Great Britain 1920. Socio-cultural regional studies. Reformatory activity of Lloyd George

The position of England after the First World War.

British imperialism was one of the main culprits of the First World War. In this war, the British bourgeoisie hoped to find a way out of the deepest social and political crisis in which England, like other imperialist states, found itself in the second decade of the 20th century. During the First World War, British imperialism sought to strengthen the class positions of the bourgeoisie in Great Britain itself and strengthen the British colonial empire, expand its possessions by capturing new territories.

The war of 1914-1918 started by the imperialists of all countries led to the most unexpected results for them. The war further intensified the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in each of the countries participating in the war and created the prerequisites for the maturation of a revolutionary situation in a number of countries.

From the time of the first world imperialist war and the Great October socialist revolution the capitalist world has entered a period general crisis capitalism.

The split of the world into two camps and the loss of one sixth of the globe from the capitalist system, the revolutionary impact of the Great October Socialist Revolution on the peoples oppressed by capitalism significantly weakened the position of British imperialism. The general crisis of capitalism manifested itself in a particularly acute form in England, which was a classic example of a country of decaying capitalism.

True, England continued to be one of the largest colonial powers. She captured most of the German colonies and territories of the former Ottoman Empire. But the English bourgeoisie has irretrievably lost its former monopoly in the world industrial and financial markets. The center of the financial exploitation of the capitalist world has shifted from England to the United States of America, which had become enormously enriched by the war.

England entered the war with a public debt of £650 million, and in 1919 her national debt reached the enormous sum of £7,829 million. After the war, England's external debt to the United States alone rose to $5.5 billion.

The material and human losses suffered by England (together with the colonies and dominions) in the First World War were very significant. Great Britain lost about 3 million people in the war (875 thousand were killed, more than 2 million were wounded). During the war, 70 percent were sunk. merchant marine of England.

Compared with other social classes, the proletariat of England suffered the greatest number of victims, since the English army consisted mainly of workers. But even after the end of the war, the British bourgeoisie sought to shift the entire burden of military spending onto the working masses. The war debts were paid, first of all, by the working class, forcibly drawn into the war and most of all suffered from this war.

At the same time, the bourgeoisie, having greatly profited during the war, continued to enrich itself in the post-war period. The loans made by the British government during the war became one of the main sources of enrichment for the British and American financial oligarchy. The British government borrowed from American and British bankers on very unfavorable terms for England. The interest paid by the British government on war debt was 2-3 times higher than on the international stock exchange. Subsequently, over the years, the British government annually spent 40 percent. expenditure budget (about £350 million) to pay interest on war loans. The process of concentration of capital, the merging of banking and industrial capital, and the merging of monopolies with the state apparatus has intensified. Stockbrokers, bankers and big industrialists occupied high government positions and exerted a decisive influence on the policy of the British government.

The robbery of the working masses of Great Britain and its colonies could not save the British capitalist economy from a severe economic and chronic financial crisis, which took place on the basis of the general crisis of capitalism. After the First World War, the British economy is characterized by an ever-increasing decline in the main industries (coal, textile, metallurgical), chronic underutilization of enterprises and the presence of millions of unemployed armies, which have turned from reserve into permanent armies of the unemployed. The clearest expression of the crisis in the English economy was the situation in industry. During the 20 years after the war (from 1918 to 1938), British industry hardly exceeded the level of 1913. During this period, the industry of England as a whole was trampling around the level of 1913. Only in last years Before the Second World War, there was a certain upswing in British industry, but this upswing was associated with the revival of the military situation, the preparation of the imperialist countries for a new war.

The state finances of capitalist England also found themselves in an extremely difficult state. The pound sterling has lost stability forever on the international stock exchange. If in 1913 the British pound sterling was equal to almost 5 dollars, then in 1920 - a little more than 3 dollars (ratio 1: 3.2). The stable pound sterling has always been considered the epitome of the power of Great Britain. The sharp depreciation of the pound sterling seriously alarmed the British bourgeoisie. The governments of the post-war years took every measure to "improve" the country's economy and finances by intensifying the exploitation of the British working class.

