The authors of cave paintings were better versed in the anatomy of four-legged animals than most modern artists, and made fewer mistakes in the drawings of walking mammoths and other mammals.

It is believed that artists had a very superficial understanding of how animals use their limbs for movement until 1887. This year, the famous American photographer Eadweard Muybridge released a multi-volume work on the movement of animals, where he systematized the data obtained from the study of photographs of walking or running quadrupeds. This work has become the starting point for many textbooks on art and biomechanics.

A group of scientists led by Gabor Horvat (Gabor Horvath) from Lorand Eötvös University in Budapest (Hungary) tested how well prehistoric painters understood the structure of the limbs of the animals they painted.

To do this, Horvath and his colleagues collected over a thousand photographs of rock art and modern drawings and analyzed them from the point of view of the mechanics of movement of four-legged mammals.

As scientists explain, almost all mammals, except for primates, have developed a special strategy for movement when walking. As a rule, the legs of animals touch and leave the ground in strict order - first the left hind leg takes a step, then the left front, and only after that - the right hind and right front. Such a sequence ensures maximum body stability during movement and does not allow the quadruped to fall.

It turned out that the ancient artists were quite well versed in the anatomy and mechanics of the movement of the quadrupeds they painted. Horvath and colleagues calculated that cave painters correctly painted mammoths and other animals on 54% of the rock paintings.

On the other hand, their "competitors" - the artists of the Middle Ages and the New Age - performed much worse. According to scientists, errors were present in 83.5% of the images. After the release of Muybridge's multi-volume edition, the number of errors was reduced to 58%. However, this was not enough - modern artists still make 12% more mistakes than the authors of rock paintings.

Scientists believe that such a difference in the skill of modern and prehistoric artists can be explained by the fact that the latter had to hunt the animals they painted.

Apparently, the ancient painters had to observe for a long time the manner of movement and the anatomy of their future victims, the knowledge of which they transferred to their drawings. Most modern artists are not burdened with such a need, which explains the large number of errors in their work.

Peace be with you, Sergey!

Here is a quote from Konstantin Parkhomenko's book "The Creation of the World and Man":

"In 1856, near the confluence of the Dussel River with the Rhine, in the Neander Valley, strange human bones were discovered. Numerous scientists declared them to be the remains of a prehistoric man, a transitional link from ape to man. In 1861, these remains were named Homo Neanderthalensis. However, already in 1872, the Berlin scientist, the world authority in pathological anatomy, Rudolf Virchow, announced that we were talking about the skeleton of an ordinary person who only suffered from rickets from childhood, and suffered from gout in his old age; overlapping diseases deformed the skeleton. The name of Virchow extinguished controversy for a while, but in 1887, in the cave of Lec-au-Roche (Belgium), scientists Marcel de Puid, Jean Frepon and Max Loest discovered the remains of two people of an unconditionally “Neanderthal” type. The skeletons were accompanied by rough stone tools and bones of animals now extinct in Europe: mammoths, woolly rhinos, cave bears. By the beginning of the 20th century, the scientific world practically recognized the position that many tens of thousands of years ago people lived in Europe who differed in a number of features from modern people.

Another scientist (Eugène Dubois) in 1891-1892 on the island of Java also finds the remains of a fossil man. Two years later he publishes treatise entitled: "Pithecanthropus erectus, a humanoid transitional form from the island of Java." The expedition following Dubois dates the soil layer in which the bones of the Pithecanthropus were found at 500-600 thousand years.

Finds follow one after another. In 1908, the Swiss Otto Gauser found the first Neanderthal burial in the valley of the Weser River (Southern France). To date, more than a hundred such burials are known. The burials convincingly proved that Neanderthals were also people, as they buried their dead in special places. Now it is absolutely clear that the Neanderthal is really a person who differed from the modern one in a number of ways, but already had a system of religious ideas.

At the end of the 20s of the 20th century, the remains of several more Pithecanthropes were discovered in Java, the study of which confirmed the hypothesis that Pithecanthropus was not a monkey, but a man (in any case, this is clear from its anatomical features), although most anthropologists attribute Pithecanthropes to a subfamily of people, but to a genus other than Neanderthal or modern man.

Then, in the 20s of the XX century, in China, a young scientist Pei Wenzhong discovered the fossil remains of another ancient man. Caves were also found where these people lived. It turned out that Sinanthropus (“Chinese man” - that was the name of the find) knew fire and actively used it. A multi-meter layer of ash and traces of animal meat cooked on a flame were found in the caves. However, he was even more different from modern man and even from the Neanderthal. Now they prefer to call him not an ape-man, but a man upright (Homo erectus). It is believed that he lived around the world, 6-1.2 million years ago.

Modern paleontology knows the finds of an even more archaic person, the so-called. Homo habilis("handy man"), who lived in Africa 2.5–1.5 million years ago. This man already made the same type of tools from stone, animal bones, wood, built round huts. The growth of these people was 120–150 cm, and its weight was about 50 kg. The foot of this ancient inhabitant of the Earth testifies to upright walking, and the hand - to a strong and precise grip.

