The World History. Volume 1

The development of the primitive communal system. Late Stone Age

Migration of Paleolithic hunters

Causes of the oldest migration

What was the reason for the complex movements of the population of the ancient Stone Age, sometimes covering entire continents? What force forced people of the Paleolithic time in a number of cases to leave their homes? These reasons should be sought in the material conditions of life of Paleolithic hunters, in their economy, in their social life.

As ethnography shows, the continuous and irrepressible process of settlement is a normal and natural phenomenon in the life of hunting and fishing tribes. With a low level of development of productive forces and the need for large areas of land necessary to feed the hunters, gatherers and fishermen of the Stone Age, a natural increase in population in certain areas most favorable for this inevitably led to the search for new lands and to the resettlement of people in new areas. areas.

This resettlement was not accidental, but strictly natural, since it proceeded in the form of a continuous dismemberment of ancient communities. Its causes are given us an idea of ​​the resettlement of Indian clans and tribes of North America in modern times, described by the American ethnographer L. Morgan.

According to Morgan, new tribes and new clans were constantly formed as a result of natural growth; this process was greatly accelerated due to the large extent of the American continent. From some overpopulated geographical center, which had special advantages in terms of obtaining a livelihood, there was a gradual outflow of population. As this continued from year to year, a significant population grew at some distance from the original seat of the tribes; over time, the settlers developed special interests, they became alien to their tribe, differences in language appeared. This was repeated from century to century, both in the newly employed and in the old areas. When population growth caused a lack of livelihood, the excess part of the population went to a new place.

These were not, therefore, waves of peoples moving across entire continents, nor were they rapid and catastrophic movements of large ethnic masses. Such movements belong to much later times, when large tribal unions, prepared by a long previous period, became commonplace. historical development. In the Paleolithic, a completely different in pace and character, slow and spontaneous process of seepage of individual small collectives took place. Then there was a movement of small groups of Paleolithic people from one area to another, often complicated by the reverse movement; often, it must be assumed, this kind of movement was, as it were, zigzag and intermittent, as we see it in Moravany Dlga and in Kostenki.

The settlement of ancient hunting tribes acquired a particularly wide territorial scale in the Upper Paleolithic. Further improvement in hunting techniques compared with the Mousterian time contributed to the growth of the population, which, at the same time, led to a decrease in the number of game in the territories adjacent to the old settlements.

The inevitable consequence, apparently, was the outflow of the population from the most populated and most previously developed places to the previously deserted regions of northern Europe and especially Asia. Such resettlement was all the more natural since all these events took place at the end of the ice age, during the period of liberation from ice of the colossal expanse of land.

At the same time, the development of new territories in the North became possible because now there was already much more developed than before, special hunting weapons, various means for catching animals appeared (spear thrower, bone spearheads and throwing darts, trapping pits, nets and hedges). Various methods of artificially making fire were already known. People learned to build both durable permanent dwellings for the winter, and portable light tents made of skins. Fur clothing sewn with tendon threads appeared.

All this, taken together, made it possible for a person to overcome the difficulties that harsh natural conditions set before him, which did not allow him to go far beyond the boundaries of regions with a temperate and warm climate.

The resettlement of man on the planet is one of the most exciting detective stories in history. Deciphering migrations is one of the keys to understanding historical processes. By the way, you can see the main routes on this interactive map. Recently, many discoveries have been madeScientists have learned to read genetic mutations, and linguistics has found methods by which it is possible to restore proto-languages ​​and the relationships between them. There are new ways of dating archaeological finds. The history of climate change explains many routes - man went on a great journey around the Earth in search of a better life and this process is still going on.

The ability to move was determined by the level of the seas and the melting of glaciers, which closed or opened up opportunities for further advancement. Sometimes people have had to adapt to climate change, and sometimes it seems to have worked out well. In a word, here I reinvented the wheel a little and sketched out a brief summary of the settlement of the earth, although I am most interested in Eurasia, in general.

This is what the first migrants looked like

The fact that Homo sapiens came out of Africa is now recognized by most scientists. This event happened plus or minus 70 thousand years ago, according to the latest data, it is from 62 to 130 thousand years ago. The figures more or less coincide with the determination of the age of skeletons in Israeli caves at 100,000 years. That is, this event still took place over a decent period of time, but let's not pay attention to the little things.

So, a man came out of southern Africa, settled on the continent, crossed into the narrow part of the Red Sea to the Arabian Peninsula - the modern width of the Bab el-Mandeb Strait is 20 km, and in the Ice Age the sea level was much lower - perhaps it could be crossed almost ford. The level of the world's oceans rose as the glaciers melted.

From there, part of the people went to the Persian Gulf and into the territory of approximately Mesopotamia,part further to Europe,part along the coast to India and further - to Indonesia and Australia. Another part - approximately in the direction of China, settled Siberia, partly also moved to Europe, another part - through the Bering Strait to America. So Homo sapiens basically settled around the world, and in Eurasia there were several large and very ancient centers of human settlements.Africa, where it all began, is by far the least explored, it is assumed that archaeological sites can be well preserved in the sand, so interesting discoveries are also possible there.

The origin of Homo sapiens from Africa is also confirmed by the data of geneticists, who discovered that all people on earth have the same first gene (marker) (African). Even earlier, from the same Africa, there were migrations of homoerectus (2 million years ago), which reached China, Eurasia and other parts of the planet, but then died out. Neanderthals most likely got into Eurasia by approximately the same routes as homo sapiens, 200 thousand years ago, they died out relatively recently, about 20 thousand years ago. Apparently, the territory approximately in the region of Mesopotamia is generally a passage yard for all migrants.

In Europe the age of the oldest Homo sapiens skull is determined at 40 thousand years (found in a Romanian cave). Apparently, people climbed here for animals, moving along the Dnieper. Approximately the same age as the Cro-Magnon man from the French caves, who is considered in all respects the same person as us, only he did not have a washing machine.

The lion man is the oldest figurine in the world, 40 thousand years old. Restored from micro parts over 70 years, finally restored in 2012, kept in the British Museum. Found in ancient settlement in the south of Germany, the first flute of the same age was found there. True, the figurine does not fit into my understanding of the processes. In theory, it should be at least female.

