Matter is an objective reality given to us IN FEELINGS….

Matter is uncreated, indestructible, eternal and infinite.

Types of material systems known modern science:

1) elementary particles

4) molecules

5) macroscopic bodies

6) geological systems

These and other material systems correspond to the structural levels of the organization of matter (matter is structured and systematized)

Attribute - an inherent property of matter.

1) Structurality matter is manifested in the existence of infinitely diverse material formations, each of which is a specific single thing, a process that is localized in space and time: the Universe, galaxy, star, planet, molecule, atom, elementary particle, etc. At the same time, they are closely interconnected among themselves, since some material formations are constituent parts others, that is, they are included in their structure as elements.

2) Consistency matter appears in the interconnection of things and processes, in the regular intersection of the structural levels of the organization of the material world, in the constant violation of autonomy, "parallelism" of micro-, macro- and mega-worlds, living and non-living. The main problem here lies in the unresolved issue of the transition from inanimate to living nature in a single evolutionary process.

Matter- this is everything that directly or indirectly affects the human senses and other objects. The world around us, everything that exists around us is matter. An integral property of matter is motion.

The movement of matter is any change that occurs with material objects as a result of their interaction.

Matter does not exist in a formless state; a complex hierarchical system of material objects of various scales and complexity is formed from it.

For natural scientists, it is not matter or motion in general that is of interest, but specific types of matter and motion.

In modern natural science, there are 3 types of matter:

1. Substance - the main type of matter that has mass. Material objects include elementary particles, atoms, molecules, numerous material objects formed from them. In chemistry, substances are divided into simple (with atoms of one chemical element) and complex ( chemical compounds). properties of matter depend on external conditions and intensity of interaction of atoms and molecules. This causes various aggregate states of matter (solid, liquid, gaseous + plasma at a relatively high temperature), the transition of matter from one state to another can be considered as one of the types of matter movement.

2. Physical field - a special kind of matter, which provides the physical interaction of material objects and systems.

Physical fields:

Electromagnetic and gravitational

· Field of nuclear forces

Wave (quantum) fields

The source of physical fields is elementary particles. Direction for electromagnetic field- source, charged particles

The physical fields that are created by the particles transfer the interaction between these particles with a finite speed.

Quantum theories - the interaction is due to the exchange of field quanta between particles.

3. Physical vacuum - the lowest energy state of the quantum field. This term was introduced in quantum theory fields to explain some microprocesses.

The average number of particles (field quanta) in vacuum is zero, but virtual particles can be born in it, that is, particles in an intermediate state that exist for a short time. Virtual particles affect physical processes.

It is generally accepted that not only matter, but also field and vacuum have a discrete structure. According to quantum theory, field, space and time on a very small scale form a space-time environment with cells. Quantum cells are so small (10 -35 -10 -33) that they can be ignored when describing the properties of electromagnetic particles, considering space and time to be continuous.

The substance is perceived as a continuous continuous medium. to analyze and describe the properties of such a substance, in most cases, only its continuity is taken into account. However, the same substance, when explaining thermal phenomena, chemical bonds, electromagnetic radiation is considered as a discrete medium, which consists of atoms and molecules interacting with each other.

Discreteness and continuity are inherent in the physical field, but when solving many physical problems, it is customary to consider gravitational, electromagnetic and other fields to be continuous. However, in quantum field theory it is assumed that physical fields are discrete, therefore, for the same types of matter, discontinuity and continuity are characteristic.

For the classic description natural phenomena it is enough to take into account the continuous properties of matter, and to characterize various microprocesses - discrete ones.

Continuity and discreteness are inalienable properties of matter.

Matter "is one of the most fundamental concepts of philosophy. However, in various philosophical systems its content is understood differently. Idealistic philosophy, for example, is characterized by the fact that it either completely rejects the existence of matter or denies its objectivity. Thus, the outstanding ancient Greek philosopher Plato considers matter as a projection of the world of ideas. In itself, matter in Plato is nothing. In order to turn into reality, some idea must be embodied in it.

For the follower of Plato, Aristotle, matter also exists only as a possibility, which turns into reality only as a result of its combination with form. Forms ultimately originate from God.

In G. Hegel, matter manifests itself as a result of the activity of the absolute idea, the absolute spirit. It is the absolute spirit, the idea that gives rise to matter.

Matter - a philosophical category to designate objective reality, cat. given to him in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed, by our sensations, existing independently of them. In this definition, 2 signs of matter are singled out: 1) Recognition of the primacy of matter in relation to consciousness (objectivity of sensation) 2) Recognition of the fundamental cognizability of the world. Lenin distinguishes between the philosophical understanding of matter and natural science knowledge about existing world. Lenin contributed to overcoming the crisis in physics associated with the inclusion of the principle of the structural nature of matter and the divisibility of atoms in the scientific picture of the world.