But many researchers consider Australopithecus, the so-called southern monkeys, to be the most ancient representatives of the human race. They lived in Africa about 4 million years ago.

That's about whether Australopithecus monkeys or people, you can still argue. It is known for sure that the Australopithecus made simple stone tools, actively used tools from bone and wood trimmed with a chisel, went to the upper ??? limbs, while maintaining a vertical position of the body. So these are people?

Others say that it is simply the most highly developed monkey. Many scientists believe that the great apes known today - gorillas and chimpanzees - descended from Australopithecus, which bear traces of obvious degeneration and degradation of the ancient Australopithecus.

How can we know what the ancient man thought, what he dreamed about, what he believed in, if today only some traces are available to us material culture, left after him? .. No documents or inscriptions from that time have been preserved ... However, a study of today's primitive tribes living in Australia and Africa can help us. These tribes, who do not know either pottery or metal smelting, who do not know agriculture and cattle breeding, show us the level of the inhabitants of the Upper Paleolithic time. A number of scientists suggest that modern primitive tribes are even less developed than the ancient ones, because they went against nature, “tamed” fire, learned to cultivate the land and domesticated animals, and many tribes of the current aborigines not only do not do this, but even ignore the newcomers from civilization, bringing them elements of a more developed culture.

Paleontology does not know why the human race suddenly emerged from the animal world. This is usually associated with a sharp cooling on Earth, which happened about 3.5 million years ago. Then the tropical forests were replaced in Africa by the drought-resistant savannah, and some higher monkeys, adapting to life in tall dense grass, stood on their hind limbs. But this hypothesis does not explain anything. Why did other animals, as a result of climate change, refine their sense of smell, develop the ability to run fast, the giraffe stretched its neck - and man took a different path, the path of increasing the brain, refusing speed, strength, sharp fangs and teeth? In the case of man, something exactly opposite happened to what happened to animals. Not a man began to adapt to the environment, but he began to adapt the environment to himself.

You can even say something else. When we talk about human development, we forget that this “development” from our point of view, from the point of view of nature, is degradation. Degradation because, from a natural point of view, a person is becoming less and less fit for life in the wild. But suddenly it turns out that this degradation is becoming a new and unique direction of development, because now a person begins to develop in such a way that he can more and more neglect nature, dictate his own conditions to it. Suddenly, he begins to change his habitat, making it more and more convenient and comfortable for himself.

To simply live in the jungle, intelligence is not needed, but to build a hut, kindle a fire or hew a chisel, of course, creative intelligence is needed, and if it is, we can safely say that we have a person in front of us.

Scientists say that the first stone tools were already made by Australopithecus and this happened about 2.5 million years ago. Recall that bipedal locomotion has 4 million years. And here it is important to make one essential statement.

One should not think that the primitiveness of man's first tools testifies to the primitiveness of his rationality. Throughout history, we see the improvement of the technical level of man, let's say, the improvement of "the means of subordinating the external world to man" (A. Zubov). And here, of course, some forward movement is noticeable. A Neanderthal is more primitive than a Neolithic farmer, that one is more primitive than an Athenian of the era of Pericles, and an Athenian is more primitive than a European of the 20th century. However, this line of progressive improvement is not parallel to the spiritual development of man. Upper Paleolithic painting is not at all more primitive than modern painting - and according to spiritual meaning, embedded in the drawing, and according to the symbolism, and so on. Likewise, the painting of ceramics, which is 6 thousand years old, is not inferior to modern samples. Technique, mastery of drawing - yes, sometimes inferior to modern ones, but not the meaning, not the saturation of information or emotions. Also the Psalms of David or the "Song of Songs", the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, the statues of Phidias, speculations Upanishad not only are they not inferior to modern works of love poetry, philosophy or sculpture, but they surpass them ... And this is because the cultural area, that is, the sphere of manifestations of the human spirit, does not develop, but stays. And from time to time, here and there, it reaches an exhaustive self-expression in beauty and harmony. From this we can conclude that the human spirit not something that evolves along with the environment, but something constant, abiding in man in the same way at all times of his existence. “That is why the rationality of culture can be derived from the level of civilizational development of society no more than the spiritual beauty of a person from his ability to assemble a TV set or build a solid stone house” (A. Zubov).

Just like modern man, ancient man posed questions: where does he come from, why does he live, how to live in unity with eternity...

Of course, the study of the religion of ancient peoples requires a lot of work. If it is difficult to do this even on the basis of civilizations that disappeared, but left us the sources, then it is all the more difficult to do it when we know little about the people, when all that is left for us is the ashes of a fire, bones, shards ... Based on this some scholars have suggested that the earliest man was irreligious. But this is a hasty and completely unprofessional conclusion, excusable only to those who subordinated science to ideology (for example, atheistic). Modern scientists believe that ancient man was religious!

All the time from the appearance of the first stone tools to the appearance on the stage of the universe Homo sapiens, "reasonable man", it is customary to call the lower ancient stone age or Lower Paleolithic.