In 1925 the British financial oligarchy succeeded in restoring the gold parity of the pound sterling only through the cruel exploitation of the working people and the plunder of the colonies, and to a relatively small extent at the expense of national industry. But during the world economic crisis of 1929-1933, the pound sterling again began to fall sharply.

These are the main character traits the history of post-war England, testifying to the fact that since the First World War and the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia, British imperialism has entered the stage of a general crisis of capitalism.

The Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia dealt a mighty blow to British imperialism. It led to an intensification of the class struggle between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie in England itself (the mother country) and to a powerful rise in the national liberation movement in the colonial and semi-colonial possessions of the British Empire.

After the First World War and the Great October Socialist Revolution, the position of England in the system of capitalist powers changed, and the economic and political positions of this once leading country of the capitalist world deteriorated sharply.

That is why the struggle against Soviet Russia, the offspring of the Great October Socialist Revolution, determined the entire domestic and foreign policy of the British imperialist governments after the First World War. The "Russian question" has become the most important in the international politics of Great Britain the main objective which was to destroy or weaken Soviet Russia by any means.

Mikhailova Ekaterina Mikhailovna
postgraduate student of the Department of Regional Studies
faculty foreign languages and regional studies
Moscow State University named after M.V. Lomonosov

British house of the 1920s - 1930s as a space of everyday life

World War I marked the onset new era and led to fundamental changes in the culture of everyday life in most countries, including the UK. Changes have affected social structure society, the position of women, views on marriage, parenting and family values, etiquette, manners and lifestyle of people in general. The report examines the reflection of these phenomena in the interior of an English house, the atmosphere of which demonstrates the complex interweaving of traditional views and values with the trends of modern times.

Keywords Keywords: culture of everyday life, Great Britain, English house, residential interior.

The First World War marked the beginning of a new epoch and resulted in fundamental changes in the culture of everyday life in most countries including the Great Britain. The changes in the social affected structure, women "s position in the society, views on marriage, children" s upbringing and family values, etiquette, manners, and the way of life in the whole. The article concerns the reflection of these events in the interior of the English house which setting demonstrates the complicated combination of traditional views and values as well as trends of the new age.

key words: culture of everyday life, the Great Britain, the English house, dwelling interior.

The space of the house in all cultures is one of the most stable and conservative phenomena. For many centuries, it has remained a place of existence of national, regional, local and family traditions. Ever since the second half of XIX century, which marked the era of technological progress, urbanization and accelerated pace of life, the traditional attitude towards living space is shaken by new social conditions, the development of mass production and mass culture in general. After the end of the First World War, a new modern stage in the history of the country and its culture, which is vividly reflected in the daily life of people and in the space of the English home.

Compared with the everyday culture of Victorian England, the British home of the 1920s-1930s is a little-studied problem, however, a number of researchers still touch on this topic in their works: D. Jeremiah, F. McCarthy, A. Massey, T.M. McBride and others.

One of the forms of representation of what the house was in its regional variants and historical forms was the print media, which, having “penetrated” into the space of the house in mid-nineteenth century, not only reflected, but also largely influenced the formation of mass ideas, norms, ideals. Literally from the first steps, mass magazines printed articles with advice, recommendations, instructions and were the conductors of brands, technologies, the psychology of prestigious consumption, thanks to which we can judge the ideas about the ideal home for each historical stage.

At the beginning of the 20th century, and especially during the First World War, magazines, like other mass media, received a strong impetus in development. In the 1920s, both professional and popular magazines are constantly increasing in number, they become more diverse and accessible, while people have more free time to read them. At this time, the readership of magazines is growing rapidly, which is associated with the expansion of the middle class due to the ever-increasing number of middle managers, office and government employees.

The image of the British house in the first half of the 20th century, presented on the pages of mass magazines, reflects both the general European situation of this period and the features traditional culture this country, for the first time subjected to such a strong shock under the influence of new social conditions.

