process of acculturation and assimilation, as a result of which the aboriginal population simply dissolved in the alien.

It is difficult to fully accept all these conclusions without convincing archaeological and anthropological evidence. Even if we agree with the controversial assumption of rapid population growth, it still remains unclear why this migration flow first went not to neighboring territories, but far to the east, all the way to Australia. By the way, although on this path a reasonable person had to cover a distance of over 10 thousand km, no archaeological evidence of this has yet been found. Moreover, judging by the archaeological data, in the period of 80-30 thousand years ago, there were no changes in the appearance of the local stone industries in South, Southeast and East Asia, which would inevitably have happened if the aboriginal population was replaced by newcomers.

This lack of "road" evidence led to the version that Homo sapiens moved from Africa to the east of Asia along the sea coast, which has turned out to be under water by our time, along with all Paleolithic traces. But with such a development of events, the African stone industry should have appeared in an almost unchanged form on the islands of Southeast Asia, but archaeological materials aged 60-30 thousand years do not confirm this.

The monocentric hypothesis has not yet given satisfactory answers to many other questions. In particular, why did a person of a modern physical type arose at least 150 thousand years ago, and the culture of the Upper Paleolithic, which is traditionally associated only with Homo sapiens, 100 thousand years later? Why is this culture, which appeared almost simultaneously in very remote regions of Eurasia, not as homogeneous as one would expect in the case of a single carrier?

Another, polycentric concept is taken to explain the "dark spots" in the history of man. According to this hypothesis of interregional human evolution, the formation Homo sapiens could go with equal success both in Africa and in the vast territories of Eurasia inhabited at one time Homo erectus. It is precisely the continuous development of the ancient population in each region that explains, according to polycentrists, the fact that the cultures of the early stage of the Upper Paleolithic in Africa, Europe, East Asia and Australia differ so significantly from each other. And although from the point of view of modern biology, the formation of the same species (in the strict sense of the word) in such different, geographically distant territories of the same species is an unlikely event, there could have been an independent, parallel process of evolution of primitive man towards Homo sapiens with his developed material and spiritual culture.

Below we present a number of archaeological, anthropological and genetic evidence in favor of this thesis, related to the evolution of the primitive population of Eurasia.

Oriental man

Judging by the numerous archaeological finds, in East and Southeast Asia, the development of the stone industry about 1.5 million years ago went in a fundamentally different direction than in the rest of Eurasia and Africa. Surprisingly, for more than a million years, the technology of making tools in the Sino-Malay zone has not undergone significant changes. Moreover, as mentioned above, in this stone industry for the period of 80-30 thousand years ago, when people of the modern anatomical type should have appeared here, no radical innovations are revealed - neither new stone processing technologies, nor new types of tools.

In terms of anthropological evidence, the largest number of known skeletal remains Homo erectus has been found in China and Indonesia. Despite some differences, they form a fairly homogeneous group. Particularly noteworthy is the volume of the brain (1152-1123 cm 3) Homo erectus found in Yunxian, China. Significant progress in the morphology and culture of these ancient people, who lived about 1 million years ago, is demonstrated by the stone tools found next to them.

The next link in the evolution of Asian Homo erectus found in Northern China, in the caves of Zhoukoudian. This hominin, similar to the Javanese Pithecanthropus, was included in the genus Homo as a subspecies Homo erectus pekinensis. According to some anthropologists, all these fossils of earlier and later forms primitive people line up in a fairly continuous evolutionary series, almost to Homo sapiens.

Thus, it can be considered proven that in East and Southeast Asia, for more than a million years, there was an independent evolutionary development of the Asian form. Homo erectus. Which, by the way, does not exclude the possibility of migration here of small populations from neighboring regions and, accordingly, the possibility of gene exchange. At the same time, due to the process of divergence, pronounced differences in morphology could appear among these primitive people themselves. An example is paleoanthropological finds from about. Java, which differ from similar Chinese finds of the same time: keeping the basic features Homo erectus, in a number of characteristics they are close to Homo sapiens.

As a result, at the beginning of the Upper Pleistocene in East and Southeast Asia, on the basis of the local form of erectus, a hominin was formed, anatomically close to humans of the modern physical type. This can be confirmed by the new dating obtained for Chinese paleoanthropological finds with features of "sapiens", according to which 100 thousand years ago people of modern appearance could have lived in this region.

Return of the Neanderthal

The first representative of archaic people to become known to science is the Neanderthal Homo neanderthalensis. Neanderthals lived mainly in Europe, but traces of their presence were also found in the Middle East, in Western and Central Asia, in southern Siberia. These short stocky people, possessing great physical strength and well adapted to the harsh climatic conditions of the northern latitudes, were not inferior to people of the modern physical type in terms of brain volume (1400 cm 3).

Over the century and a half that have passed since the discovery of the first remains of Neanderthals, hundreds of their sites, settlements and burials have been studied. It turned out that these archaic people not only created very advanced tools, but also demonstrated elements of behavior characteristic of Homo sapiens. Thus, the famous archaeologist A. P. Okladnikov in 1949 discovered in the Teshik-Tash cave (Uzbekistan) the burial of a Neanderthal with possible traces funeral rite.

In the cave of Obi-Rakhmat (Uzbekistan), stone tools were found dating back to the turning point - the period of transition of the culture of the Middle Paleolithic to the Upper Paleolithic. Moreover, the fossil human remains found here provide a unique opportunity to restore the appearance of a man who made a technological and cultural revolution.