The most complete complexes associated with Lower Paleolithic humans have been found in Africa in the Olduvai Gorge. This site dates back to 1.9 million years ago. The remains of a round hut (a circle of stones and numerous remains of eaten animals inside the circle) were found here. Probably the hut looked like a tent. Straw or brushwood piled on the branches. In the same place, in the parking lot, throwing stone balls, stone tools were found. The parking places were chosen very conveniently. Nearby was a lake with a fresh influx of water, there were many animals. Surprisingly, it turned out that the tools found, made of volcanic lava, were made not in Olduvai, but in the mountains, 15 kilometers from the settlement, and then brought to the gorge, which may indicate the skill of exchanging goods. The Olduvians were certainly sentient beings, but there is no direct evidence that these people were religious. However, the scientists involved in the excavations were attracted by one fact. Of the bone remains found, most of all were found skulls or their fragments. But where are the other parts of the skeletons?.. And why are the skulls found in the parking lot? It is unlikely that ancient people abandoned their dead relatives a stone's throw from their dwellings. This would cause illness, unwanted predatory animals visiting the campsites ... So, most likely, the skulls were brought to the parking lot. They were preserved as some kind of relics. But if this is so, then some religious ideas were characteristic of these people.

Remarkable finds were made in 1927-1937, fifty kilometers from Beijing, in limestone caves. Most likely, the inhabitants of the caves lived in one of the interglacial eras - about 500 thousand years ago, but maybe later, about 360 thousand years ago. The remains of a banquet meal, bones of many animals were found in the caves: elephants, rhinos, deer, porcupines. Not far from the caves, burials of the synanthropes themselves were also discovered. In total, the remains of 40 individuals were found. A study of the skulls showed that the volume of the brain of Sinanthropus reached 1075 cubic centimeters (for a person from Olduvai - 725 cubic centimeters, for a modern person - 1400). Precise Research recent years showed that in the brain of these synanthropes the so-called fields Roca and Wernicke, centers that control speech activity (there are bulges above these fields in the skull of a modern person. The same bulges are found on the discovered skulls of Sinanthropus). This means that these ancient people were no longer limited to growling and inarticulate sounds - they spoke. In addition, the inhabitants of the caves (Zhoukoudian caves) made tools from the strongest quartz, made bowls from the skulls of ungulates.

Intelligent project partner

Recently, many publications have begun to appear on the diet of ancient man. Many of them are based on an innovative technique for analyzing plaque on human teeth found in ancient burials. During life, particles of food consumed remain on the teeth in the form of plaque. After the death of a person, they decompose to inorganic residues containing stable isotopes of carbon (13 C) and nitrogen (15 N). Since different types of food contain nitrogen and carbon in different proportions, it becomes possible to establish the diet of ancient people. Earlier we already talked about nutritional features.

The role of food in human evolution

Anthropologists have noted that dietary differences were an important hallmark of primate evolution. Thus, vegetarian species such asBoyce's paranthropus(zinjanthrope) and paranthropus robustus , differed in more massive skulls and turned out to be dead-end branches of evolution, having lost the evolutionary competition to omnivorous Australopithecus and early Homo. Although Boyce's paranthropus is known in popular science literature as the "Nutcracker", a study of his teeth by Matt Sponheimer and Peter Ungar showed that he did not eat nuts, as scientists had previously assumed, and not soft fruits, like modern chimpanzees, but dense leaves of sedge and other herbs growing in river valleys. The authors came to this conclusion based on an analysis of the indentations and scratches in the dentin that such food left. This study makes it impossible to suggest that Boyce's Paranthropus could have been an ancestor of the chimpanzee. Apparently, the growing massiveness of the skull, necessary for eating coarse plant food, was the reason that Paranthropus became extinct. Their earlier work by these scientists demonstrated that the seasonal nature of the diet of australopithecines and the gradual transition to soft plants and meat-eating provided greater variability. eating behavior, and hence the better adaptability of the population to changing natural conditions.

The method of nutrition of the Dmanisi man, belonging to the early Homos, is controversial: some researchers already consider him a meat-eater, a vegetarian. This question is getting great importance to elucidate its place in human evolution. Traditionally in anthropology, it is believed that it was the omnivorousness of Australopithecus and Homo that served as the main source of evolution, since they formed various traditions of eating behavior and allowed modern man spread throughout the earth. Significant wear of the teeth of the Dmanisi man allowed anthropologists to assume that he ate rough plant foods, like massive paranthropes. In this case, it may have been a dead end species that originated at the fringes of the distribution range of Homo erectus. All three European human species - antecessor, Heidelberg man and Neanderthal were omnivores, omnivores, according to anthropologists, there were other known local variantsHomoerectus, and its predecessor -Homohabiliseven marked in the history of science by a funny curiosity: in the parking lothabiliswere discovered Paranthropus bones , which led to the conclusion that the carnivorous ancient people ate their vegetarian "brothers".