Kostenki - a large archaeological site 400 km south of Moscow in the Voronezh region, whose age was previously determined at 35 thousand years, also belongs to the same time period. However, there are reasons to make the time of the appearance of man in these places ancient. For example, archaeologists have found layers of ash there -trail of volcanic eruptions in Italy 40 thousand years ago. Numerous traces of human activity were found under this layer, so the man in Kostenki is more than 40 thousand years old, at least.

Kostenki were very densely populated, the remains of more than 60 ancient settlements were preserved there, and people lived here for a long time, not leaving it even during the Ice Age, for tens of thousands of years. In Kostenki, they find tools made of stone, which could be taken no closer than 150 km, and shells for beads had to be brought from the sea coasts. This is at least 500 km. There are figurines made of mammoth tusk.

Diadem with mammoth tusk ornament. Kostenki-1, 22-23 thousand years old, size 20x3.7 cm

It is possible that people left the common transit ancestral home at about the same time along the Danube and along the Don (and other rivers, of course).Homo sapiens in Eurasia encountered the local population living here for a long time - Neanderthals, who quite spoiled their life, and then died out.

Most likely, the process of resettlement to one degree or another continued constantly. For example, one of the monuments of this period is Dolni Vestonica (South Moravia, Mikulov, the nearest Big City- Brno), the age of the settlement is 25 and a half thousand years.

Vestonica Venus (Paleolithic Venus), found in Moravia in 1925, 25 thousand years old, but some scientists consider it older. Height 111 cm, kept in the Moravian Museum in Brno (Czech Republic).

Most of the Neolithic monuments of Europe are sometimes combined with the term "Old Europe". These include Trypillya, Vinca, Lendel, the culture of funnel-shaped goblets. Minoans, Sikans, Iberians, Basques, Lelegs, Pelasgians are considered pre-Indo-European European peoples. Unlike the Indo-Europeans who came later, who settled in fortified cities on the hills, the old Europeans lived on the plains in small settlements and did not have defensive fortifications. They did not know the potter's wheel and wheel. On the Balkan Peninsula there were settlements of up to 3-4 thousand inhabitants. The Basque Country is considered to be a relic old European region.

In the Neolithic, which begins about 10 thousand years ago, migrations begin to take place more actively. The development of transport played an important role. The migrations of peoples take place both by sea and with the help of a new revolutionary vehicle - a horse and cart. The largest migrations of the Indo-Europeans belong to the Neolithic. Regarding the Indo-European ancestral home, almost unanimously they name the same area in the territory around the Persian Gulf, Asia Minor (Turkey), etc. Actually, it has always been known that the next resettlement of people occurs from the territory near Mount Ararat after a catastrophic flood. Now this theory is increasingly being confirmed by science. The version needs proof, so the study of the Black Sea is of particular importance now - it is known that it was a small freshwater lake, and as a result of an ancient catastrophe, water from the Mediterranean Sea flooded nearby areas, possibly actively inhabited by Proto-Indo-Europeans. People from the flooded area rushed in different directions - theoretically, this could serve as an impetus for a new wave of migrations.

Linguists confirm that a single linguistic Proto-Indo-European ancestor came from the same place where migrations to Europe and more early times- approximately from the north of Mesopotamia, that is, roughly speaking, all from the same area near Ararat. A large migration wave went from about the 6th millennium almost in all directions, moving in the directions of India, China and Europe. In earlier times, migrations also took place from the same places, in any case, it is logical, as in earlier times, the penetration of people into Europe along the rivers approximately from the territory of the modern Black Sea region. Also, people actively populate Europe from the Mediterranean, including by sea.

During the Neolithic, several types of archaeological cultures developed. Among them are a large number of megalithic monuments.(megaliths are large stones). In Europe, they are distributed mostly in coastal areas and belong to the Eneolithic and Bronze Age - 3 - 2 thousand BC. To an earlier period, the Neolithic - in the British Isles, in Portugal and France. They are found in Brittany, the Mediterranean coast of Spain, Portugal, France, as well as in the west of England, in Ireland, Denmark, Sweden. The most common are dolmens - in Wales they are called cromlech, in Portugal anta, in Sardinia stazzone, in the Caucasus ispun. Another common type of them is corridor tombs (Ireland, Wales, Brittany, etc.). Another type is galleries. Menhirs (separate large stones), groups of menhirs and stone circles, which include Stonehenge, are also common. It is assumed that the latter were astronomical devices and are not as ancient as megalithic burials, such monuments are associated with migrations by sea. The complex and intricate relationships between settled and nomadic peoples- a separate story, by the year zero there is a quite definite picture of the world.

Quite a lot is known about the great migration of peoples in the 1st millennium AD thanks to literary sources - these processes were complex and diverse. Finally, over the course of the second millennium, a modern map of the world is gradually taking shape. However, the history of migrations does not end there, and today it takes on no less global scale than in antiquity. By the way, there is an interesting BBC series "The Great Settlement of Nations".

In general, the conclusion and the bottom line is this - the resettlement of people is a living and natural process that has never stopped. Migrations occur for certain and understandable reasons - it's good where we are not. Most often make a person move on worsening climatic conditions, hunger, in a word - the desire to survive.

Passionarity - a term introduced by N. Gumilyov, means the ability of peoples to move and characterize their "age". High level passionarity is a property of young peoples. Passionarity, in general, was good for the peoples, although this path has never been easy. It seems to me that it would be better for a single person to be smarter and not sit still :))) Willingness to travel is one of two things: either complete hopelessness and compulsion, or youth of the soul .... Do you agree with me?

A little theory about anthropogenesis

For many reasons, theoretical developments in the field of evolutionary anthropology are constantly ahead of their current level of evidence. Formed in the 19th century under the direct influence of the evolutionist theory of Darwin and finally taking shape in the first half of the 20th century, the stage theory of anthropogenesis reigned supreme for quite a long time. Its essence boils down to the following: a person in his biological development has gone through several stages, separated from each other by evolutionary leaps.

• first stage - archanthropes(Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Atlanthropus),
• second stage - paleoanthropes(Neanderthals, whose name comes from the first discovery near the city of Neanderthal),
• third stage - neoanthrope(man of the modern species), or Cro-Magnon (named after the place where the first fossils of modern humans were found, made in the Cro-Magnon grotto).

It should be noted that this is not a biological classification, but a stadial scheme, which did not contain the entire morphological diversity of paleoanthropological finds already in the 50s. 20th century Note that the classification scheme of the family of hominids is still an area of ​​sharp scientific discussions.