MATTER (according to Lenin) is a philosophical category for designating objective reality, which is given to a person in his feelings, which is copied, photographed by our feelings, existing independently of them. Matter is the substance of our world. Substance - substrate (a certain basis, carrier) + its St. Islands. If earlier matter was identified with the atom, now the electron has been discovered and matter is relative, nature is infinite.

Matter types : 1) Substance is a type of matter that has a rest mass. Solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma. 2) The field has no rest mass. The form of matter is a combination of various material objects and systems that have a single qualitative certainty, manifesting in general properties and specific to a given form of matter, ways of existence. Forms: 1) Social (Ch-to, human society, labor). 2) Biological (wildlife). 3) Chemical (atoms). 4) Physical (lower - atoms, molecules, fields).

In modern science, the method of structural analysis is widely used, which takes into account the systematic nature of the objects under study. After all, structure is an internal dismemberment of material existence, a way of existence of matter. Structural levels Matters are formed from a certain set of objects of some kind and are characterized by a special way of interaction between their constituent elements. In relation to the three main spheres of objective reality, these levels look like this:

inorganic nature	Live nature	Society
1.Submicroelementary	Biological macromolecular
2. Microelementary	Cellular
3. Nuclear	microorganic	Collectives
4.Atomic	Organs and tissues	Large social groups (classes, nations)
5. Molecular	Whole body	State (civil society)
6. Macro level	population	State systems
7. Mega level (planets, star systems, galaxies)	Biocenosis	humanity as a whole
8. Metalevel (metagagalaxies)	Biosphere	Noosphere

The study of the problems associated with the philosophical analysis of matter and its properties is a necessary condition for the formation of a person's worldview, regardless of whether it ultimately turns out to be materialistic or idealistic.

In the light of the foregoing, it is quite obvious that the role of defining the concept of matter, understanding the latter as inexhaustible for constructing scientific picture world, solving the problem of reality and cognizability of objects and phenomena of the micro- and mega-world.

The following definition is reasonable: "... Matter is an objective reality given to us in sensation"; "Matter is a philosophical category for designating an objective reality that is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, displayed by our sensations, existing independently of them." (In the first case, we are talking about matter as a category of being, an ontological category, in the second - about a concept that fixes it, an epistemological category).

Lecture topic: Physics of matter.
definition
Matter is a tangible and intangible content existing in space,

filling (occupying) a place in space, possessing physical properties.
Simply put, matter is everything that exists (is present) in space, regardless of its own nature, including tangible and intangible. All this is matter.

What should be understood in this regard:
It is necessary to clearly understand what is matter and what is not matter.
Not everything that people have an idea about is matter.
Matter is not space itself, but only what is located in it.

This is the first important position to understand.
The second important point to understand is that
matter is not information and abstractions.
And in relation to information, only the carrier of information, and not the information itself, can be material.
That is, matter is separate, space is separate, and information is separate, all fantasies, images, thought forms and glitches are all separate. They are not matter.
We will not be able to break grandmother's TV with dumbbells in a dream of grandfather.

Based on the definition of matter as “content that exists in space and has properties”), we can easily distinguish the material from the non-material, for example, how does a real material (existing in reality) penguin differ from an imaginary non-material (non-existing in reality).

A real penguin has physical properties, fills a place in space and has an extension. An imaginary penguin, on the contrary, has no real properties, does not fill a place in space and is present not in space, but in the imagination of an individual, and only in a virtual form, for example, in the form of a certain image.
The location of the imaginary penguin is not the real world, not space, but an abstract "world" - imagination.
And such a penguin straightens its shoulders not in space, but in the imagination of the individual.
And we will not be able to detect in the human brain either imagination itself, or that puddle where an imaginary penguin is splashing.
If we wish, we can try to designate in space the dimensions of an imaginary penguin, but we cannot fill the chosen place with an imaginary penguin.
An imaginary penguin has no non-fictional properties.
An imaginary penguin will not bake in the oven, and we will not even be able to prepare such a penguin for the winter, let alone take it away from Obama.

We can't douse an imaginary penguin with paint or throw eggs at it. Paint will not stick to him, and he can easily dodge eggs .

That is, the presence or absence physical properties- a person can distinguish the imaginary from the real.
Further
Real physical matter exhibits various properties and we, in accordance with common features we can divide matter into categories.
According to the properties of discontinuity-continuity (in other words, discreteness), matter is divided into discrete and non-discrete forms

Non-discrete (continuous) matter in nature is represented as a field
Discrete (discontinuous, granular) matter in nature is represented in the form of particles.
Particles, in turn, are in one of two states:
- either behave directly as particles move in space at a speed close to the speed of light
- or grouped into a substance.
That is, in more detail on the basis of grouping - you can divide the matter in more detail and distinguish three main categories.
Substance, particles, field.