Diet as the reason for the victory of the Cro-Magnon over the Neanderthal?

An illustration of the migratory behavior of the Paleolithic population of Europe can serve as a site excavated in Cumbria (England). Human and animal bones (moose, wild horse and dog) found here were dated by zooarchaeologist Dave Wilkinson to the time of the last Paleolithic warming - Allerød (XIII- XIIthousand BC). Since moose only appeared in England during periods of warming, this makes it possible to describe the feeding behavior of the first inhabitants of Britain, who migrated from the more southern regions of Europe following the dispersal of moose. This is the northernmost Paleolithic site. Earlier in the caves of Somerset, wild horse hunters of the same time were discovered. Archaeologists note analogies between the cults of these two groups. However, the Cumbrian site shows a warmer Allerød phase in which the moose were able to move further north.

Published by Lisa Bond on the science portal "HeritageDaily» The study raises the question of the ratio of sex roles in hunting. Based on the fact that the bones of Paleolithic men often show signs of trauma that are absent on the bones of women, it is generally believed that hunting was an exclusively male activity. Burials of women with hunting attributes, such as a woman with a spear found at the Sungir site, are much rarer. An example of a woman's participation in hunting is the Indians. North America. The collective hunt for hornhorn, in which both men and women took part, is known among the Indians of the western United States.

Hunters wore buffalo skins , imitated the behavior of the bison-leader and directed the herd to a sheer cliff.

Ethnographers have recorded among the Prairie Indians the presence of a special class of buffalo hunters, who, putting on a buffalo skin, imitated the behavior of a leader bison and directed the herd to a sheer cliff. After appropriate tests and rituals, both women and men were admitted to the number of such hunters. Among a number of Indian tribes, female hunters stood out in the class “berdache” (“two-hearted”), that is, those in whose body both the male and female souls live. Archaeologists believe that such hunts, called "buffalo jumps", were also practiced in the Upper Paleolithic Clovis culture (30,000? -11,000 BC), since many accumulations of buffalo bones were found, which are located in the lower part of a cliff or cape. Evidence of such hunting in the European Paleolithic is known from Cro-Magnon sites in Eastern Europe(Pushkari and Kostenki), and in Western Europe belong to the Neanderthal time (le Pradelle, Moran, la Côte de Saint-Brelade). Thus, the identification of hunting as a purely male occupation should be attributed to Mesolithic innovations.

Zooarchaeologists Witzke Prummel and Charlotte Leduc studied the traditions of hunting large ungulates in the Mesolithic Maglemose culture (X-VII millennium BC). This culture was common in Northern Europe from England to Lithuania. The subject of the study was the bones of elks, deer, wild boars and bison found at the Lundby Moos site (Denmark). The soil ensured good preservation of the bones, allowing conclusions to be drawn with a considerable degree of accuracy. First of all, the hunters cut off the head of the animal and skinned it. The skin was used to make a bag for carrying prey. In the same place, paws were eaten at the place of extraction and tubular bones were split in order to obtain bone marrow. Since there were no signs of fire exposure on the bones, the researchers suggest that the meat was consumed raw. Satisfying the hunger, the hunters cut and deboned the carcass in order to make it convenient to transport to the village - they removed the horns and large bones. Some bones (for example, humerus and shoulder blades) were brought to the village and tools were made from them (knives for cutting fish). Bones and other wastes were wrapped in skins and, after some ritual, thrown into the lake. Historians Keld Möller Hansen and Christopher Buck Pedersen find in this ritual direct analogies with the Eskimo beliefs about the union between people and animals, which instructs people to perform rituals to resurrect the animals they have eaten. The front teeth are almost completely absent from the settlement, which indicates that they served as a source of special pride for the hunter. According to Marcel Njekus from the University of Groningen, such customs were common 45 thousand years ago among Neanderthals. According to Fernando Ramirez Rossi, another example of reverence for the teeth of a hunted animal is a necklace found in the burial of a Neanderthal child. This may indicate the continuity of hunting traditions between Neanderthals and Cro-Magnons.

Neolithic innovations and ancient traditions in the nutrition system of the peoples of Europe

The cultural layer of the Westphalian cave Blätterhöhle ("cave of leaves") is represented by various layers from the Upper Paleolithic to the Neolithic, when it was used for burials. A comprehensive study conducted by Ruth Bolongino, Olaf Nehlich, Mike Richards, Jörg Orschiedt, Joachim Burger gave unexpected results. Analysis of the teeth of the skeletons buried in the cave identified three main groups: the Mesolithic inhabitants of Westphalia, whose food was wild animals and plants, the Neolithic farmers who ate the meat of domestic animals, and the Neolithic fishermen. A study of mitochondrial DNA determined that these fishermen belonged to the same haplogroups as the Mesolithic hunters and gatherers, fish, but did not eat fish, which means that the foremothers of this Neolithic group were women from the Westphalian Mesolithic tribes, while the Neolithic farmers were represented both local and Middle Eastern haplogroups.