For the first time, the consequences of the war affected civilians on such a large scale. Mobilization affected representatives of absolutely all classes. Numerous houses and private properties were damaged. The war led to the impoverishment of the masses, the spread of disease and unemployment and had a great impact on the estate system of society as a whole, accelerating the process of smoothing out the inequality between the most affluent representatives of society and the middle class, but this time towards the impoverishment of both estates, which led to that the theme of economy and simplicity in the design of the space at home becomes even more relevant at this time.

Nevertheless, despite the damage caused by the war, economic and material difficulties, the topic of acquiring and decorating a house in the culture of everyday life in Great Britain has not lost its relevance. On the contrary, the standard of living of people gradually increased, accelerated and cheaper housing construction allowed many to acquire their own housing, and actively developing mass production and design provided houses with everything necessary. As the editor of Our Homes and Gardens noted in 1919, “Everyone dreams of making his home both comfortable and elegant and as comfortable as means will allow; and the main task of the magazine will always be to help you in this intention.

However, compared to Victorian England the appearance, size and comfort of houses change markedly. The focus of the magazines is on affordable housing options available to the middle class. The main advantage of periodicals devoted to design and decoration is their focus on a person who is limited in funds, and therefore in need of advice on economical construction and decoration of housing.

The reduction in the size of houses and the number of rooms in them was the result of the need to save money, as well as the reduction in members in the average family, not to mention the servants, mention of which at this time almost completely disappears from the pages of magazines.

The number of rooms in the average house decreases, but its various spaces turn out to be multifunctional. The living room plays an increasingly important role, gradually acquiring the significance of a medieval hall. Here they work, relax, read and have fun. Often this room is combined with the dining room and kitchen, which causes numerous discussions and disagreement of the British.

Another striking feature of the English attitude to the house is the fact that, even when it comes to small and inexpensive housing, it is not an apartment that will be preferable for an Englishman, but his own house in the suburbs, which at this time are continuously growing and gaining great popularity largely due to the expanding railroad system, which is especially true for office workers and government employees who could not afford a car. With the ever-increasing number of small, state-sponsored homes, decor magazines are not only giving them attention, but suggesting to the public that they are the ideal in terms of modern comfortable housing due to their compactness and economy in maintenance, while large houses are beginning to be associated with old ones. and unreasonably expensive, which does not correspond to common sense. Thus, if in the Victorian era, the middle class mimicked the aristocracy, striving to acquire large and luxurious housing, now they develop their own criteria for a “good” home, which should be compact, without “spatial excesses”, rationally organized and comfortable.

Another bright trend, reflecting the trends of the new time, is the significantly increased requirements for comfort compared to the Victorian era. This concept at this time becomes closely associated with the functional equipment of the house, which saves time and effort to create home comfort. Indeed, the technical innovations that are developing at this time are transforming the traditional space of the home and the life of society as a whole with incredible speed, introducing new, previously unseen opportunities for home activities and recreation. There is a technological and material improvement of the space of the house.

An increase in interest in the functional component of the situation is a striking characteristic of this period - it is no coincidence that the word “decor”, which is rather superficial in terms of decorating the space of a house, was replaced by the term “design” at that time, which carries the semantics of creating not only beautiful, but also functional, high-quality and not too much expensive object. In addition to visual appeal, usability and hygiene, quality, functionality and cost-effectiveness are becoming key elements.

In connection with this noticeable change in the idea of the ideal space at home is the emergence of such a concept as saving time and labor, which is determined by new social conditions, when most people have to give up servants, and women receive more rights and freedoms and begin to work on an equal basis with men. , which reduces the time they can devote to household chores. Nevertheless, it is obvious that the main concern for the house, including its construction, falls on the shoulders of the woman, as the authors of magazine articles often write about: “Probably nine-tenths of the changes in the house come from the face of his mistress. The husband either takes it indifferently—before the job is done, when he gets enthusiastic credit for the idea—or vetoes the project, concluding, "We can't afford it." Throughout the 20th century, women remain the main audience of magazines, and it is to them that articles are addressed, devoted to innovations that can save them time on housework.