The first position is the particles grouped into a substance,
Second position - free particles (not grouped into matter)
and third position field.
And matter in nature manifests itself both as substance and as particles and as a field.
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And again, it should be well remembered that matter is only that which has properties.
The unknown “chavoit” that does not have properties is not matter.
If some matter exists but has not yet been discovered,
then, upon detection, according to its properties, it will fall into one of the categories
either matter, or free particles, or field.
let's look at the points.
What is a substance.
Matter is a type of matter that has a rest mass.
Anything that has rest mass is matter. Water (liquid) is a substance. Gas is a substance.
And all objects in our tangible world are made of matter, it doesn't matter if it's slate or grandmother's airship - all this ultimately consists of particles and all this stuff.

With the realization that such a substance usually does not arise difficulties and, as a rule, everyone is able to understand what a substance is.
Further.
position - field.
The field is something material, but immaterial. And not everyone is immediately able to comprehend (realize, understand) how the material can be insubstantial.
In fact, everything is quite simple.
Scientists initially decided what to consider material
Material is everything that is in space and has properties.
Here we have 100% of what is in space - this is matter
and part of it exhibits such and such properties.

If there were no properties, it would not be matter.
Shows properties - so this is one of the forms of matter,
At the same time, according to the actual manifestations, the field does not correspond to the definition of matter, in particular, the field has no mass.
And collectively it turns out that in terms of its properties the field is material but not real.
To understand what a field is, one must imagine physics without a field.
Two bricks fly towards each other.
How do two bricks touch?
Atoms touch along the outer contour.
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Let's look at how the atoms interact there and how it will look without a field:
Two atoms fly towards each other,
protons set up, electrons fluffed up, now a big boom will happen

But the atoms did not take the field with them, there was nothing to catch on to each other, so they slipped through.

These atoms did not notice any collision, could not notice.
What is the total volume of discrete objects that make up an atom?
How much meat is there in this atom? How much is there that you can feel and how much does it take up? Sometimes atoms are drawn very meaty. Sometimes not so much.

But if we consider in more detail, then there is a distance between the particles, and each smaller element, in turn, is again planetary, which means that discrete matter again occupies an insignificant part of the total volume. And it all tends to almost zero.

That is, it is not necessary to depict a fleshy atom, but a skinny one.

Let's simulate an atom without a field.
And to make it clear, let's take half a squadron of ordinary-sized flies and let them fly over the Moscow ring road, right above the cars in a large circle.

And in the center, in the area of ​​​​the Arbat, let the main such proton fly jump, and let the rest of the flies around it, the main one, fly around the ring without approaching.
We got a quite decent fly model of an atom without fields.
And now let's place the second similar fly model of the atom somewhere in Lapland and start bringing both of these models closer to each other.
Let them, like adults, fly at each other.
What is the probability that when the models of these two atoms approach each other, they will catch on to each other?
And what are they hooked on?
There is a lot of buzzing, but there is no field at all.
Even if some two flies hit each other exactly in the forehead, then in this case they will not be able to catch on. The second atom is also a planetary system, practically emptiness.
No chance of hooking. There is nothing to cling to without a field.
Two atoms under such conditions freely fly through each other.
With such a geometry without a field, this is one continuous draft.
In principle, we would not be able to collide any two elementary particles if they did not have a field.
Bricks would fly through each other remarkably.
That's actually what role the field plays.
Without a field, in principle, we have no possibility of interaction either at the macro or at the micro level.
Move on:
What are the field properties?
The field has neither internal nor external discreteness.
That is, it has no gaps, and also has no external boundaries as such.

You can understand the geometry of the field from the graph of the distribution of the impact on the expanding sphere:

The graph tends to zero but does not reset. No matter how far we are from the source of the field
The field is weakening but will not disappear. The field itself has no borders.
In addition, the field is elastic.
(Magnet)
The field is fundamentally elastic, non-discrete and has no mass.
Field definition:
A field is a special kind of matter that does not have mass, it is a continuous object located in space, at each point of which a particle is affected by balanced or unbalanced forces of certain magnitude and direction.
And again, we do not forget that this is a long-known information
and within the framework of the physical concept, matter and field are traditionally opposed to each other as two types of matter, the first of which has a discrete structure, while the second is continuous.

Let's delve into the materiel:
The first thing to understand is that the entire universe at the macro level is uniformly filled with material matter, which means that it is uniformly filled with a field.