Until the beginning of the XXI century. many anthropologists attributed the Neanderthals to the ancestral form of modern humans, but after the analysis of mitochondrial DNA from their remains, they began to be considered as a dead end branch. It was believed that the Neanderthals were supplanted and replaced by modern humans - a native of Africa. However, further anthropological and genetic studies have shown that the relationship between the Neanderthal and Homo sapiens was far from being so simple. According to recent data, up to 4% of the genome of modern humans (non-Africans) was borrowed from Homo neanderthalensis. Now there is no doubt that in the border regions of the habitat of these human populations, not only the diffusion of cultures took place, but also hybridization and assimilation.

Today, the Neanderthal is already considered to be a sister group of modern humans, having restored its status as the “human ancestor”.

In the rest of Eurasia, the formation of the Upper Paleolithic followed a different scenario. Let's trace this process on the example of the Altai region, which is associated with sensational results obtained with the help of paleogenetic analysis of anthropological finds from the Denisov and Okladnikov caves.

Our regiment has arrived!

As mentioned above, the initial human settlement of the territory of Altai occurred no later than 800 thousand years ago during the first migration wave from Africa. The uppermost cultural horizon of deposits of the oldest Paleolithic Karama site in the Asian part of Russia in the valley of the river. Anui was formed about 600 thousand years ago, and then there was a long break in the development of the Paleolithic culture in this area. However, about 280 thousand years ago, carriers of more advanced stone processing techniques appeared in Altai, and since that time, as field studies show, there has been a continuous development of the culture of Paleolithic man.

Over the past quarter of a century, about 20 sites in caves and on the slopes of mountain valleys have been explored in this region, more than 70 cultural horizons of the early, middle and upper Paleolithic have been studied. For example, 13 Paleolithic layers have been identified in Denisova Cave alone. The oldest finds related to early stage Middle Paleolithic, found in a layer aged 282-170 thousand years, to the Middle Paleolithic - 155-50 thousand years, to the upper - 50-20 thousand years. Such a long and "continuous" chronicle allows us to trace the dynamics of changes in the stone inventory over many tens of thousands of years. And it turned out that this process went quite smoothly, through gradual evolution, without external "disturbances" - innovations.

Archaeological data testify that already 50-45 thousand years ago the time of the Upper Paleolithic began in Altai, and the origins of the Upper Paleolithic cultural traditions can be clearly traced at the final stage of the Middle Paleolithic. Evidence of this are miniature bone needles with a drilled eye, pendants, beads and other non-utilitarian objects made of bone, ornamental stone and mollusk shells, as well as truly unique finds - fragments of a bracelet and a stone ring with traces of grinding, polishing and drilling.

Unfortunately, Paleolithic sites in Altai are relatively poor in anthropological finds. The most significant of them - teeth and fragments of skeletons from two caves, Okladnikov and Denisova, were studied at the Institute of Evolutionary Anthropology. Max Planck (Leipzig, Germany) by an international team of geneticists led by Professor S. Paabo.

stone age boy
“And that time, as usual, they called Okladnikov.
- Bone.
He approached, bent down and began to carefully clean it with a brush. And his hand trembled. The bone was not one, but many. Fragments of a human skull. Yes Yes! Human! A find he never even dared to dream of.
But maybe the person was buried recently? Bones decay over the years and hope that they can lie in the ground undecayed for tens of thousands of years ... It happens, but extremely rarely. Science knows only a few such finds in the history of mankind.
But what if?
He called softly:
- Verochka!
She approached and leaned over.
"It's a skull," she whispered. - Look, he's crushed.
The skull lay head down. It was crushed, apparently, by a fallen block of earth. Small skull! Boy or girl.
With a spatula and a brush, Okladnikov began to expand the excavation. The spatula poked into something hard. Bone. Another one. More… Skeleton. Small. Skeleton of a child. Apparently, some animal made its way into the cave and gnawed the bones. They were scattered, some gnawed, bitten.
But when did this child live? What years, centuries, millennia? If he was the young owner of the cave when the people who worked the stones lived here… Oh! It's scary to even think about it. If so, then it's a Neanderthal. A man who lived tens, maybe a hundred thousand years ago. He should have brow ridges on his forehead and a sloping chin.
It was easiest to turn the skull over, take a look. But this would disrupt the excavation plan. We must complete the excavations around it, but do not touch it. Around the excavation will deepen, and the bones of the child will remain as if on a pedestal.
Okladnikov consulted with Vera Dmitrievna. She agreed with him...
... The bones of the child were not touched. They were even covered. They dug around them. The excavation deepened, and they lay on an earthen pedestal. Every day the pedestal became higher. It seemed to rise from the depths of the earth.
On the eve of that memorable day, Okladnikov could not sleep. He lay with his hands behind his head and looked up at the black southern sky. Far, far away were the stars. There were so many of them that it seemed they were cramped. And yet from this distant world, filled with trepidation, peace emanated. I wanted to think about life, about eternity, about the distant past and the distant future.
And what did the ancient man think about when he looked at the sky? It was the same as it is now. And, perhaps, it happened that he could not sleep. He lay in a cave and looked up at the sky. Was he only able to remember, or was he already dreaming? What was this person? The stones told a lot. But they also kept silent about a lot.
Life buries its traces in the depths of the earth. New traces lie on them and also go deeper. And so century after century, millennium after millennium. Life deposits its past in the earth in layers. From them, as if flipping through the pages of history, the archaeologist could find out the deeds of the people who lived here. And to find out, almost unmistakably, by determining what time they lived here.
Raising the veil over the past, the earth was removed in layers, as time laid them aside.

An excerpt from the book by E. I. Derevyanko, A. B. Zakstelsky "The Path of Distant Millennia"

Paleogenetic studies have confirmed that the remains of Neanderthals were found in the Okladnikov cave. But the results of the decoding of mitochondrial and then nuclear DNA from bone samples found in the Denisova Cave in the cultural layer of the initial stage of the Upper Paleolithic surprised the researchers. It turned out that we are talking about a new fossil hominin, unknown to science, which was named after the place of its discovery. man Altai Homo sapiens altaiensis, or Denisovan.