The researchers note that the Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes lived for a long time in the same territory and did not mix with each other, maintaining their cultural identity. However, the data obtained can significantly change our understanding of Neolithic Europe. Jorg Orschiedt notes that joint burials of different tribes in the same burial complex are impossible, and therefore the fact that the cave was used for burial by both fishermen and farmers indicates that both food and cultural traditions coexisted within the same tribe, along with meanwhile, the fishermen retained some purity of blood. On the other hand, this demonstrates a change in food priorities among Mesolithic tribes under the influence of Neolithic migrants: deforestation and clearing of meadows for arable land led to a reduction in large animals, and hunters were forced to change their diet and switch to fishing. The period of time when the incorporation of fishermen into the Neolithic society occurred is unknown, but it can be assumed that it refers to the earliest stage of the Neolithization of the Rhine Valley.

Male farmers could take wives from among female fishermen, but male fishermen could not take female farmers.

The presence of Mesolithic genes in the blood of farmers in the absence of farmer haplogroups in fishermen indicates that fishermen, although incorporated into Neolithic society, occupied a subordinate or non-prestigious position: male farmers could take wives from among female fishermen, but male fishermen could not take female farmers. Archaeologists believe that the Neolithic skulls from the "cave of leaves" belonged to the Wartberg culture (3500-2800 BC), which is characterized by gallery megalithic tombs, quite rare in Germany, but with analogies in Ireland and France (the Seine culture). -Oise-Marne). Usually, dead members of the same clan were buried in such tombs (for example, about 250 people were buried in the Altendorf tomb, there were also more significant burials), but the reasons why the tribes of the Wartberg culture, in addition to traditional tombs, used the "cave of leaves" for burials are unknown.

Although the question of contacts between Mesolithic and Neolithic tribes living in the same territory or neighboring ones has been discussed for a long time, it is far from being resolved. Finds of bones of cows and bulls in the Mesolithic context in Ireland have usually been interpreted as a single importation of meat, not live cattle, and, even more so, cannot be proof of the breeding of domestic animals by the Mesolithic tribes. An important factor in this discussion may be a unique genetic study conducted by German and Scottish zooarchaeologists led by Ben Krause-Kjora from the University of Kiel. For a long time it was believed that the pig bones found in the settlements of the Mesolithic Ertebölle culture belonged to a wild boar. However, osteological analysis of these bones showed that they actually belonged to a domestic pig. Since zooarchaeologists did not find sufficient signs of pig domestication in the Ertebölle culture, it was necessary to find out the origin of the pig.

The study was based on mitochondrial and Y-chromosomal genomes isolated from the bones of 63 pigs found at 17 Mesolithic and Neolithic sites in Germany and dated to 5500-4200 BC. The German Neolithic is represented by three cultures synchronous with Ertebölle: the Linear Ware culture (5700-4900 BC), the Pricked Ware culture (4900-4500 BC) and the Rössen culture (4500-4200 BC). . BC.). After 4200 BC the Rössen culture assimilates the Ertebölle and on their basis the culture of funnel-shaped goblets arises (4200-2800 BC). The study demonstrated a wide variety of pig genotypes in both Neolithic and Mesolithic tribes, suggesting that the Ertebölle not only exchanged pigs with Neolithic tribes, but also bred them themselves. The tribes of linear-band ceramics appeared in Germany as a result of migration from the Danube valley and initially, like the tribes of the "Danubian Neolithic", were oriented towards the breeding of small cattle.

Goats and sheep were not acclimatized to northern latitudes, and pigs were crossed with wild boars and gave offspring resistance to cold.

The shift in emphasis to pig production in these cultures occurred under the influence of climate: goats and sheep were not sufficiently acclimatized to northern latitudes, and pigs were crossed with wild boars of the northern forests and gave offspring resistance to cold. Evidence of this crossing is the enlarged molars. It should be noted that the adoption of pig breeding from the Linear Pottery tribes means a significant change in eating behavior and indicates a demographic crisis in Erteböll: the territory occupied by the culture could not feed the population living here. The researchers also note other Neolithic borrowings in the Ertebölle culture, in particular, the “Danube” houses of frame-and-cast construction, amphibolite axes, as well as characteristic forms and ornamental motifs in ceramics.

"United Europe", based on trade or exchange contacts between tribes, was formed in the Eneolithic-Bronze Age.