In terms of power, this is the most powerful of the existing physical phenomena and it has a gravitational nature. The total gravitational field.
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All physical interactions, including every bond in every atom in your body is defined by this field.
The gravitational field is fundamental, and all other fields are particular local phenomena on this basic gravitational field.
Imagine if there were billions of rubber bands and we cut just one. And this would be an analogue of the secondary field, such as the electromagnetic field.
Partial perturbation on the base field.
And when we consider the field of any magnet, this is also a secondary field - an insignificant perturbation on the basic gravitational field that has a colossal potential.
In a certain sense, the gravitational field is the same ether or, in other words, the “physical vacuum” that everyone is looking for and cannot find. But it is a single non-discrete non-corpuscular object.
Forces arise at every point in the space filled with a field and there are no gaps there.

The next position of the particle.
A particle is a material discrete micro-object.
What are the main differences between particles and field.
Particles are discrete (each of them represents an independent object of a complex internal structure),
In this they differ from the field, which non-discretely has no internal discreteness (has no discontinuities), as well as the field, which has no external boundaries as such.

With regard to particles, it should be understood that the division of matter into categories that is common in science is not entirely strict.
In the literature, sometimes non-strict incorrect interpretations are allowed.

Free particles that have mass according to the modern scientific fashion are classified as an independent category, and particles that do not have rest mass are in some cases loosely treated as a field.
And in this place for many there comes a misunderstanding known as corpuscular wave dualism.
We have already explained the reasons for this mental phenomenon separately (in the section on corpuscular-wave dualism). We will not stop again.
At this point, it suffices to recall that in the scientific sense, both particles and field and wave are still independent concepts.
And this is the requirement of the first law of logic, which states:
“...to have more than one meaning means not to have a single meaning; if words have no meaning, then all possibility of reasoning with each other, and in fact with oneself, is lost; for it is impossible to think of anything if one does not think of one thing.
Either a field or a particle.

Brick is matter, brick consists of that part of matter which is commonly called substance
But that's not all.
There is a bunch of matter (and hence any brick) with the field. Each brick is in the total universal field.

And besides, each brick has its own field.
To simplify, we can call this field a brick field, we can call gravitational field bricks.

There is not a single brick in nature that is not surrounded by its own field.
a field accompanies each brick.
All material matter in nature has a field.
And in this regard, it is necessary to understand that in nature there is no substance that does not have its own private field.
And any material object in the fundamental physical sense is a combination of matter and field.
And this field is distributed evenly in all directions from the substance, and as you move away from the substance, this field weakens.

That is, fundamentally, each object with mass has its own field, and in addition, all the masses of the universe together form a single gravitational field of the universe.
Now let's understand: where is the brick, and where is its private field. The private field is tied to a brick.
If we divide the brick into parts and separate these parts to the sides, then the private field of the brick will also be divided and spaced apart.
(breaking a brick)
The private brick field is divided and spaced apart.

Now let's look at what is common between particles bound within a substance and between unbound, free particles.
Example.
What will the systematic splitting of bricks lead to, the division of bricks
Systematic destruction of the so-called internal bonds of a brick.
Without exception, all internal connections of a brick are determined from the outside, from the side of the base field. The total universal field creates a colossal tension in space, which determines all internal connections in material objects.
The deeper we split the brick, the smaller the fraction, the more particles will become unbound substance, these particles will separate from the brick and begin to move at a speed close to the speed of light.
If the splitting is continued, then all the fragments will be split, released to the level of unbound particles and, under the influence of an external field, will begin to move at a speed close to the speed of light in all free directions.
That is, if a brick is completely split, to the level of particles, then the brick will rush off at the speed of light in all free directions.
And if there were no external field at all, then the brick would do the same, but at a much higher speed, at a speed exceeding the speed of light (but this is a subject of a separate discussion, as well as issues of mass and the so-called neutrino).
For a general understanding, let's consider what the situation would be for a universe not filled with matter.
Empty universe and one brick.
It would seem, but how do we know?
But in fact, we know this absolutely for sure, because there are only two options for applying forces to a body: attraction and repulsion.
And we also know that matter cannot exist on the forces of direct attraction in principle, it is technically impossible, because it inevitably leads to an avalanche-like process of collapse in matter at one point.
Those who do not know this yet can watch the evidence part at the link, or watch the film "Equilibrium in Physics".
Let's continue:
The only one possible variant for the existence of matter in space, this is mutual repulsion, which, if the universe is sufficiently saturated with matter, leads to a complex repulsion of masses towards each other.
Gravity is a complex repulsion.
So what will happen to a brick in a universe not filled with matter?
(Totally empty universe and one brick).
In such a scenario, there is, in principle, nothing to ensure the internal connections of a brick. There is no external field, external forces, external repulsion. The entire substance of the brick without options will completely split and scatter in all directions, and the field of the brick will also dissipate accordingly.
No existence of any material physical body under such conditions is possible.
In a universe filled with bodies, masses, the picture is different.
The masses "created" a common field,
at the macro level, the universe was filled evenly, a carpet of galaxies.
This field provided internal bonds in each brick.
And we see that in the real universe, matter does not disintegrate into particles and does not scatter.