The Denisovan genome differs from the reference genome of the modern African by 11.7% - in the Neanderthal from Vindia Cave in Croatia, this figure was 12.2%. This similarity indicates that Neanderthals and Denisovans are sister groups with a common ancestor that separated from the main human evolutionary trunk. These two groups diverged about 640 thousand years ago, embarking on the path of independent development. This is also evidenced by the fact that Neanderthals have common genetic variants with modern people of Eurasia, while part of the genetic material of the Denisovans was borrowed by the Melanesians and the indigenous inhabitants of Australia, standing apart from other non-African human populations.

Judging by archaeological data, in the northwestern part of Altai 50-40 thousand years ago, two different groups of primitive people lived in the neighborhood - Denisovans and the easternmost population of Neanderthals, who came here at about the same time, most likely from the territory of modern Uzbekistan . And the roots of the culture, the bearers of which were the Denisovans, as already mentioned, can be traced in the most ancient horizons of the Denisova Cave. At the same time, judging by the many archaeological finds, reflecting the development of the Upper Paleolithic culture, the Denisovans not only were not inferior, but in some respects even surpassed a person of modern physical appearance, who lived at the same time in other territories.

So, in Eurasia during the late Pleistocene, in addition to Homo sapiens there were at least two more forms of hominins: Neanderthal - in the western part of the mainland, and in the east - Denisovan. Given the drift of genes from Neanderthals to Eurasians, and from Denisovans to Melanesians, we can assume that both of these groups took part in the formation of a modern human anatomical type.

Taking into account all the currently available archaeological, anthropological and genetic materials from the most ancient locations of Africa and Eurasia, it can be assumed that there were several zones on the globe in which an independent process of population evolution took place. Homo erectus and development of stone processing technologies. Accordingly, each of these zones developed its own cultural traditions, its own models of the transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic.

Thus, at the basis of the entire evolutionary sequence, the crown of which was the human of the modern anatomical type, lies the ancestral form Homo erectus sensu lato*. Probably, in the late Pleistocene, it eventually formed the type of human of the modern anatomical and genetic species. Homo sapiens, which included four forms that can be named Homo sapiens africaniensis(East and South Africa), Homo sapiens neanderthalensis(Europe), Homo sapiens orientalensis(Southeast and East Asia) and Homo sapiens altaiensis(Northern and Central Asia). Most likely, the proposal to combine all these primitive people into a single species Homo sapiens will cause doubts and objections among many researchers, but it is based on a large amount of analytical material, only a small part of which is given above.

Obviously, not all of these subspecies made an equal contribution to the formation of a human of the modern anatomical type: the greatest genetic diversity was possessed by Homo sapiens africaniensis, and it was he who became the basis of modern man. However, the latest data from paleogenetic studies regarding the presence of Neanderthal and Denisovan genes in the gene pool modern humanity show that other groups of ancient people did not remain aloof from this process.

To date, archaeologists, anthropologists, geneticists and other specialists dealing with the problem of human origin have accumulated a huge amount of new data, on the basis of which it is possible to put forward various hypotheses, sometimes diametrically opposed. The time has come to discuss them in detail under one indispensable condition: the problem of the origin of man is a multidisciplinary one, and new ideas should be based on a comprehensive analysis of the results obtained by specialists from various sciences. Only this path will ever lead us to the solution of one of the most controversial issues that has been exciting the minds of people for centuries - the formation of the mind. After all, according to the same Huxley, "each of our strongest convictions can be overturned or, in any case, changed by further advances in knowledge."

*Homo erectus sensu lato - Homo erectus in the broadest sense

Literature

Derevianko A. P. The earliest human migrations in Eurasia in the early Paleolithic. Novosibirsk: IAET SO RAN, 2009.

Derevyanko A. P. The transition from the Middle to the Upper Paleolithic and the problem of the formation of Homo sapiens sapiens in East, Central and North Asia. Novosibirsk: IAET SO RAN, 2009.

Derevianko A. P. The Upper Paleolithic in Africa and Eurasia and the formation of a modern anatomical type. Novosibirsk: IAET SO RAN, 2011.

Derevyanko A. P., Shunkov M. V. The Early Paleolithic site of Karama in Altai: the first results of research // Archeology, Ethnography and Anthropology of Eurasia. 2005. No. 3.

Derevianko A.P., Shunkov M.V. New model formation of modern man physical appearance// Bulletin of the Russian Academy of Sciences. 2012. V. 82. No. 3. S. 202-212.

Derevianko A. P., Shunkov M. V., Agadzhanyan A. K. and others. natural environment and man in the Paleolithic of Gorny Altai. Novosibirsk: IAET SO RAN, 2003.

Derevyanko A. P., Shunkov M. V. Volkov P. V. Paleolithic bracelet from Denisova Cave // ​​Archeology, Ethnography and Anthropology of Eurasia. 2008. No. 2.

Bolikhovskaya N. S., Derevianko A. P., Shunkov M. V. The fossil palynoflora, geological age, and dimatostratigraphy of the earliest deposits of the Karama site (Early Paleolithic, Altai Mountains) // Paleontological Journal. 2006. V. 40. R. 558–566.

Krause J., Orlando L., Serre D. et al. Neanderthals in Central Asia and Siberia // Nature. 2007. V. 449. R. 902-904.

Krause J., Fu Q., Good J. et al. The complete mitochondrial DNA genome of an unknown hominin from southern Siberia // Nature. 2010. V. 464. P. 894-897.