The last half century, and especially the last decade of research, has brought a large number of findings that have qualitatively changed the general approach to solving the question of the immediate ancestors of man, understanding the nature and paths of the process of sapientation.

According to modern ideas, evolution is not a linear process accompanied by several jumps, but a continuous, multi-level process, the essence of which can be graphically represented not as a tree with a single trunk, but as a bush. Thus, we are talking about network-like evolution, the essence of which is that at the same time evolutionarily unequal human beings could exist and interact, which in morphological and cultural terms stood at different levels of sapientation.

Settlement of Homo erectus and Neanderthals

Settlement map of Homo erectus in the Olduvian and Acheulian eras.

Africa, most likely, is the only area in which representatives of the species lived in the first half a million years of their existence, although they undoubtedly could visit neighboring regions in the process of migration - Arabia, the Middle East and even the Caucasus. Paleoanthropological finds in Israel (Ubeidiya site), in the Central Caucasus (Dmanisi site) allow us to speak about this with confidence. As for the territories of the South-East and East Asia, as well as the south of Europe, then the appearance of representatives of the genus Homo erectus there dates back no earlier than to the interval of 1.1-0.8 million years ago, and any significant settlement of them can be attributed to the end of the Lower Pleistocene, i.e. about 500 thousand years ago.

In the later stages of its history (about 300 thousand years ago), Homo erectus (archanthropes) populated all of Africa, southern Europe, and began to spread widely in Asia. Despite the fact that their populations could be separated by natural barriers, morphologically they were a relatively homogeneous group.

The era of the existence of the “archanthropes” was replaced by the appearance about half a million years ago of another group of hominids, which are often, in accordance with the previous scheme, called paleoanthropes and whose early appearance, regardless of the location of the discovery of bone remains, is attributed in the modern scheme to Homo Heidelbergensis (Heidelberg man). This species existed approximately from 600 to 150 thousand years ago.

In Europe and Western Asia, the descendants of H. Heidelbergensis were the so-called "classical" Neanderthals - who appeared no later than 130 thousand years ago and existed for at least 100 thousand years. Their last representatives lived in the mountainous regions of Eurasia as early as 30 thousand years ago, if not longer.

Resettlement of modern humans

Origin Debate Homo sapiens still very sharp modern solutions very different from the views of even twenty years ago. AT modern science two opposing points of view are clearly distinguished - polycentric and monocentric. According to the first, the evolutionary transformation of Homo erectus into Homo sapiens took place everywhere - in Africa, Asia, Europe, with a continuous, continuous exchange of genetic material between the populations of these territories. According to another, the place of formation of neoanthropes was a quite definite region, from where their resettlement took place, associated with the destruction or assimilation of autochthonous populations of hominids. Such a region, according to scientists, is South and East Africa, where the remains of Homo sapiens are of the greatest antiquity (the skull of Omo 1, discovered near the northern coast of Lake Turkan in Ethiopia and dating back about 130 thousand years, the remains of neoanthropes from the caves of Klasies and Beder on southern Africa, dating back to about 100 thousand years old). In addition, a number of other East African sites contain finds comparable in age to those mentioned above. In northern Africa, such early remains of neoanthropes have not yet been discovered, although there are a number of finds of very advanced individuals in the anthropological sense, which date back to an age well over 50 thousand years.

Outside of Africa, finds of Homo sapiens, similar in age to finds from South and East Africa, discovered in the Middle East, they come from the Israeli caves of Skhul and Qafzeh and date from 70 to 100 thousand years ago.

In other regions the globe Homo sapiens finds that are older than 40-36 thousand years are still unknown. There are a number of reports of earlier finds in China, Indonesia and Australia, but all of them either do not have reliable dates or come from poorly stratified sites.

Thus, to date, the hypothesis of the African ancestral home of our species seems to be the most probable, because it is there that there is the maximum number of finds that allow us to trace in sufficient detail the transformation of local archanthropes into paleoanthropes, and the latter into neoanthropes. Genetic research and data molecular biology, according to most researchers, also point to Africa as the original center of the emergence of Homo sapiens. Calculations by geneticists, aimed at determining the probable time of the appearance of our species, say that this event could occur in the period from 90 to 160 thousand years ago, although earlier dates sometimes appear.

If we leave aside the controversy about the exact time of the appearance of modern people, then it should be said that, judging by anthropological data, the wide distribution outside Africa and the Middle East began no earlier than 50-60 thousand years ago, when they mastered the southern regions of Asia and Australia. In Europe, people of the modern type penetrated 35-40 thousand years ago, where then for almost 10 thousand years they coexisted with the Neanderthals. In the process of their settlement, different populations of Homo sapiens had to adapt to a variety of natural conditions, which resulted in the accumulation of more or less clear biological differences between them, which led to the formation of modern races. It cannot be ruled out that contacts with the local population of the developed regions, which, apparently, was anthropologically rather motley, could have had a certain influence on the latter process.

It is impossible to determine from what time people began to travel. Most likely, the beginning of the history of travel should be traced back to the time when the process of separating a person from the animal world began to take place. In any case, there is no doubt that travel began when the foundations of human civilization were being laid.

What made our distant ancestors move across the boundless expanses of the Earth? The motives for traveling were as follows:

1. Primitive man was forced to move from one area to another looking for food(hunting, fishing, etc.). Despite the fact that animals also make such transitions (for example, herds of antelopes travel up to a thousand kilometers per season), nevertheless, such movements in space are characteristic of humans, since they are meaningful and purposeful.

2. With the advent of cattle breeding, primitive man began to make long transitions in search of pasture, laying paths and memorizing them. Often shepherds marked their way with special signs on the ground.

3. With the development of primitive agriculture, human interest in the territorial distribution of the plant world has expanded significantly. Man moved in search of better and more fertile lands and even sought to change the landscape of lands unsuitable for crops.

4. The development of crafts and trade made it necessary to create route schemes. The most noticeable features of the relief (mountain, rock, tall tree, etc.) served as landmarks. The revolutionary stage in the movement of people was production and use of watercraft to overcome the distance on the water. First, the flow of water was used, and then the force of the wind. The sun and stars served as landmarks on the sea.