Actually everything.

Matter: matter, particles, field.
And if there were no field, then there would be no interactions between particles, and the particles themselves, in the usual sense, would not exist either.
Viktor Katyushchik was with you.
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Substance and field are fundamental physical concepts denoting two fundamentals. type of matter at the macroscopic level:

Substance - a set of discrete formations that have a rest mass (atoms, molecules and what is built of them);

Field - a type of matter, characterized by continuity and having zero rest mass (electromagnetic P. and P. gravitation - gravitational).

The discovery of the field as a type of matter was of great philosophical significance, since it revealed the inconsistency of the metaphysical identification of matter with matter.

Lenin's development of a dialectical-materialist definition of matter was largely based on a philosophical generalization of the development of the doctrine of matter. At the subatomic level (that is, at the level of elementary particles), the difference between matter and matter becomes relative. P. (electromagnetic and gravitational) lose their purely continuous character: they must correspond to discrete formations - quanta (photons and gravitons). And the elementary particles that make up matter - protons, neutrons, electrons, mesons, etc. - act as quanta of the corresponding nucleon, meson, and other fields and lose their purely discrete character.

At the subatomic level, it is illegal to distinguish between V. and p. and by the presence or absence of a rest mass, since nucleon, meson, etc. fields have a rest mass. In modern In field and particle physics, two inextricably linked sides of the microworld appear as an expression of the unity of the corpuscular (discrete) and wave (continuous, continuous) properties of microobjects. Ideas about P. also act as a basis for explaining the processes of interaction, embodying the principle of short-range action.

26.Corpuscular-wave dualism.

In 1924, one of the greatest events in the history of physics took place: the French physicist Louis de Broglie put forward the idea of ​​the wave properties of matter. In his work Light and Matter, he wrote about the need to use wave and particle representations not only in accordance with Einstein's teaching in the theory of light, but also in the theory of matter.

Broglie argued that wave properties, along with corpuscular ones, are inherent in all types of matter: electrons, protons, atoms, molecules, and even macroscopic bodies.

According to Broglie, any body with mass m moving at speed v corresponds to a wave

In fact, a similar formula was known earlier, but only in relation to light quanta - photons.

In 1926, the Austrian physicist Schrödinger found a mathematical equation that determines the behavior of matter waves, the so-called Schrödinger equation. The English physicist Dirac generalized it.

Broglie's bold thought about the universal "dualism" of a particle and a wave made it possible to construct a theory with the help of which it was possible to embrace the properties of matter and light in their unity.

However, de Broglie's hypothesis needed experimental confirmation. The most convincing evidence of the existence of wave properties in matter was the discovery in 1927 of electron diffraction by American physicists Davidson and Dmermer.

In all cases, the results fully supported de Broglie's hypothesis. The recognition of wave-particle duality in modern physics has become universal. Any material object is characterized by the presence of both corpuscular and wave properties.

The fact that the same object appears both as a particle and as a wave destroyed traditional ideas.

In this article, on the basis of the ontological concept of matter, an analysis and definition of the concept of physical matter is given, which is of decisive importance for the withdrawal of theoretical physics from the crisis of the twentieth century.

Introduction. As you know, at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. broke out great crisis classical physics. Discoveries late XIX in. - x-rays(1895), natural radioactivity (Becquerel, 1896), electron (J. Thomson, 1897), radium (Pierre and Marie Curie, 1898), quantum radiation (Planck, 1900) were the beginning of a revolution in science. Previously prevailing notions of immutability were destroyed chemical elements, about the structurelessness of the atom, about the independence of movement from material masses, about the continuity of radiation. Starting from that moment, new and new experimental data began to multiply rapidly, indicating the existence of a microworld. To describe it, it was impossible to apply those basic concepts, principles and laws that were developed by physics of the 19th century in the study of macrobodies.

Modern official physics believes that the crisis was resolved by the advent of the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics, big bang and other similar theories that contradict logic.