Success in the development of genetics is usually expected to progress in medicine, biotechnology, and pharmaceuticals. But in recent years, genetics has been actively manifesting itself in anthropology - a field that seems distant at first glance - helping to shed light on the origin of man.

It could look like Australopithecus, one of the possible ancestors of man, who lived about three million years ago. Drawing by Z. Burian.

According to the displacement model, all modern people - Europeans, Asians, Americans - are the descendants of a relatively small group that left Africa about 100 thousand years ago and displaced representatives of all previous waves of settlement.

It is possible to establish the sequence of nucleotides in DNA using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which allows you to copy and repeatedly multiply the hereditary material.

Neanderthals inhabited Europe and Western Asia from 300,000 to 28,000 years ago.

Comparison of Neanderthal and modern human skeletons.

Neanderthals were well adapted to the harsh climate of Europe during the glacial period. Drawing by Z. Burian.

As genetic studies show, the settlement of anatomically modern humans began from Africa about 100,000 years ago. The map shows the main migration routes.

An ancient painter finishes painting on the walls of the Lascaux cave (France). Artist Z. Burian.

Various representatives of the hominin family (probable ancestors and close relatives of modern man). Most of the connections between the branches of the evolutionary tree are still in question.

Australopithecus afarensis (southern monkey from Afar).

Kenyanthrope pay.

Australopithecus africanus (African southern monkey).

Paranthropus robustus (South African form of a massive hominid).

Homo habilis (handy man).

Homo ergaster.

Homo erectus (upright man).

Upright Walking - PLUSES AND MINUSES

I remember my surprise when, on the pages of my favorite magazine, in an article by B. Mednikov, I first encountered a downright "heretical" idea not about the advantages, but about the disadvantages of upright walking for the entire biology and physiology of modern man ("Science and Life" No. 11, 1974). Such an opinion was unusual and contrary to all the "paradigms" learned at school and university, but it sounded extremely convincing.

Bipedal locomotion is usually considered as a sign of anthropogenesis, however, birds were the first to stand on their hind limbs (from modern ones - penguins). It is known that Plato called man "two-legged without feathers." Aristotle, refuting this statement, demonstrated a plucked rooster. Nature "tried" to raise its other creations on its hind legs, an example of this is the upright kangaroo.

In humans, bipedalism caused a narrowing of the pelvis, otherwise leverage would lead to a fracture of the femoral neck. And as a result, it turned out that in a woman, the circumference of the small pelvis is on average 14-17 percent smaller than the circumference of the head of the fetus growing in her womb. The solution to the problem was half-hearted and detrimental to both sides. A child is born with an unformed skull - everyone knows about two fontanelles in babies - and besides, prematurely, after which he cannot stand on his feet for a whole year. In the future mother, during pregnancy, the expression of the gene for the female sex hormone estrogen is turned off. It should be remembered that one of the main functions of sex hormones is to strengthen bones. Turning off the synthesis of estrogen leads to the fact that pregnant women begin osteoporosis (decrease in bone density), which in old age can cause a hip fracture. Premature birth is forced to stretch the period of breastfeeding. This requires large mammary glands, which often results in the development of cancer.

Let us note in brackets that the same "favorable" sign as bipedalism is the loss of hair. Our skin becomes bare as a result of the appearance of a special gene that inhibits the development of hair follicles. But bare skin is more prone to cancer, which is also aggravated by a decrease in the synthesis of the black pigment melanin during migration north to Europe.

And there are many such examples from human biology. Take, for example, heart diseases: is their occurrence due to the fact that the heart has to drive almost half of the blood volume vertically upwards?

True, all these evolutionary "advantages" with a "minus" sign are justified by the release of the upper limbs, which begin to lose mass; at the same time, the fingers acquire the ability to make smaller and more subtle movements, which affects the development of the motor areas of the cerebral cortex. And yet it must be admitted that upright walking was a necessary, but not a determining stage in the formation of modern man.

"WE WOULD LIKE TO OFFER..."

Thus began a letter to the then unknown F. Crick and J. Watson to the editor of Nature, published in April 1953. It was about the double-stranded structure of DNA. Everyone knows about it now, but at that time there would hardly have been a dozen people in the world who were seriously involved in this biopolymer. However, few people remember that Watson and Crick opposed the authority Nobel laureate L. Pauling, who shortly before published an article on the three-stranded DNA.

Now we know that Pauling was just a contaminated DNA preparation, but that's not even the point. For Pauling, DNA was simply a "scaffold" to which protein genes were attached. Watson and Crick believed that double-stranding could also explain the genetic properties of DNA. Few people believed them right away, it was not for nothing that they were given the Nobel Prize only after they awarded biochemists who isolated the DNA synthesis enzyme and were able to establish this very synthesis in a test tube.

And now, after almost half a century, in February 2001, the decoding of the human genome was published in the journals "Nature" and "Science". It is unlikely that the "patriarchs" of genetics could hope to live to see their universal triumph!

This is the situation that emerges from a cursory glance at the genome. Attracts attention high degree the "homogeneity" of our genes when compared to those of chimpanzees. Although genome decoders say that “we are all a little African,” referring to the African roots of our genome, chimpanzee genetic variability is still four times higher: 0.1 percent on average in humans and 0.4 percent in monkeys.

At the same time, the greatest difference in genetic pools is observed in Africans. Among representatives of all other races and peoples, the variability of the genome is much lower than on the Black Continent. It can also be said that the African genome is the most ancient. Not without reason, for fifteen years now, molecular biologists have been saying that Adam and Eve once lived in Africa.

KENYA IS AUTHORIZED TO REPORT

Anthropology, for many reasons, does not often please us with epoch-making finds in the savannah scorched by the merciless African sun. American explorer Don Johanson became famous in 1974 with the discovery of the famous Lucy in Ethiopia. Lucy, named after the heroine of one of the Beatles' songs, is 3.5 million years old. It was Australopithecus afarensis. For a quarter of a century, Johanson assured everyone that it was from Lucy that the human race descended.