5. With the development of intergroup communication, habitual paths between villages are created. Developing tribal communication. This communication took several forms:

a) intra-ethnic displacement, i.e. movement within the territory occupied by a tribe or an alliance of tribes;

b) interethnic communication, i.e. moving outside the territory of the tribe and the loss of further communication with it;

c) the movement of the tribe itself or the union of tribes to another area, which is typical for peoples leading nomadic lifestyle.

This type of movement is called migration.

At the same time, ancient people tried to fix the routes of their movements. This marked the beginning of the first elements of cartography.

The first so-called "maps" were drawn on the ground, stones, tree fragments, animal skins and bones. These were primitive schemes with symbols with drawing elements.

In the Mesolithic era (10 - 3 thousand years ago), the first trade routes begin to take shape.

Thus, in prehistoric times, the main motives for travel were due to objective reasons, the main of which was survival. But there was also an internal motivation for people's travels, namely, mutual visits of representatives of different tribes, and simple human curiosity to find out: "what is there beyond the horizon?"

AT ancient time The main motives for traveling were trade, educational and cognitive purposes, pilgrimage, treatment, visiting and participating in public events, conquest and colonization of new lands.

The first travels of antiquity (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Phoenicia, China). The process of human cognition of the surrounding world is to some extent connected with travel. The need to establish trade relations forced people to go to distant, unknown lands. The first information about travel and their role in the emergence of great cultures has come down to us in the form of myths, legends, tales, biblical texts and testimonies of ancient authors.

Traveling in the Ancient East was an integral part of the way of life of people. Since travel was fraught with dangers, the traveler was perceived as a person marked by God. Before the journey, obligatory rituals and sacrifices were performed. Similar examples can be found in the epic about Gilgamesh. The prophet can be attributed to biblical travelers Moses who led his people through the desert in search of better lands, But I who, in his ark, saved all living things from the Flood.

Another center of world civilization was Ancient Egypt . Nature itself contributed to navigation along the full-flowing Nile, which flows through the whole country from south to north. The Egyptians made a map of the part of the Nile they mastered, tracing its course for more than 2,000 km. Thanks to this, the Egyptians reached Nubia, located to the south of the country, and contacted the Mediterranean countries lying to the north and northeast (the islands of the Aegean Sea and the island of Crete).

From the central part of the country, the caravan route began, led to the Red Sea, and from there to the country of Punt. puntom(more precisely Puin) the ancient Egyptians called the country in East Africa, located on the coast of the Gulf of Aden. It is currently believed that this is the territory of modern Somalia and Yemen.

But the most famous and almost completely preserved description of the journey is the journey Sinuheta(in another transcription - Sinukhit), which took place around 2000 - 1960. BC. Sinuhet undertook a journey to the country of Kedem, i.e. to the East. This story was written by an unknown author. The Egyptians loved to read it and copied it from papyrus to papyrus.

Navigation has intensified contacts between countries. The necessary wood (for example, pine, cedar) was delivered from Syria and Lebanon. From the harbors of the Red Sea, the ships went to the countries Arabian Peninsula, India, was also intermediary trade with China. There was an active trade with the states of East Africa, from where gold, ivory, stone and earthenware were brought to the pharaohs.

And yet the first sailors of antiquity were Phoenicians. Their state was located in the eastern Mediterranean. The Phoenicians built large and durable ships, went beyond the Mediterranean basin into the ocean, and also sailed along the western coasts of Europe and Africa.

In the VI century. BC on assignment Egyptian pharaoh Necho II The Phoenicians undertook a journey around Africa. The Phoenicians sailed from the Erythrean Sea (Red Sea) and entered the South Sea ( Indian Ocean). With the onset of autumn, they landed on the shore for the winter. They camped on the shore, sowed the land and waited for the harvest, then sailed on. So two years passed on the voyage, and on the third they circled Africa and sailed through the Pillars of Hercules and returned to Egypt. It is through the efforts of the Phoenicians Strait of Gibraltar opened, and the opportunity arose to reach the western shores of Europe, the British Isles and the western coast of Africa. They laid at the exit in Atlantic Ocean the cities of Kadir (Cadiz) and Tingis (Tangier).

Descendants of the ancient Phoenicians Carthaginians– continued development of new lands and spaces. The most famous journey of a military leader and naval commander Gennon. He explored the western coast of Africa up to modern Sierra Leone.

Travels and discoveries were made by all peoples of the world. Such centers of human civilization as China and India are no exception in this regard.

Civilization Ancient China originated in the middle of the II millennium BC. e. in the Juane river basin. By the end of the II millennium BC. The Chinese settled in East Asia. Chinese travelers were well aware of the geography of China. The ancient Chinese sailed not only on their rivers, but also went out on their ships to the Pacific Ocean.

In addition to trading and pleasure ships in ancient China, there were powerful warships.

The most famous traveler of ancient China was Sima Qian. known three big trips Sima Qian, which took place in the period 125 - 120 BC. e. across the territory of China.

Sima Qian not only traveled, but also described his travels in detail. He is called "the father of Chinese historiography", in European literature "Chinese Herodotus". His " Historical notes”became a kind of standard for subsequent historians. His writings also provide information geographic character about China's southwestern neighbors, such as Korea.

One of the first Chinese travelers was Zhang Qian who lived around the 2nd century. BC. and held a diplomatic post at the imperial court. Journey to the Huns. Traveled Mongolia, Central Asia.

While traveling, Zhang Qian constantly kept notes. He described Bukhara, the valley of the Ili River, the steppes of Kyrgyzstan, the territory of modern Kazakhstan, located north of the Syr Darya. Zhang Qian's journey was of great economic importance. Chinese merchants rushed west along the route he had traveled. They penetrated not only into Central Asia and India, but also into the countries of Asia Minor and Palestine.

Fa Xian's travels. Buddhist monk, traveled around Asia for 15 years. He explored Northwestern China, the Gobi Desert, Central Asia, Afghanistan, Northern India. In India, Fa Xiang visited many cities, collected legends and tales about Buddha. There he lived for several years. He returned to China by sea through the islands of Ceylon and Java. He published the "Description of Buddhist States", which describes more than 30 states, provides valuable geographical and ethnographic information. In addition, Fa Xiang gives an estimate of distances and the exact position of objects.

The significance of China in the socio-cultural space of that time was enormous. In the chronicle of 166 BC. contains information about the visit of Chinese merchants to the Roman Empire and their meeting with Emperor Marcus Aurelius Anthony. Chinese merchants paved the way through Central Asia, the Middle East, Palestine to Ancient Rome, which gave rise to " Great Silk Road". But China's closest trading partners were the peoples who inhabited the Indian subcontinent.