Thus, it would seem that a way out of the great crisis of physics was found. And yet there is still doubt whether quantum-relativistic physics was the only possible way out of the crisis. Moreover, currently quantum physics and in the theory of relativity, more and more problems and contradictions are revealed, such as indeterminism in natural phenomena, divergence and infinity in the analysis of the structure of the electron and the thermal spectrum, the detection of superluminal velocities, the undisclosed and contradictory structure of nuclei and elementary particles. Therefore, one gets the impression that quantum-relativistic physics did not eliminate the crisis, but only delayed it, through formal coordinating techniques that eliminated contradictions only superficially, outwardly, but preserving them in a latent form. And the very roots of the contradictions that led to the crisis were not revealed [ 3 ].

The resolution of the crisis required the creation of a new picture of the world, for which new logical and epistemological principles were needed. The formulation of these principles had to begin with revisions of the criteria of materiality, which would not be limited to the search for some kind of first principle of the world, and would take into account new physical realities. The crisis in physics led to a new understanding of the concepts of matter, motion, space and time and the emergence of dialectical materialism, which gave a new universal definition to the concept of matter: “ Matter is a philosophical category for designating objective reality, which is given to a person in his sensations, which is copied, photographed, reflected by our sensations, existing independently of them.» . From this follow the following properties of matter: objectivity, inexhaustibility, cognizability, indestructibility and indestructibility.

It follows from the above that matter as an objective reality does not exist as a kind of material from which all concrete things are built, but reflects an innumerable number of things, their properties and relationships, which implies the existence of diverse types of matter, which in modern science are interpreted as levels of its structural organization. Thus, dialectical materialism did away with the old natural philosophy, defining material substance as something that is outside individual things, and in the same way, as a certain attribute that is extremely common to all things, the properties of which could be fixed as something concrete, tangible, but at the same time the same time belongs to all bodies without exception in the infinity of the Universe.

Definition of physical matter. Dialectical materialism claims that matter is not something immutable, but is in a state of continuous change, development - movement, understood in the general, philosophical sense of the word. “Motion is a form of being of matter. Nowhere and never has there been and cannot be matter without motion?” . Moving matter can be known only by considering particular, concrete forms of matter and its movement, and these particular forms of matter and its movement should be considered not in isolation, but in their interconnection.

According to the variety of natural phenomena, there are many various kinds the motion of matter. But among this variety, several basic forms of movement can be distinguished, each of which covers a more or less wide range of phenomena related in a certain respect. The inseparability of matter and motion is expressed not only in the fact that matter cannot be without motion, but also in the fact that between each of the forms of motion and those material objects, the mode of existence of which they are, there is a quite definite correspondence, a definite internal connection.

This means that each form of motion of matter is associated with one form of matter and vice versa.

The simplest form of motion of matter is physical, which corresponds to physical matter.

The concept of matter in physics is central, since physics studies the basic properties of matter, types of fundamental interactions, laws of motion of various systems (simple mechanical systems, systems with feedback, self-organizing systems), etc. These properties and laws manifest themselves in a certain way in technical, biological and social systems, which is why physics is widely used to explain the processes occurring in them. All this brings together the philosophical understanding of matter and the physical doctrine of its structure and properties.

Features and state of the art the physical concept of matter is reflected in the work: “The physical concept of matter is quite significantly different from the ontological concept. It develops with the development of experimental natural science in the 17th century. under the influence of both philosophical ideas and for the sake of the needs of the experiment. For Galileo, the primary qualities of matter are its arithmetic (computability), geometric (shape, size, position, touch) and kinematic (mobility) properties. Kepler sees in matter two primordial, dialectically opposed forces: the force of motion and the force of inertia. In classical Newtonian mechanics, the basic properties of matter are inertia ( inertial mass), the ability to maintain a state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion, and gravity - the ability of heavy masses to be mutually attracted according to the law of gravity. Matter is opposed to energy - (-) the ability to perform mechanical work, or to show force in motion. Other signs of matter: conservation of mass in all physical and chemical processes; the identity of inert and heavy mass, the difference between matter and space and time.

Already in Leibniz and Kant, matter turns out to be completely reducible to manifestations of force. For Kant, it is dependent on space and time as the primary forms of sensibility. To the beginning 20th century the concept of matter as a carrier of mass, different from force and energy, on the one hand, from space and time, on the other, is being shaken. In particular, for example, the very process of weighing, reducing mass to weight, removes the barrier between inertia as a sign of matter and force. Newton's second law already defines mass through the ratio of force and acceleration. The discovery of non-Euclidean geometries raised the question of their physical meaning and made it problematic physical concept space. In addition, attempts have been made to explain the mass as a purely electromagnetic-inductive effect, and the mass should be considered in this case as a quantity dependent on speed. Finally, Einstein's theory of relativity made mass ultimately dependent on velocity. Mass and energy in the formula Ε = mс 2 are equivalent to each other and are interchangeable. The conservation law is now valid only in relation to the "sum" of mass and energy, the so-called. "mass energy". At the same time, space, or the space-time continuum, loses its “ontological” difference from matter. Both are now considered as different aspects of the same reality and, ultimately, are identified. Not a single one of these has been preserved in modern physics. classical definitions matter. However, both philosophy and physics prefer to bypass this concept that has become indefinite and obscure, replacing it with others - space-time, chaos, system, etc.”