However, not everyone agreed with this. In March 2001, a press conference was held in Washington at which an anthropologist from Kenya, Miv Liki, spoke, by the way, a representative whole family famous anthropologists. This event was timed to coincide with the publication of the journal "Nature" with an article by Leakey and her colleagues about the discovery of Kenyanthropus platyops, or Kenyan "flat-faced" man, approximately the same age as Lucy. The Kenyan find was so different from the others that the researchers awarded it the rank of a new human race.

Kenyanthrope has a flatter face than Lucy and, most importantly, smaller teeth. This indicates that, unlike Lucy, who ate grass, rhizomes, and even branches, platiops ate softer fruits and berries, as well as insects.

The discovery of Kenyanthropus is consistent with the findings of French and Kenyan scientists, which they reported in early December 2000. In Kenya's Tugen Hills, about 250 km northeast of Nairobi, a left femur and a massive right shoulder were found. The structure of the bones shows that the creature both walked on the ground and climbed trees. But the most important thing is a fragment of the jaw and preserved teeth: small fangs and molars, which indicates a rather "sparing" diet of fruits and soft vegetables. The age of this ancient man, who was called "Orrorin", is estimated at 6 million years.

Miv Leakey, speaking at a press conference, said that now instead of one candidate for future people, namely Lucy, scientists have at least two. With the fact that there were more than one African species from which humans could have descended, Johanson agreed.

However, among anthropologists, in addition to supporters of the appearance of man in Africa, there are also multiregionalists, or polycentrists, who believe that Asia was the second center of origin and evolution of man and his ancestors. As proof of their correctness, they cite the remains of Peking and Javanese people, from which, in general, scientific anthropology started at the beginning of the last century. True, the dating of those remains is very vague (the skull of a Javanese girl is estimated at 300-800 thousand years), and besides, all Asian representatives of the human race belong to an earlier stage of development than Homo sapiens, called Homo erectus (upright man) . In Europe, the representative of the erectus was the Neanderthal.

But not only with bones and skulls is anthropology alive in the age of the genome, and molecular biology was destined to resolve disputes.

ADAM AND EVE IN DNA FILES

The molecular approach was first discussed in the middle of the last century. It was then that scientists drew attention to the uneven distribution of carriers of different blood groups. It has been suggested that blood type B, especially common in Asia, protects its carriers from such terrible diseases as plague and cholera.

In the 1960s, an attempt was made to estimate the age of a human as a species from blood serum proteins (albumins), comparing them with those of chimpanzees. No one knew the evolutionary age of the chimpanzee branch, the rate of molecular changes at the level of protein amino acid sequences, and much more. Nevertheless, a purely phenotypic result struck the minds of that time: man has been evolving as a species for at least 5 million years! At least it was then that the splitting of the branches of simian ancestors and simian ancestors of man occurred.

Scientists did not believe such estimates, although they already had skulls that were two million years old. Protein data was dismissed as a curious "artifact".

And yet the final word was for molecular biology. First, the age of Eve, who lived in Africa 160-200 thousand years ago, was determined using mitochondrial DNA, then the same framework was obtained for Adam on the male sex chromosome Y. Adam's age was, however, somewhat less, but still in the range of 100 thousand years.

A separate article is needed to explain modern methods of accessing evolutionary DNA files, so let the reader take the author's word for it. It can only be clarified that the DNA of mitochondria (organelles in which the main energy "currency" of the cell is produced - ATP) is transmitted only through the maternal line, and the Y chromosome, of course, through the paternal line.

Over the decade and a half that ended the 20th century, the subtlety and resolution of molecular analysis have increased immeasurably. And the new data obtained by scientists allow us to talk in detail about the last steps of anthropogenesis. In December 2000, an article was published in Nature comparing the complete mitochondrial DNA (16.5 thousand letters of the gene code) of 53 volunteers from 14 major language groups of the world. An analysis of the DNA protocols made it possible to identify four main branches of the settlement of our ancestors. At the same time, three of them - the "oldest" ones - are rooted in Africa, and the latter includes both Africans and "deportees" from the Black Continent. The authors of the article dated the "exodus" from Africa as only 52,000 years (plus or minus 28,000). The very emergence of modern man dates back to 130 thousand years, which approximately coincides with the originally determined age of molecular Eve.

Almost the same results were obtained when comparing DNA sequences from the Y chromosome, published in "Nature Genetics" in 2001. At the same time, 167 special markers were identified, which correspond to the geography of residence of 1062 people and reflect waves of migration around the world. In particular, due to geographic and historical isolation, the Japanese are characterized by a special group of markers that no one else has.

The analysis showed that the most ancient branch family tree is the Ethiopian where Lucy was found. The authors date the Exodus from Africa to 35-89 thousand years. After the inhabitants of Ethiopia, the most ancient are the inhabitants of Sardinia and Europe with its Basques. By the way, as another work shows, it was the Basques who settled southwestern Ireland - the frequency of a specific DNA "signature" reaches 98 and 89 percent, respectively, on the west coast of Ireland and in the Basque Country!

Then came the settlement along the Asian coast of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. At the same time, the Indians of America turned out to be "older" than the Indians, and the youngest were South Africans and residents of Japan and Taiwan.

Another message came at the end of April 2001 from Harvard (USA), where at the Whitehead Institute, in which, by the way, the main work on the Y chromosome is carried out (it was in it that the male gene SRY was discovered - "sex region Y") compared 300 chromosomes of Swedes, Central Europeans and Nigerians. The results are very definite: modern Europeans descended about 25,000 years ago from a small - only a few hundred people - group that came out of Africa.