Thus, in all the major civilizations of antiquity, travel and campaigns were actively made for various purposes. Mankind developed and mastered new territories. Along with this, the way of life, traditions changed, the interpenetration of cultures took place.

6. Travels of the Ancient World (Carthage, Ancient Greece, Macedonia, etc.) The era of antiquity includes several periods: the period of the archaic (Crete-Mycenaean culture); the period of the beginning of the development of the civilization of Ancient Greece; Hellenistic period (the heyday and decline of the civilization of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome). The very word "antiquity" in Latin means "antiquity", "old times".

The roots of European civilization go back to the distant legendary times of the Cretan culture, or, as it is also called, the Minoan (after the name of the Cretan king Minos). Myths and tales about this land are inspired by romance and lyricism. It is enough to recall the labyrinth of the Minotaur, the thread of Ariadne, the exploits of Theseus, the son of the Athenian king Aegeus, in whose honor the Aegean Sea is named, Medea, Jason, the Argonauts, the heroes of Homer's Iliad, as soon as something near and dear will blow. All generations of Europeans grew up on this material and live on it.

From the 12th century BC. we can talk about the origin of the civilization of Ancient Greece. The ancient Greeks freely sailed the Aegean to the shores of Asia Minor and back, although these journeys were not without danger and adventure. The story of the wanderings of the legendary Odysseus does not need comments, since Homer's poems have been translated into all languages.

In ancient Greece, travel reached its greatest upsurge in the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. The same period is the heyday of philosophy, art, mathematics, astronomy, cosmology and other sciences. The centers of civilization were the cities of Asia Minor - Miletus, Ephesus and Colophon. But the center of attraction was Athens.

With the aim of understanding the world, sages, natural philosophers and poets traveled to all corners of the world. Almost all major ancient Greek philosophers carried out distant wanderings. sage and philosopher Thales of Miletus studied in Egypt for more than twenty years. A philosopher and mathematician visited the Nile Valley to gain knowledge Pythagoras, legislator Solon. Philosopher Plato, having made a long journey, upon returning home he founded a philosophical school.

But not only knowledge attracted travelers to these countries. They were attracted by the grandiose ancient monuments of architecture.

One of the first scientific travelers was Herodotus, who, in the words of Cicero, is the "father of history." Herodotus traveled for 10 years (from 455 to 445 BC), and set out all his observations in 9 books. He traveled all over Greece and Asia Minor, then sailed to the Phoenician city of Tire. Most of all, Herodotus was attracted by the East and its rich cultural heritage. Herodotus traveled around Libya, visited Babylon, but he was especially struck by Egypt, where he stayed for three months. Returning to Greece, Herodotus shared his knowledge with his compatriots. This was his first trip..

The second journey of Herodotus passed through Asia Minor, from where he arrived by ship to the Northern Black Sea region, through the Helespont to the Milesian colony of Olbia at the mouth of the Dnieper-Bug estuary. There he met with the nomadic tribes of the Scythians, observed their customs, rituals, studied their social system.

Own third voyage Herodotus dedicated to the study of the Balkan Peninsula. He traveled around the Peloponnese, the islands of the Aegean Sea (Delos, Pharos, Zakif and others), then traveled through southern Italy and the north of the Balkan Peninsula.

Only fragments of his writings have come down to us, but the main thing is that Herodotus belongs glory of the first Greek tourist, since, unlike his predecessors, he traveled not for the sake of achieving some other goals, but for the sake of the journey itself, i.e. for the sake of pleasure, the satisfaction of one's own inquisitiveness and curiosity.

During this era, travel was made mainly for economic, political and military purposes. One example of travel for economic purposes was the journey of the Greek merchant Pytheas. In 325 BC Pytheas sailed on one ship from his native city of Messalia (now Marseille). He sailed through Gibraltar and, rounding the Iberian Peninsula, entered the Bay of Biscay. Then he sailed along the coast of the country of the Celts and reached the English Channel. There he landed on the island of Albion, which means "White", named because of the frequent fogs. On this island, Pytheas learned from the inhabitants that to the north of them lies the land of "Thule", which in translation from the local dialect means "edge", "limit".

Pytheas rounded the British Peninsula from the west, and through the North Strait between Britain and Ireland entered the Atlantic Ocean. Pytheas tried to reach the land of "Thule" (now the island of Iceland). He sailed through the Orkney and Shetland Islands and, reaching the Ferry Islands, went further, to 61 ° north latitude. None of the ancient Greeks and even the Romans did not go so far to the north.

Greece is the birthplace of sports tourism. Olympic Games took place every four years and began on the first new moon after the summer solstice. Special envoys of feora during the Games proclaimed the sacred peace.

The venue for the Games was Olympia. All those going to Olympia were recognized as guests of Zeus. Among them there were also guests of honor, who were recognized as deputies of cities and feora. As a rule, they were stirred and fed at the expense of the host. The stadium could hold up to forty thousand people, but only men were allowed there. On the occasion of the Olympics, there was always a big fair. Tourists visited the ancient temples, listened to the guide telling various legends. The Olympics lasted 5 days.

In addition to the Olympics, there were other games that were of a pan-Greek character: Isthmian that took place on the Isthmus of Corinth; Nemean held in the Nemean Valley of Argolis, near the Temple of Zeus, also once every two years; Pythian, held, like the Olympic, every four years in Chris (Phokis).

Considering the travels of the Hellenistic era, it should be noted military campaigns of Alexander the Great lasting for 10 years.

In 330 BC the troops of Alexander the Great, having defeated the Persian kingdom, reached southern Afghanistan. Then, through modern Kandahar and Ghazni, they poisoned themselves in Kabel. From there, having passed the Khavak pass (3,548 m) in the Hindu Kush mountain system, we arrived in northern Afghanistan. After that, the Macedonian king made his campaign to the Syr Darya and reached modern Khujand (until 1991 - the city of Leninabad). Then the army turned south and invaded the Punjab, where, due to the discontent of the soldiers, heat and illness, Alexander was forced to go back, during which he was overtaken by death.