From the standpoint of philosophy and physics at the beginning of the 21st century. with all obviousness, there is a theoretical gap in the definitions between the ontological representation of the concept of matter (see above) and its representation in specific types of sciences. “The development of dialectical materialism in breadth led to the fact that the lag in the development of the core of this philosophy - the doctrine of matter - from the total volume of scientific knowledge was clearly indicated. One of the reasons for the crisis phenomena in physics is seen in this lag.“

At present, modern science assumes the existence of three forms of physical matter: matter, field (in the classical sense), material objects of unclear physical nature.

The presence of many forms of physical matter contradicts the above statement: one form of motion of matter - one form of matter. To eliminate this contradiction, we will analyze the forms of physical matter according to the criterion of their materiality.

Matter in physics is understood, as a rule, as a kind of matter, consisting of fermions or containing fermions along with bosons; has a rest mass, unlike some types of fields, such as electromagnetic. Usually (at relatively low temperatures and densities) a substance consists of particles, among which electrons, protons and neutrons are most often encountered. The last two form atomic nuclei, and all together - atoms ( atomic matter), of which are molecules, crystals, etc.

Each substance has a set of specific properties - objective characteristics that determine the individuality of a particular substance and thus make it possible to distinguish it from all other substances. The most characteristic physical and chemical properties include constants - density, melting point, boiling point, thermodynamic characteristics, parameters of the crystal structure. The main characteristics of a substance are its chemical properties.

Matter exists in three states of aggregation - solid, liquid and gaseous.

A field in physics is a physical object classically described by a mathematical scalar, vector, tensor, spinor field (or some combination of such mathematical fields), subject to dynamic equations (equations of motion, in this case called field equations or field equations - usually these are differential equations in partial derivatives).

Historically, the concept of a field was introduced into scientific use by M. Faraday, and then applied by J. K. Maxwell as a mathematical formulation of the theory that became the basis of classical electrodynamics. At present, the concept of a field has no definition, and its physical essence has not been disclosed. Thus, it is not necessary to argue that the field is an objective reality that exists outside of consciousness. A sufficient and necessary substantiation of the non-materiality of the field is given in the work: “A more complex situation arose around the paradigm component containing the idea of ​​matter as a single entity. The situation is due to the fact that many materialist philosophers, observing the diversity of natural processes and their irreducibility into a single theory, began to consider matter as a combination of its various types or forms. In this case, it seemed that each object of nature, radically different from other objects, can be compared with its own type of matter. This approach ensured the coexistence of science, which was idealistic in its genesis, and materialistic philosophy, and made it possible to introduce the necessary amendments to the interpretation physical objects and phenomena. The amendments gave metaphysical science a materialistic connotation. Thus, the idea of ​​various fields as types of matter appeared and the thesis “field - type of matter” became widespread ... ... the thesis “field - type of matter” turned out to be not only ineffective, but also producing insurmountable difficulties. The fact is that there are quite a lot of fields in physics. Consequently, to describe the fields it is necessary to involve many different types of matter. Since the type of matter is, first of all, a special matter, then our world would have to consist of many matters. In the case of a multitude of matters, we would observe a multitude of worlds and it is not necessary to speak of a single world and the unity of nature.”

Material objects of obscure physical nature (Dark matter, Dark energy). These objects were introduced into scientific use to explain a number of astrophysical and cosmological phenomena.

Dark matter in astronomy and cosmology, as well as in theoretical physics, is a hypothetical form of matter that does not emit electromagnetic radiation and does not directly interact with it. This property of this form of matter makes it impossible to directly observe it. The conclusion about the existence of dark matter was made on the basis of numerous, consistent with each other, but indirect signs of the behavior of astrophysical objects and the gravitational effects they create. It is expected that the discovery of the nature of dark matter will help solve the problem of hidden mass, which, in particular, consists in an anomalously high rotation speed. outer areas galaxies.