By the way, the Chinese also came from the Black Continent. The journal "Science" in May 2001 published data from a study by Chinese scientist Li Ying, professor of population genetics Shanghai University. Blood samples for the study of markers of the male sex Y-chromosome were taken from 12,127 men from 163 populations. East Asia: Iran, China, New Guinea and Siberia. An analysis of the samples, which Li Yin conducted jointly with Peter Underhill from Stanford University (USA), showed that the ancestors of modern East Asians lived about 100 thousand years ago in Africa.

Alan Templeton of Washington University in St. Louis (USA) compared the DNA of people from ten genetic regions of the world, while he used not only mitochondria and Y chromosomes for analysis, but also X chromosomes and six other chromosomes. Based on these data, in his March 2002 Nature article, he concludes that there have been at least three waves of migration out of Africa in human history. Following the release of Homo erectus 1.7 million years ago, another wave followed, 400-800 thousand years ago. And only then, about 100 thousand years ago, did the exodus of anatomically modern man from Africa occur. There was also a relatively recent (several tens of thousands of years ago) reverse movement from Asia to Africa, as well as genetic interpenetration of various groups.

New methods for studying DNA evolution are still young and quite expensive: reading one letter of the gene code costs almost a dollar. That is why the genome of several tens or hundreds of people is analyzed, and not several million, which would be highly desirable from a statistical point of view.

But nevertheless, everything gradually falls into place. Genetics does not testify in favor of supporters of the multi-regional origin of man. Our species seems to have evolved recently, and the remains that have been found in Asia are only traces of earlier waves of settlement from Africa.

Eric Lander, director of the Whitehead Institute, said in this regard, speaking in Edinburgh (UK) at the HUGO (Human Genome Sequencing Organization) conference: several tens of thousands, and very closely related. Man was a small species that became numerous literally in the blink of a historical eye. "

WHY "EXODUS"?

Speaking about the results of reading the human genome and a preliminary comparison of the genomes of representatives of different peoples, the researchers stated as an indisputable fact that "we all come from Africa." They were also struck by the "emptiness" of the genome, 95 percent of which does not carry "useful" information about the structure of proteins. Drop a percentage on regulatory sequences and 90 percent will still be "meaningless." Why do you need a phone book with a volume of 1000 pages, 900 of which are filled with meaningless combinations of letters, all sorts of "aaaaaaa" and "bvbvbv"?

A separate article can be written about the structure of the human genome, but now we are interested in one very important fact related to retroviruses. In our genome there are many fragments of the genomes of the once formidable retroviruses that we managed to "pacify". Recall that retroviruses - these include, for example, the immunodeficiency virus - carry RNA instead of DNA. On the RNA matrix, they make a DNA copy, which then integrates, integrates into the genome of our cells.

One might think that we, as mammals, really need viruses of this genus, since they allow us to suppress the reaction of rejection of the fetus, which is genetically half foreign material (half of the genes in the fetus are paternal). Experimental blocking of one of the retroviruses living in the cells of the placenta, which is formed from the cells of the fetus, leads to the death of developing mice as a result of the fact that maternal immune T-lymphocytes are not "deactivated". In our genome, there are even special sequences of 14 letters of the gene code necessary for the integration of the retroviral genome.

But pacifying retroviruses takes, judging by our genome and its size, a very long time (evolutionary). That's why early man flees Africa to escape these very retroviruses - HIV, cancer, and also such as the Ebola virus, smallpox, etc. Add here polio, which also affects chimpanzees, malaria that affects the brain, sleeping sickness, worms and much more than tropical countries are famous for.

So, some 100 thousand years ago, a group of very smart and aggressive human individuals broke out of Africa, which began its triumphant march around the world. How did the interaction with representatives of the previous waves of settlement, for example, with the Neanderthals in Europe, take place? The same DNA proves that there was most likely no genetic crossbreeding.

The March 2000 issue of "Nature" published an article by Igor Ovchinnikov, Vitaly Kharitonov and Galina Romanova, who, together with their English colleagues, analyzed mitochondrial DNA isolated from the bones of a two-year-old Neanderthal child found in the Mezmaiskaya cave in the Kuban by the expedition of the Institute of Archeology Russian Academy Sciences. Radiocarbon dating gave 29 thousand years - it looks like it was one of the last Neanders. DNA analysis showed that it differs by 3.48 percent from the DNA of a Neanderthal from the Feldhofer cave (Germany). However, both DNAs form a single branch that is markedly different from the DNA of modern humans. Thus, Neanderthal DNA did not contribute to our mitochondrial DNA.

One and a half hundred years ago, when science for the first time turned from myths about the creation of man to anatomical evidence, it had nothing at its disposal except conjectures and conjectures. For a hundred years, anthropology was forced to base its conclusions on rare fragmentary finds, which, if anyone was convinced of something, still had to involve a share of faith in the future discovery of some kind of "connecting link."

In the light of modern genetic discoveries, anthropological findings testify to many things: bipedal locomotion is not associated with the development of the brain, nor is the manufacture of tools associated with it; moreover, genetic changes "overtake" changes in the structure of the skulls.

GENOME AND RACE DIVISION

The Italian scholar Guido Barbugani, who, with the permission of the Pope, conducted a study of the relics of the Evangelist Luke, was unable to establish the nationality of the associate of Christ. The DNA of the relics is definitely not Greek, but some markers are similar to sequences found in modern inhabitants of Turkish Anatolia, and some are Syrian. Again, in such a short period of historical time, the populations of Anatolia and Syria did not genetically differ far enough from each other to differ significantly. On the other hand, over the past two thousand years, so many waves of conquests and great migrations of peoples have passed through this border region of the Middle East that it has turned, as Barbujani says, into a zone of numerous gene contacts.