This study raises the question of the degree of closeness/openness of ancient societies to innovation: for example, the tribes of the final Paleolithic were unable to master fishing and gathering seafood, but long-term contacts of Ertebölle with Neolithic tribes led to a significant change in the diet. It is likely that Ertebölle's seafaring skills were in demand by the Atlantic Neolithic tribes. The only valuable commodity known in the Ertebölle settlement area that could be claimed by the Neolithic tribes was Baltic amber, and, apparently, pigs were exchanged for it. More than 70 years ago, Veer Gordon Child, based on numerous examples of trans-European imports, suggested that some semblance of a “united Europe”, based on trade or exchange contacts between tribes of different ethno-cultural traditions, was formed in the Eneolithic-Bronze Age. Ben Krause-Kyora's discovery suggests that such trade contacts developed much earlier. It also raises the issue of livestock in Mesolithic cultures. The tribes of Oceania, which are at the stage of socio-economic development comparable to the Ertebölle culture, can serve as an analogy: the seafaring and fishing nature of the culture, the Mesolithic inventory, the insignificant role of agriculture, and the breeding of pigs. The sacred status of the pig in the Neolithic and later cultures of Europe should also be noted, for example, in Scotland, pork was taboo, in many other regions it was considered an obligatory dish for Christmas, Trinity and other most revered religious holidays.

What did ancient Americans eat?

Archaeologist Elmo Leon Canales published a monograph in Peru dedicated to the food of the ancient population of Peru and neighboring countries withXIIIthousand BC to the present day. The novelty of the monograph lies in the fact that the diet of the ancient Indians was studied in a comprehensive manner, the technologies for processing and storing food, as well as the volume of food consumption and their nutritional value, were considered. Previously, it was assumed that the complex terrain and clear climatic boundaries characteristic of the northwest of South America created insurmountable boundaries between tribes living in different natural conditions. However, as the study showed, inVIIthousand BC an exchange system developed here, thanks to which fruits, anchovies, meat of pelicans, cormorants and other sea birds came to mountainous regions. It was these seaside animals, and not llamas at all, as previously thought, that served as the main source of animal proteins and fats. Researchers of the Huari culture (500-1200 AD) have repeatedly noted its commercial, rather than military-bureaucratic nature. After the publication of Canales' monograph, it became clear that trade in this region has much more ancient roots.

Integrated geophysical study Huari culture confirmed the localization of settlements along trade routes connecting regions with different climatic conditions. Along these routes, a network of small settlements was created, located within a 2-4 hour transition. it testifies that the Huari culture was an amalgamation of tribes, not a centralized state. The first stage of assimilation of new regions was the penetration of characteristic ceramics, later the entire region was involved in trade and exchange relations, and the settlements were localized in places close to natural water sources. As the researchers note, during the Huari, there were significant changes in the diet - local crops and game were gradually replaced by maize. The lack of centralized government and a regular army was the reason that the Incas easily enough conquered the Huari culture, disrupting the traditional trade and food relationships between the regions, which, in turn, became an internal reason for the fall of the Inca empire: the Huari tribes could not adapt to the imperial mores of the Incas. In addition, maize became a strategic product, accumulated for the needs of the empire, its crops were planted to the detriment of other agricultural crops.

Long-term settlements of the Mesolithic and Neolithic times turned out to be earth mounds scattered across the Llanos de Mojos savannah (Bolivian Amazon). Geographers believed that they arose under the influence of various natural factors- changes in the course of rivers, soil erosion, long-term termite mounds or bird rookeries. Until recently, the archaeological cultures of this region were unknown, and the region itself was considered unpromising for excavations as the periphery of two cultural areas - the Eastern Andes and the Brazilian Highlands. According to an interdisciplinary study published in PLOS ONE, they are shell mounds of a culture that has existed here for more than 6,000 years (late 9th millennium - mid 3rd millennium BC). The oldest dates (10,604 ± 126 years ago) were obtained from the material of the lowest available horizon. It is likely that there were other cultural layers under it, but the deepening became impossible due to the fact that the excavations reached the groundwater level.

Similar shell mounds are also characteristic of the Mesolithic cultures of the Old World: Kapsi ( Western Mediterranean), Ertebölle (Southern Scandinavia), Jomon ( East Asia). Their appearance demonstrates the change in eating behavior characteristic of the Mesolithic. Many shell mounds accumulated during the entire period of the existence of the culture and during this time were compressed into dense stony blocks of shells, animal bones and charcoal. The lower layer, belonging to the early period of settlement, consists of shells of freshwater snails, bones of ungulates, fish, reptiles and birds, in addition to this, the upper layer contains pottery shards, human bones and bone tools. The boundary between the layers is a layer of burnt clay and earth, 2-6 cm thick, which was formed as a result of breeding foci at the level of ancient soil. Despite the differences associated with the transition to the Neolithic, both historical periods show a relationship: freshwater and land snails served as the main food. The researchers suggest that at an early stage, the settlements could have been inhabited not throughout the year, but only during one of the seasons, for example, rainy. Typically, residential hills have a regular round or oval shape. Another type of mound associated with this culture is Neolithic drainage mounds that protected fields from flooding rivers. Their shape is often elongated and irregular, as they were filled up and rebuilt after strong floods.

In total, three hills were excavated during geoarchaeological research, and corresponding archaeological material was found on all of them. Because similar shell piles (sambaquis, oldest dates- 10 180-9710 years ago) are also common in the Lower Amazon, then archaeologists suggest that it was from there that the settlement of culture began in the Amazon Valley. The discoverers of this culture, zooarchaeologists Rainer Hutterer and Umberto Lombardo, believe that the reason why the local inhabitants abandoned the inhabited mounds around 2200 BC is unknown, but such a reason could be a significant climate change, recorded during this period in many regions of the Old World.