From the foregoing, we can conclude that physical matter has a single form, which is identical to the concept of substance. However, as you know, the “real” meaning of the term (the term “matter” comes from the Latin materia - substance) was retained until the 20th century, when a revolution in physics took place, which meant a crisis of a one-sided understanding of matter, based on mandatory sensory perception, which constituted the essence concepts of metaphysical materialism. In philosophical terms, the significance of this revolution is the destruction of the last stronghold of metaphysics - the idea of ​​atoms as the building blocks of the universe and the transition to a new qualitative level of knowledge about the structure of matter. Quantum-relativistic physics, for which the electron is a structureless particle, the photon is a massless, and the neutrino is a particle without electric charge etc., also could not give anything for the development of ideas about physical matter.

In modern science, the ideas about the structure of the material world are based on a systematic approach, according to which any object of the material world, be it an atom, a planet, an organism or a galaxy, can be considered as complex education, which includes component parts organized into integrity. It is obvious that the solution of the problem of representation of physical matter is impossible without using the methodology of system analysis. In this paper, this methodology is used general theory systems of Yu. T. Urmantsev (OTS), which differs from others in the completeness, sufficiency and algorithmizability of the system analysis process.

The definition of the concept of physical matter was carried out using the GTS C-method. In accordance with the C-method, we construct a system of matter.

Based on a systematic approach to nature, all matter is divided into two large classes of material systems - inanimate and wildlife. In the system of inanimate nature, the structural elements are: elementary particles, atoms, molecules, fields, macroscopic bodies, planets and planetary systems, stars and star systems, galaxies, metagalaxies and the Universe as a whole. Accordingly, in wildlife, the main elements are proteins and nucleic acids, cell, unicellular and multicellular organisms, organs and tissues, populations, biocenoses, living matter of the planet.

On the basis of the criterion of materiality, we single out a set of primary elements, all the diversity of which is presented in the form of objects of animate and inanimate nature. In modern physics, this variety of objects is usually divided into three groups: microcosm, macrocosm and megaworld. Microcosm, macrocosm and megaworld are closely connected with each other.

Let us impose relations of interconnection and interaction on these elements.

At the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries, a new scientific direction called level physics began to develop intensively. Its main idea is that the moving matter has several structural levels and that each level of the matter structure corresponds to its own material objects, characterized by energy, the size of the order of which corresponds only to this level. From this it follows that each level of the structure of matter corresponds to its own environment. The difference between the structural levels lies in the difference in the properties of the material objects that fill the environment of each level. At the same time, objects of a specific structural level of matter consist of objects of the environment of a hierarchically higher structural level. And more high levels nested in lower levels.

In accordance with the aggregate state of matter ( solid, liquid, gas), as well as with its structural levels of organization, form a set of compositions of the system.

Based on the above, we give the following definition.

Physical matter is a set of interconnected and interacting objects of animate and inanimate nature, structured by levels of organization and located in one of the aggregate states.

On the basis of this definition, we construct a system of classification of physical matter.

In physical matter, two large classes of material systems are distinguished: systems of inanimate nature and systems of living nature. According to another criterion - the scale of representation - there are three main structural levels of matter:

microcosm - the world of extremely small, not directly observable micro-objects, the spatial dimension of which is calculated from 10 -8 to 10 -16 cm, and the lifetime - from infinity to 10 -24 seconds;

the macroworld is the world of macroobjects commensurate with a person and his experience. Spatial values ​​of macroobjects are expressed in millimeters, centimeters and kilometers (10 6 - 10 7 cm), and time - in seconds, minutes, hours, years, centuries;

megaworld is a world of huge cosmic scales and speeds, in which distances are measured in astronomical units, light years and parsecs (up to 1028 cm), and the lifetime space objects- millions and billions of years.

According to the structural level of the organization:

elementary particles;

molecules;

macroscopic bodies;

planets and planetary systems;

stars and star systems;

galaxies;

metagalaxy (observable part of the Universe);

Universe.

According to the state of aggregation of matter:

solid,

liquid,

Conclusions. The main one for solving crisis problems in physics, in particular, the representation of physical matter, is dialectical materialism, which plays an important methodological and ideological role in the integration of modern scientific knowledge in the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, in particular, giving a new universal definition to the concept of matter.

An analysis of the existing types of matter and their correspondence to the ontological concept of matter is given.

On the basis of the GTS system analysis methodology, a definition of physical matter is given, eliminating the theoretical gap between the ontological and physical understanding of matter.

On the basis of the GTS system analysis methodology, an algorithm for the classification of physical matter is proposed. The result is shown in the Table. Classification of physical matter.

The proposed classification of physical matter is a consequence of the law of composition, which imposes a number of restrictions on physical matter, one of which is state of aggregation gas for all structural levels of matter organization. This limitation finally substantiates the immateriality of such types of matter as the field and material objects of unclear physical nature.

Table. Classification of physical matter.

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Lyamin V.S., Lyamin D.V.