The scientist goes even further, stating that "the concept of genetically sharply different races of man is completely wrong." If, he says, the genetic differences between a Scandinavian and a Tierra del Fuego are taken as 100 percent, then the differences between you and any other member of the community close to you will average 85 percent! Back in 1997, Barbujani analyzed 109 DNA markers in 16 populations taken from around the world, including the Pygmies of Zaire. The analysis showed very high intragroup differences at the genetic level. But what can I say: transplantologists are well aware that it is often impossible to transplant organs and tissues, even from parents to children.

However, transplantologists are also faced with the fact that white kidneys are not suitable for transplantation to black Americans. It's gotten to the point where a new heart remedy, BiDil, has recently been introduced in the US, specifically designed for use by African Americans.

But the racial approach to pharmacology does not justify itself, as evidenced by more detailed studies of the effectiveness of drugs, conducted already in the post-genomic era. David Goldstein of University College London analyzed the DNA of 354 people from eight different populations around the world, resulting in four groups (they also analyzed six enzymes that process these same drugs in human liver cells).

The four identified groups characterize the response of people to drugs much more accurately than races. An article published in the November 2001 issue of Nature Genetics provides a striking example. When analyzing the DNA of Ethiopians, 62 percent of them were in the same group as Ashkenazi Jews, Armenians and ... Norwegians! Therefore, the union of Ethiopians, whose Greek name translates as "dark-faced", with African Americans of the same Caribbean basin is not at all justified. "Racial markers don't always correlate with people's genetic kinship," notes Goldstein. And he adds: "The similarity in genetic sequences gives much more useful information when conducting pharmacological tests. And the race simply" masks "the differences in people's responses to a particular drug."

That the chromosomal sites responsible for our genetic origin fall into four groups is already an established fact. But in the past it was simply dismissed. Now the pharmaceutical companies will get down to business, which will quickly bring all the racists to clean water ...

WHAT'S NEXT?

In connection with the decoding of the genome, there was no shortage of predictions for the future. Here is some of them. Already in 10 years, it is planned to launch dozens of gene tests for various diseases on the market (as now you can buy antibody tests for pregnancy in pharmacies). And 5 years after that, gene screening will begin before fertilization "in vitro", followed by gene "strengthening" of future children (naturally, for money).

By 2020, cancer treatment after gene typing of tumor cells will be established. Medicines will begin to take into account the genetic constitution of patients. Safe therapies using cloned stem cells will emerge. By 2030, "genetic health care" will be created, which will increase the duration of active life up to 90 years. There is a heated debate about the further evolution of man as a species. The birth of the profession of "designer" of future children will not blow us away ...

Will it be the apocalypse of our days in the style of F. Coppola, or the deliverance of mankind from God's curse for original sin? Candidate of Biological Sciences I. LALAYANTS.

Literature

Lalayants I. The sixth day of creation. - M.: Politizdat, 1985.

Mednikov B. Human Origins. - "Science and Life" No. 11, 1974.

Mednikov B. Axioms of biology. - "Science and Life" Nos. 2-7, 10, 1980.

Yankovsky N., Borinskaya S. Our history written in genes. - "Nature" No. 6, 2001.

Details for the curious

THE BRANCHING TREE OF OUR ANCESTORS

Back in the 18th century, Carl Linnaeus developed a classification of plants and animals that live on our planet. According to this classification, modern man belongs to the species Homo sapiens sapiens(reasonable reasonable man), and he is the only representative of the genus surviving in the course of evolution Homo. This genus, which appeared presumably 1.6-1.8 million years ago, together with the earlier genus Australopithecus, who lived in the period 5-1.6 million years ago, forms the family of hominids. With the great apes, people are united by the superfamily of hominoids, and with the rest of the monkeys - by the detachment of primates.

It is believed that hominids separated from hominoids about 6 million years ago - such a figure is called by geneticists who calculated the moment of genetic divergence between humans and monkeys by the rate of DNA mutations. French paleoanthropologists Martin Picfort and Brigitte Senyu, who recently discovered fragments of a skeleton called orrorin tugenensis (after the discovery site near Lake Tugen in Kenya), claim that it is just about 6 million years old. Prior to this, the most ancient of the hominids was Ardipithecus. The discoverers of orrorin consider it a direct ancestor of man, and all other branches are secondary.

Ardipithecus. In 1994, in the Afar region (Ethiopia), American anthropologist Tim White discovered teeth, skull fragments and limb bones that date back to 4.5-4.3 million years old. There are indications that Ardipithecus walked on two legs, but it is assumed that he lived in trees.

Australopithecus (southern monkeys) lived in Africa from the late Miocene (about 5.3 million years ago) to the beginning of the Pleistocene (about 1.6 million years ago). Most paleoanthropologists consider them to be the ancestors of modern humans, but there is disagreement about whether the various forms of Australopithecus represent a single lineage or a series of parallel existing species. Australopithecus walked on two legs.

Australopithecus anamensis (southern lake monkey) discovered in 1994 by the famous anthropologist Miv Liki in the town of Kanapoi on the shores of Lake Turkana (northern Kenya). Australopithecus anamensis lived between 4.2 and 3.9 million years ago in coastal forests. The structure of the tibia allows us to conclude that he used two legs to walk.

Australopithecus afarensis (southern monkey from Afar) - the famous Lucy, found in 1974 in Hadar (Ethiopia) by Don Johanson. In 1978, footprints attributed to Afarensis were discovered at Laetoli, Tanzania. Australopithecus afarensis lived between 3.8 and 2.8 million years ago and led a mixed arboreal-terrestrial lifestyle. The structure of the bones indicates that he was upright and could run.