Without going into the military details of this campaign, we can safely say that it ended for the Greeks, and then for the Romans, by opening the way to India. Thanks to this campaign, the Greeks and Macedonians got acquainted with little-known, or even completely unknown before, peoples, their culture, way of life, and traditions. Personally, Alexander the Great was interested in the study of Asia. Alexander's entourage included not only warriors, but also outstanding scientists and artists. In their works, they described in detail everything they saw, heard and studied during this campaign.

There has been a change in outlook. eurocentrism.

This hike was Museum studies started. Alexander, after the victory over the Persians, sent money to his teacher Aristotle. With this money, Aristotle founded a natural science museum. Aristotle asked his royal disciple to send him samples of unknown plants and skins or stuffed animals of unusual animals, which was done at the behest of Alexander.

Features of intrastate travel in the Roman Empire. Types of "tourist" activities that originated in the Roman Empire. Ancient Greek culture enriched mankind with knowledge about the world around us, elevating travel to the rank of a mass phenomenon, but talking about early stages tourism industry can be from the era of ancient Rome.

of the highest flourishing The Roman Empire reached in the I - II centuries. ad. Travel could be carried out thanks to the presence of excellent roads. In ancient Greece, an obstacle to overland travel was the lack of convenient roads. Water travel.

The size of the Roman Empire and the problems of its management were the reason for the creation dense network of roads. Basically, the Romans developed the road system based on military needs. Roman roads were built according to all the rules of engineering.

When laying the road, any obstacles were overcome. Bridges and viaducts were built to overcome water barriers. In some places, these structures have not only survived to this day, but are even still in use.

There were special road maps with the designation of stations where one could stop for the night. The maps indicated the distance between stations. On the main roads, postal stations were located at a distance of 6 to 15 miles from each other. They were an integral part of the state postal service.

Created in ancient Rome network of state hotels in order to pay for the construction of roads. These hotels were built every 15 miles. There were two types of hotels. The hotels that were intended for the patricians were called mansion. For the plebeians, there were worse hotels, mostly private, which were called stabularia. These were ordinary inns where one could eat and rest without amenities, feed or change horses, repair a wagon, etc. In massions, there are elements of tourist service and maintenance (laundries, rooms for recreation and entertainment, taverns, etc.).

In ancient Rome, there were already guidebooks, which not only indicated this or that route, but also described the sights encountered along the way, marked hotels and gave prices.

The Romans, even more than the Greeks, valued healing mineral springs. The objects of foreign tourism include the well-known to this day resorts on the Rhine - Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden.

With the advent of Christianity, a new impetus is given pilgrimage tourism. Pilgrimage was common in ancient Greece. Especially frequented was the famous temple of Apollo at Delphi, where the Pythia, "chosen by God", was engaged in predictions.

famous travelers Ancient Rome can be called Polybius(200 - 120 BC), wrote "World History".

The first country specialist can be called Strabo(64 - 23 BC). Strabo traveled all his life. He traveled around Asia Minor, visited the Taurus (Crimea) mountains and at the foot of Caucasus mountains, visited the Cyclades and walked around the Balkan Peninsula, thoroughly studied all the memorable places on the Apennine Peninsula, as well as Egypt.

After completing his travels, Strabo wrote the main work of his life - “ Geography- in 17 books. This work is the result of the geographical knowledge of antiquity.

Travelers in ancient Rome were emperors(Trajan, Adrian, Marcus Aurelius), commanders and scientists.

Thus, thanks to the travelers of antiquity, new lands and peoples were discovered, rich geographical material was accumulated, which contributed to further travels and discoveries.

The nature of travel during this period was most often spontaneous and forced. Types of travel can be classified according to the methods of movement: pedestrian, water transport, animals.

Travel motives: educational, entertaining, health-improving, trade, research, conquest, sea expeditions.

Causes and significance of roads and trade routes in antiquity and the Middle Ages. Ways of communication have existed for as long as humanity has existed. The most ancient transport arteries were rivers developed by man in the Mesolithic era. Later, in the Neolithic (VIII-V millennium BC), there were land routes along which the exchange of valuable raw materials (flint, obsidian, lapis lazuli, malachite, sea shells, Ivory). These were trails tied to natural terrain - river valleys, mountain passes; there are no material traces left of them, but these ancient paths are reconstructed according to archaeological finds from the settlements along them. The construction of roads begins with the emergence of the state. The oldest road discovered in Egypt has come down to us; it was laid to the site of the construction of the pyramid of Pharaoh Sakhura (III millennium BC)

The ancient states of the period of antiquity paid attention to the construction of roads and their safety. It is the duty of each of the numerous states ancient greece roads were built. Roads of standard width (approx. 3 m.) were laid on stony soil, carving entire sections in the rocks. Roads were considered as inviolable as temples. In the "History" of Herodotus, the royal road, laid by the Persian rulers in the 6th century, is described. BC. from the city of Sardis in western Asia Minor to Susa in southwestern Iran. Its length was approx. 2400 km. At regular intervals, stations with inns were built, and at strategic points, such as river crossings, there were military posts and fortified gates.

In the Northern Black Sea region, on the territory of modern Russia and Ukraine, there were numerous ancient Greek cities. Their inhabitants possessed the technology of road construction, which can be judged by the paved city streets discovered by archaeologists. The streets were paved with stone slabs laid dry without mortar, lanes - with rubble and shards of broken vessels. The highest achievement in the field transport systems antiquity became Roman roads. The Roman state paid great attention to the construction of roads, which played an important military and civil role in the functioning of the vast empire. The most ancient Appian Way was built in the 4th century BC. BC, on the map ancient rome one can see how numerous roads radiate from the center of the city, connecting it with the most remote provinces. The Romans became the inventors of concrete and widely used it in road construction. The collapse of the Roman Empire in the 4th century AD under the blows of barbarian tribes and the onset of the Middle Ages meant the loss of many achievements of civilization, including the destruction of the road network. In the medieval Old Russian state, the most important means of communication were rivers, along which navigation was carried out from spring to autumn, and in winter they laid a sledge track. It was along the rivers that the most important trade routes passed: along the Dnieper and Volkhov - “from the Varangians to the Greeks”, i.e. from Scandinavia to the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople. When moving from the basin of one river to another, it was necessary to overcome land sections - portages (the name comes from the fact that the boats had to be dragged over dry land, on lining skating rinks). In the places of portages, cities arose - Smolensk, Volokolamsk, Vyshny Volochok, and smaller trade and craft settlements.