Alcoholic drinks

We have already talked about the finds of the oldest evidence of winemaking in and in. Until recently, potsherds from the Iranian settlement of Haji-Firuz Tepe (5400-5000 BC) were considered the earliest vessel with wine, but finds in Georgia can date back the appearance of winemaking by several centuries. At one of the settlements of the Shulaveri-Shomutepe culture (6000-4000 BC, the oldest monument - 6625 ± 210 BC), a kvevri-type vessel with stucco decorations in the form of a bunch of grapes on the neck was found . The researchers considered these decorations marking the contents of the vessel and, indeed, a biochemical analysis of the dry residue at the bottom of the vessel confirmed that wine fermented and was stored in it. The final dating of the archaeological layer in which the vessel was found has not been published, but it is very likely that it is older than the vessel from Haji-Firuz Tepe. Vessels of this type are still used in Georgia to make homemade wine, and the oldest of them date back to 8000 BC. and although biochemical studies of their contents have not been carried out, their winemaking purpose does not seem surprising.

Wine was made in Georgia more than eight thousand years ago.

Such a deep antiquity of winemaking in the Caucasus is reflected in many aspects of the culture of the peoples of the Caucasus. Linguists consider it acceptable for the Indo-Europeans to borrow the Georgian word "rvino", from which both the Russian "wine" and the Latin "vinum" and the Greek "ϝ οινος" come from. An example of the borrowing of wine drinking by the Indo-European peoples is the silver goblets found in the pit burials of the Trialeti culture (late 3rd - 2nd millennium BC). In 2006, during the excavations of Mtskheta, in a layer dating back to the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. a bronze figurine of a "master of ceremonies" was found - a man with a wine horn in his hand. Archaeologists also note that at the time when the Indo-European tradition of cremation penetrated the Caucasus, Qvevri vessels were used as burial urns, which suggests that death was perceived as a rite of passage. Unique to the Christian world is the cross of St. Nino (4th century), made according to legend from a vine.

Etruscan pressure stone and image of the grape harvest on a Greek vase

During excavations in the Gallic village of Lattara (near Montpellier, Southern France), a stone platform was recently discovered dating back to 425-400 BC. BC, which could presumably be used to squeeze grape juice. Around the platform, archaeologists found numerous shards of amphoras. The platform from Lattara exactly repeats similar Greek and Etruscan winepresses, quite often depicted on vases of that time. A basket with grapes was placed on the platform, into which a person got up and crushed the grapes with his feet. The juice flowed from the basket to the platform, and from there along the beak-shaped spout into the substituted amphorae, which were then buried in the ground and left to ferment. Biochemical research carried out by Patrick McGovern in the laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania confirmed the winemaking nature of the find: the remains of grape juice were found on the platform, and traces of tartaric acid in the vessels near it, reliable evidence that it was wine, and not grape juice, that was stored in the vessels. Thus found the oldest evidence of winemaking in France. Earlier, here in Lattare, the oldest cultivated grape seeds in France and Etruscan amphoras were found, the wine in which was dated to a more ancient time - 525-475 BC. In addition, biochemical analysis revealed that aromatic herbs such as rosemary and basil were added to the Gallic wine, as well as pine resin, which acted as a preservative.

The discovery of Etruscan winemaking in southern France raises the question of the relationship between the two types of colonization of this region: seafaring Greek and land Etruscan. The Greeks founded emporia (trading posts), such as Emporia (in Roussillon), Agate (in Septimania), Massalia (Marseille), Olbia (near Marseille), Nikaya (Nice), Antipolis (Antibes). According to research by André Nickels, these emporia over the course of several generations became major ports and were included in the system of Greek trade, the main source of which was the shortage of grain in the metropolises. In exchange for grain, the Gauls received wine, which was produced in excess in Greece. Some historians even note that the Gallic leaders became so addicted to Greek wine that they even sold their own soldiers into slavery. At the same time, the Greeks did not introduce the Gauls to winemaking and held a monopoly. Such a model of colonization, which finds certain analogies in much more ancient migrations of the culture of bell-shaped cups, contrasts sharply with the land model of Etruscan colonization: the Etruscans tried to introduce the Gauls to their own traditions and in the same way, the Romans followed them, building circuses and baths on the British islands in the Middle East and North Africa.