Kenyanthropus platiops (flat-faced Kenyan). Miv Leakey announced the discovery of Kenyanthrope in March 2001. His skull, found on the western shore of Lake Turkana (Kenya), dates back to 3.5-3.2 million years. Leakey claims that this is a new branch in the hominid family.

Australopithecus barelgazali. In 1995, the French paleontologist Michel Brunet discovered part of the jaw in the town of Koro Toro (Chad). This species, dating from 3.3-3 million years, is close to Afarensis.

Australopithecus garhi discovered by Tim White in 1997 in the Bowri Valley, in the Afar region (Ethiopia). Garhi means "surprise" in the local dialect. This species, which lived about 2.5-2.3 million years ago, already knew how to use stone tools.

Australopithecus africanus(African southern monkey) described by Raymond Dart in 1925. This species has a more developed skull than the Afarensis, but a more primitive skeleton. He probably lived 3-2.3 million years ago. The light structure of bones testifies to its habitation mainly on trees.

Paranthropus Ethiopian. Paranthropus are close to Australopithecus, but have more massive jaws and teeth. The earliest of the massive hominids, the Ethiopian was found near Lake Turkana (Kenya) and in Ethiopia. The most famous example is the "black skull". The Paranthropus Ethiopian is dated 2.5-2.3 million years ago. It had massive jaws and teeth suitable for chewing the rough plant foods of the African savannas.

paranthropus boisei discovered by Louis Leakey in 1959 near Lake Turkana (Kenya) and in the Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania). The Boisei (dated 2-1.2 million years ago) probably evolved from the Ethiopian. Because of the massive jaws and teeth, it is called the "nutcracker".

paranthropus robustus- South African form of a massive hominid, found in 1940 by Robert Broome in the town of Kromdry (South Africa). Robustus is a contemporary of the Boisea. Many paleoanthropologists believe that it evolved from Africanus rather than Ethiopian. In this case, it should be attributed not to Paranthropus, but to another genus.

Homo rudolphensis discovered by Richard Leakey in 1972 in Kobi Fora near Lake Turkana (Kenya), which at that time had a colonial name - Lake Rudolf. This species, which lived about 2.4-1.9 million years ago, was first classified as a variety of a skilled man, then it was separated into a separate species. After the discovery of the flat-faced Kenyan, Miv Leakey proposed that Rudolfensis be placed in a new genus of Kenyanthropes.

Homo habilis(handy man) was first discovered by Louis Leakey in Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) in 1961. Then his remains were found in Ethiopia and South Africa. A skilled man lived about 2.3-1.6 million years ago. Now many scientists believe that it belongs to the late Australopithecus rather than to the genus Homo.

Homo ergaster. Best Sample ergaster - the so-called "Turkan youth", whose skeleton was discovered by Richard Leakey and Alan Walker in the town of Narikotome on the shores of Lake Turkana (Kenya) in 1984. Homo ergaster has been dated at 1.75-1.4 million years old. A skull similar in structure was found in 1991 in Georgia.

Homo erectus(Homo erectus), the remains of which were first discovered in Morocco in 1933, and then in the Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) in 1960, lived between 1.6 and 0.3 million years ago. It is assumed that it originated either from Homo habilis or from Homo ergaster. Numerous sites of erectus sites have been found in South Africa, which learned to make fire about 1.1 million years ago. Homo erectus was the first hominin to migrate out of Africa about 1.6 million years ago. His remains have been found on the island of Java and in China. Erectus, who migrated to Europe, became the ancestor of the Neanderthal.

Homo sapiens, or Homo sapiens, has undergone many changes since its inception, both in body structure and in social and spiritual development.

The emergence of people who had a modern physical appearance (type) and changed occurred in the late Paleolithic. Their skeletons were first discovered in the Cro-Magnon grotto in France, which is why people of this type were called Cro-Magnons. It was they who had a complex of all the basic physiological features that are characteristic of us. They, in comparison with that of the Neanderthals, reached high level. It is the Cro-Magnons that scientists consider our direct ancestors.

For some time this type of people existed simultaneously with the Neanderthals, who later died, since only the Cro-Magnons were sufficiently adapted to the conditions environment. It is with them that stone tools go out of use, and they are replaced by more skillfully crafted from bone and horn. In addition, more types of these tools appear - all kinds of drills, scrapers, harpoons and needles appear. It makes people more independent climatic conditions and allows you to explore new territories. A reasonable person also changes his behavior in relation to his elders, a connection between generations appears - the continuity of traditions, the transfer of experience, knowledge.

Summing up the above, we can highlight the main aspects of the formation of the species Homo sapiens:

1. spiritual and psychological development that leads to self-knowledge and development abstract thinking. As a consequence - the emergence of art, as evidenced by rock paintings and paintings;
2. pronunciation of articulate sounds (the origin of speech);
3. thirst for knowledge to pass it on to their fellow tribesmen;
4. the creation of new, more advanced tools of labor;
5. which allowed to tame (domesticate) wild animals and cultivate plants.

These events were an important milestone in the development of man. It was they who allowed him not to depend on the environment and

even exercise control over some of its aspects. Homo sapiens continues to undergo changes, the most important of which is

Taking advantage of the benefits of modern civilization, progress, man is still trying to establish power over the forces of nature: changing the course of rivers, draining swamps, populating territories where life was previously impossible.

According to the modern classification, the Homo sapiens species is divided into 2 subspecies - Idaltu Man and Man. Such a division into subspecies appeared after the discovery in 1997 of remains that had some anatomical features similar to the skeleton of a modern person, in particular, the size of the skull.

According to scientific data, Homo sapiens appeared 70-60 thousand years ago, and during all this time of its existence as a species, it improved under the influence of only social forces, because no changes were found in the anatomical and physiological structure.