The princely administration took care of the state of land roads, one of its tasks was to build gates in marshy places. In general, in ancient Russia there were few roads, they were unpaved and poorly equipped. Better was the case with the city streets. In wooded lands they were paved

The Great Volga Route connected medieval Russia, Scandinavia and Northern Europe with the Caspian Sea and the countries of the East.

In the early Middle Ages, regular road communication existed thanks to the Roman roads. From the 4th century they begin to be restored, and they acquire a "second life". In Central Europe, the first national road was built between Mainz and Koblenz. All Central Europe crossed a dirt road - "Vindobona Arrow" - from the Baltic States to Vindobona (Vienna). Amber was delivered along it. The best roads in the Byzantine Empire were in the Balkans.

One of the most important elements of the country's development is trade. It is usually divided into external and internal. In the Middle Ages, both types of trade were often mixed. This was due to the time the goods were in transit. Bought or made in hometown, the goods could be sold all the way. Two of the three significant trade routes passed through the territory of Kievan Rus. It was due to them that the state gained fame and authority in the world. Over time, the paths changed, but the main directions remained the same.

Many scientists consider the Volga as the earliest trade route. Although many do not agree with it. Nevertheless, its significance in the history of the formation of Russia is great. “From the Varangians to the Bulgars” - this name is found in the annals. It connected the states of Scandinavia and Khazaria. From there, the goods dispersed further east. The path took shape early, in 780 AD. Control over this path was essential. Russia becomes a trading intermediary between Europe and the East. However, over time, the path loses its meaning. This is due to the establishment of control over the trade route leading to the Black Sea. It was more profitable for the state that merchants use it. Svyatoslav's military campaigns against Khazaria strengthened the significance of the Black Sea route. Crusades further reduced its value. Trading through this path becomes unprofitable.

The path connecting the countries of Scandinavia and Byzantium is becoming increasingly important. In The Tale of Bygone Years, he was called "from the Varangians to the Greeks" or "Eastern Way". Along large rivers, through many heavy portages, he passed through the entire territory of Russia. Iron, furs, amber, flax were delivered to the south along it. Luxury goods and gold went north. The state enriched itself at the expense of trade duties levied on passing merchants. In some European countries there are references to "Russian silk". It was never made on the territory of Russia, however, control was established over its sale to European countries, which brought a significant income. Since the beginning feudal fragmentation Russia, the value of the path is falling. The predatory raids of the Varangians also did not contribute to the development of trade. The capture of Byzantium by the crusaders in 1204 severely disrupted trade. Finally, the path ceases to exist after the capture of the Lower and Middle Dnieper by the Golden Horde.

In any case, these trade routes allowed the formation of the state. Control over the movement of goods allowed the country to play a significant role in world politics.

The presence of trade routes for the development of medieval states was very important. This contributed not only to obtaining the necessary goods and replenishing the budget of the trading states, but also to the spread of new technologies, cultural achievements and religious ideas. Trade routes and their numerous branches in antiquity and the Middle Ages were not only trade routes, but also a cultural and information network connecting distant peoples and states that received information about each other's material and spiritual culture through these communication channels. Merchant caravans, embassies, communities of settlers, artels of free artisans, pilgrims, missionaries, wandering actors moved along them. The authorities of the states through whose possessions trade routes ran usually made every effort to ensure their safety.

AT Eastern Europe The Great Volga Way is considered to be the oldest, some sections of which began to function as early as the Eneolithic and bronze age. However, as a highway connecting Northern Europe and Central Asia with Iran, the Volga route took shape only in the 8th century AD. In fact, no one had complete control over him. The key - the Lower Volga section of the route was under the rule of the Khazar Khaganate, a significant role in the trade of which was played by Jewish merchants "rahdonites". This allowed the Khazar authorities to receive the highest profits. The Middle Volga section was controlled by the Volga Bulgaria. The Upper Volga flowed through the Slavic lands, which allowed them to trade with eastern merchants. However, the Normans (Varangians/Vikings) were the strongest group operating on the northern section of the route. The northern section ran from the upper reaches of the Volga along the lanes and the Lovat River, Lake Ilmen, the Volkhov and Neva Rivers - to the Baltic Sea.

Globally, the Volga trade route was a large offshoot of the Great Silk Road, connecting the Far East with Europe. The Great Silk Road passed through Central and Central Asia, Iran (south of the Caspian and Black Seas), the territory of modern Arab countries and Turkey (Western and Minor Asia), and then to the states of the Mediterranean. Sometimes most of the Silk Road was controlled by one state, such as the Turkic Khaganate in the 6th century or the Mongol Empire in the 13th century.

The value of the Volga Route usually increased during the period of cessation of operation (or a significant decrease in trade) of the West Asian section of the Silk Road, for example, during the period of the Arab conquests of the 7th-8th centuries, or the Seljuk conquests of the 11th century. As a result, in the 8th century, the Volga and Dnieper routes ("from the Varangians to the Greeks" became more important and significantly competed with the route through Western Asia. The greatest damage to trade along the Great Silk Road was caused by the Seljuk (Oguz) conquests of the 11th century in Central and Western Asia. In During this period, the Silk Road did not function for several decades.

Trade reached a very significant scale during the existence of the Mongol Empire and subsequent Mongol states (the Golden Horde, the Yuan Empire, the powers of the Iranian Mongols Hulaguids, the Chagatai ulus). Along with the complete practically safe functioning of the classical (southern) route of the Silk Road (south of the Black and Caspian Seas, through Iran, and Byzantium (Constantinople) or Syria), a significant part of the flow of goods went through the northern (Eastern European) branch of the Silk Road through the territory of the Golden Horde (Middle Asia - Lower Volga - Don - Crimea - Black Sea - Constantinople - Mediterranean Sea). In the Golden Horde period of the XIII-XIV centuries, the Volga route, reconnecting with the Silk Road, acquired a very important significance and a large flow of goods. Once again, Russian lands and principalities were included in international trade, which became an important factor in the need for the unification of Russia.

new period in trade began in the second half - the end of the 14th century, when, due to the collapse of the Mongol states (the Hulaguid Empire, the Golden Horde) and the formation of the Tamerlane empire, trade along the Silk and Volga Roads sharply decreased again. In a truncated form, the Silk Road functioned until the middle of the 15th century, until in 1453 the Ottoman Empire blocked its central part for Europeans. It was the need to trade with the East and the inability to do this through the Ottoman Empire that fueled the search sea ​​routes to India and China - that is, the Great geographical discoveries of the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries ...