Task 19. Workshop. Option number 1

1. Ancient people had a very superficial understanding of the laws of the universe (1) and (2) when something inexplicable happened in nature (3) they were inclined to believe (4) that this was the result of the influence of supernatural forces on the world.
2. Forest rangers are called upon to prevent fires in the forest (1) but (2) if a large amount of dead wood accumulates in the forest (3) then the rangers themselves deliberately set up small artificial fires (4) to reduce the likelihood of spontaneous combustion in the future.
3. Our expedition began excavations (1) and (2) as soon as decorations and kitchen utensils were found at a depth of several meters (3) we realized (4) that we had correctly identified the location of the ancient city.
4. This autumn there are a lot of mushrooms (1) and (2) if you look closely at the felling (3) you will see several stumps at once (4) which are completely covered with mushrooms.
5. The boy knew (1) that a stern doorman was serving in this entrance (2) and (3) that (4) if you start pestering passers-by right at the door (5), you can taste strong cuffs.
6. The war was at an end (1) and (2) although almost a year remained until the end (3) but we firmly knew (4) that victory would be ours.
7. Many mistakenly think (1) that (2) if a person knows how to swim at least a little (3) then he has nothing to be afraid of (4) and he does not care about any depths.
8. And although the tone and nature of the magazine attacks were permeated with sincere indignation (1) it always seemed to me (2) that the authors of these articles were not saying (3) what they wanted to say (4) and that their rage was caused precisely by this.
9. The pungent smell of lungwort is mixed with the pungent smell of nettles (1) and (2) when you stroke the growing herbs with your hands (3) to feel their delicate velvety (4) then your hands will smell of the cooling smell of mint.
10. Dasha noticed (1) that (2) when Roshchin appeared in the dining room after the bell (3) Katya did not immediately turn her head to him (4) but hesitated for a moment.

Task 19. Workshop. Option number 2

1. From Kuznetsky Most, I drove to the confectionery on Tverskaya (1) and (2) although I wanted to pretend (3) that I was mainly interested in newspapers in the confectionery (4) I could not resist a few sweet pies.
2. They started talking about the health of the countess and about common acquaintances (1) and (2) when those ten minutes required by decency (3) after which the guest can get up (4) passed, Nikolai got up and began to say goodbye.
3. It was hot (1) and (2) if a breeze suddenly came up (3) and brought coolness with it (4), the trees nodded their branches gratefully.
4. Andrey picked up the backpack (1) and (2) when the train locomotive appeared (3) and a motley crowd of passengers started moving (4) headed towards the platform.
5. Rita was very upset because of her father's departure (1) but (2) when he promised to bring her a real big parrot (3) as they saw recently at the zoo (4) from swimming, the girl quickly consoled herself and stopped crying.
6. Ilya Andreevich understood (1) that (2) if you do not pick apples before the onset of cold weather (3) then the entire crop will die (4) but circumstances did not allow him to leave work and go to the village even for a few days.
7. Larisa never liked the sea (1) and (2) although the doctors prescribed her a warm climate and salt water(3) she went to the mountains again (4) when the vacation started.
8. The library opened at eight in the morning (1) and (2) although there were never any visitors at such early hours (3) Nina Ivanovna never allowed herself to be late (4) and even came a little earlier.
9. A belated lightning flashed directly overhead (1) and (2) while it shone (3) I saw (4) some kind of white dot flickering on the shore.
10. The French ambassador, who found himself in the home theater of the Sheremetevs, wrote (1) that (2) when he saw the ballet (3) he was shocked by the talent (4) of the serfs.

Training tasks (A 25)

Which digits should be replaced by commas in the sentences below.

1. We know (1) that St. Petersburg is sometimes called Northern Palmyra, but (2) if you ask (3) what kind of Palmyra is (4) with which Petersburg is compared (5) then (6) not everyone will be able to answer this question.

2. The brother laughingly said (1) that he (2) if he was lucky in something (3), then now he would not be lucky in something else (4) so ​​(5) that it became worse (6) than before ( 7) how lucky.

3. A real poet cannot be judged by one poem (1) because (2) because (3) no matter how perfect (4) its meaning is fully revealed only in the context of that (5) book (7) with internal unity (6) ) which contains all the lyrics of the poet.

4. The area (1) where we lived (2) was far from the river (3) and (4) to get to the beach (5) we had to drag ourselves through the whole city (6) in a crowded tram.

5. I now understand (1) why (2) those (3) who knew how to tell well (4) never tried (5) to write down their stories.

6. While everyone was waiting (1) for the light to come on (2) or preparing a kerosene lamp (3), I lay down on the floor of my aunt's kitchen (4) and began to read by the light (5) pouring from the screen of a kerosene stove.

7. Sometimes the ball flew into the podium (1) and (2) when someone knocked it out of there (3) for some reason everyone started laughing.

8. Kornev suddenly turned around (1) as if some kind of force pushed him (2) and (3) until Natasha left (4) tore off his hat (5) and several times low (6) and quickly bowed.

9. On the territory of Russia there are 11 time zones (1) and (2) when in the eastern regions of the country it is already 10 am on the first of January (3) then in the western regions it is still 12 am on the thirty-first of December (4) so ​​(5) that New Year Petersburg meet a few hours later than Sakhalin.

10. When (1) something (2) comes to me that is called inspiration (3) and I see with extraordinary clarity the design of a new apparatus (4) and with extraordinary speed I make the necessary calculations (5) don’t I understand (6) that in I was possessed by a certain force (7) that did not belong to me.