Peoples have changed many habitats, and some of them traveled distances of thousands of kilometers. Migration of peoples radically changed the picture of the world.

The settlement of the planet (120,000 - 20,000 years ago)

Most geneticists and archaeologists assure that a person very similar to you and me populated the vast expanses of Eurasia, Australia and America, moving from East Africa. This happened gradually, in several waves.

The first wave of migration occurred about 120 thousand years ago, when the first settlers appeared in the Middle East. The last wave of settlement reached the American continent 20,000 - 15,000 years ago.

There were no races at that time: the first people looked like Australians, who for a long time lived scattered and isolated from the rest of the world, which is why they retained their original appearance. The reasons for the "exodus" for science are still a mystery. Some scholars refer to climate change and lack of food, the other - on the first social contradictions and the practice of cannibalism, which divided people into "predators" and "eaten". However, these versions are not necessarily mutually exclusive.

Expansion of farmers and the cult of the Mother Goddess (about 6000 BC)

The homeland of agriculture, many cultivated plants and domestic animals that moved with people to Europe, was the Middle East region: Anatolia, the Levant and Mesopotamia. From here, the first farmers settled the Balkans, and then Southern and Central Europe, bringing with them the cult of fertility and the Mother Goddess. Archaeological finds are replete with "mother figurines", and the cult itself survived into antiquity in the form of the Eleusinian mysteries.

In addition to Europe, the agricultural center was also in China in the middle reaches of the Yellow River, from where farmers spread throughout the Far East.

Exodus and the "Dark Ages" (1200-1150 BC)

Scientists correlate the times of the biblical Exodus with large-scale cataclysms and movements of peoples during the “catastrophe of the Bronze Age” - natural and social upheavals of the 12th-13th centuries BC. As a result of the improvement of technology, peoples could easily defeat their previously invincible enemies.

During this period, the “peoples of the sea” attacked the coast of Egypt and the Hittite kingdom and moved to Italy, the Jews settled in Palestine and created a powerful kingdom of Israel. There are gradual migrations of the Aryans to India and Asia Minor - it was during this period that the Rig Veda, the oldest collection of Indian religious hymns, was compiled. The powerful states of ancient peoples are in decline and disappear from the map - the Hittite kingdom, Urartu, Mycenae (Greek dark ages) and the Harappan civilization.

"Axial time" (VIII-II centuries BC)

This term was proposed by the German philosopher Karl Jaspers. He wanted to describe the dramatic shifts that took place in the way of life of people and in the development of the largest civilizations of that time. At this time, contacts between peoples increase sharply, which leads to a breakthrough in ancient culture and the emergence of philosophy.

Greek colonists by this time gradually fill the entire Mediterranean and even the Black Sea steppes. The Scythians attack the Persian Empire, the Saks and Yuezhi penetrate into India and China. The Romans begin their expansion in the Apennine Peninsula, and the Celtic tribes (Galatians) reach Anatolia.

The first Japanese-speaking tribes migrated to Japan from North Asia. The oldest world religion, Buddhism, is born and spread, which causes a flow of preachers and pilgrims in the Hellenistic states of the Middle East.

Great Migration of Peoples (IV-VI centuries AD)

The climatic pessimum, the collapse of the Roman Empire in the west and the Xiongnu Power in the east caused the most active movement of peoples in history. Separate peoples (Huns, Avars) covered a distance of more than 6000 kilometers.

The Romans had to "make room" for the first time. Numerous Germanic (Franks, Lombards, Saxons, Vandals, Goths) and Sarmatian (Alans) tribes moved to the territory of the weakening empire. The Slavs, who from time immemorial lived in the forests and swamps of the inner strip, reach the coast of the Mediterranean and the Baltic, populate the island of Peloponnese, and individual tribes break even into Asia Minor. Hordes of Turks reach Central Europe and settle there (mainly in Pannonia). Arabs start aggressive campaigns, during which they conquered the entire Middle East to the Indus, North Africa and Spain.

Crisis of the Middle Ages

This period includes grandiose campaigns of western and eastern conquerors, during which the richest states of the Middle Ages (Rus, Byzantium, the State of Khorezmshahs, the Song Empire) fell into decay. The Crusaders capture Constantinople and the Holy Land. The Mongols move deep into the Chinese territories and throughout Asia, the Turks reach Europe and finally conquer Byzantium, the Germans occupy Central Europe, and the Russian population is concentrated in the northeastern and southwestern principalities, cut off from each other by the Golden Horde. Thailand and Laos are finally settled by Thai peoples who fled south from the Mongols.

Great geographical discoveries and a new era (XVII-XVIII centuries)

A breakthrough in European science and great geographical discoveries prompted many Europeans to populate the lands of the New World untouched by the Mediterranean civilization - South and North America. A large number of aboriginal peoples (American Indians) were driven from their land: partially exterminated, partially resettled on reservations.

AT North America a stream of Dutch, French, Irish, English, Spanish (and later Russian) colonists-settlers poured in. A huge number of black slaves were exported from the West coast of Africa to the Americas. in South Africa and South America many Portuguese colonists appeared. Siberia is beginning to be populated by Russian explorers, Cossacks and peasants.

Cataclysms of the early 20th century

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by many upheavals for peoples around the world. The resettlement of Jews from the territory began Russian Empire(mainly in the USA). After three revolutions, European countries and the New World experienced the invasion of Russian immigration. After the mass cleansing of the Christian population by the Young Turks in the Ottoman Empire, according to various estimates, from 500,000 to 1,500,000 million Armenians emigrated, about a million Assyrians and Pontic Greeks.

World War II and its aftermath

During the Second World War, many peoples of the USSR were subjected to mass migrations and deportations. Volga Germans were resettled in Siberia, Kazakhstan and the Urals, Karachais were taken to Kyrgyzstan, Chechens and Ingush were exiled to the Kazakh SSR. Kalmyks were evicted to the central Siberian regions, 172 thousand Koreans from the border areas Far East were deported to Central Asia, and the Crimean Tatars were resettled in Uzbekistan and neighboring territories of Kazakhstan and Tajikistan.

The first years after the end of the war accounted for the creation of the State of Israel, accompanied by a mass migration of Jews to their historical homeland, as well as the partition of India, during which a total of about 16 million people migrated to Pakistan and from its borders.