Many areas of the house, which magazines previously paid little attention to, pretending that they do not exist, acquire a new meaning and a completely different status. We are talking primarily about the kitchen and bathroom.

As for the kitchen, from a utility room for servants, it becomes not only one of the most important, but also the most technically equipped room in the house. The forces of numerous manufacturers of kitchen furniture and constantly improving technology are directed specifically to kitchen equipment that can reduce the time spent by the hostess in this room and make it more enjoyable. Now the kitchen is not a remote servant's room, but the most important part of the home space.

Special attention is paid to the comfort and safety of children's rooms, which is associated with a change in attitude towards children and the problem of childhood in general. If earlier the brightest and most comfortable rooms were given over to the living room, now such rooms are becoming children's rooms. Despite the increased employment of women outside the home, it is clear that more attention is paid to children by parents. Childhood is no longer perceived as a disadvantage, but turns into an important period in a person's life.

As for the interior decoration of the premises, at this time the traditional approach to the design of living space is becoming a thing of the past. Periodicals advocate the need for a new, more modern design for the home that meets the requirements of modernity through both aesthetic and functional aspects.

However, the high role of the house in the culture of Great Britain leads to the fact that the English living space does not fit into the trends coming from Europe. Thus, responding to the need for affordable and rapid housing construction, in European countries at this time, the idea of standardized economical housing is born, able to meet the needs modern man at a minimum cost. At the same time, the luxurious Art Deco style becomes a reaction to people's nostalgia for the past, when the beauty that surrounded a person, thanks to the approval of the Art Nouveau style and the expansion of opportunities for decoration, reflected high level human life. The British undoubtedly saw examples of the use of new styles in public buildings, but none of them took root in Great Britain due to the foreignness of these ideas for this country. If Art Deco was economically inaccessible to the bulk of the British, requiring the use of expensive and exotic materials, then minimalism was contrary to English traditions that demanded individuality and comfort in every home. In the minds of the inhabitants of the UK, a house cannot be exclusively functional, but carries an important emotional load: “Rooms are inevitably a reflection of the people who live in them. Even in the most empty room, devoid of such personal details as flowers, photographs or favorite books - and such rooms, called rational ones, appear in recent times- demonstrate, at least, an inexpressive and extremely unpleasant, pathetic soul. In the house where the happy and successful people, there will be no dark corridor or a gloomy and austere living room, but it will be filled with interesting things, old and new, harmoniously combined and self-sufficient symbols against their inherent background of light, color and comfort. Thus, the house, according to English traditions, continues to be endowed with human qualities and individuality, reflecting the soul of its owners.

Despite the new social conditions, the increased mobility of the population and changed values, the idea of an ideal home remains as the embodiment of stability and permanence, the stronghold of the family and family values. Such a house reflects the best that is in a person, and serves its owners throughout life: “By a family nest, we mean a house in which a man invests the best that he has, in the hope of making it his permanent home and place, where his children will grow up. This is very different from a house bought because it seemed pleasant to the future owners at the moment, from one they will leave if the mood leads them to move to another part of the country or turn to another architectural style, or if they are offered a good price.<…>It is essential that the family home continue to exist; the healthier the nation becomes, the more the need for family homes increases.

Thus, over the course of the 20th century, a new, more practical attitude towards the space of the home is emerging in Great Britain, most clearly manifested in the media, seeking to capture any changes in people's attitudes and habits and use these observations to interact more effectively with their readers and impose on them new ideas, products and services. Against the backdrop of serious social changes provoked by the First World War, democratic sentiments and a decrease in class inequality, the development of mass production and a gradual increase in the standard of living of most of the population by the 1930s, ideas about such concepts as comfort and design come to the fore among the mandatory ones. and economy. However, despite the penetration of numerous technical innovations into the homes of the British and the spread of the popular idea of modernity, the attitude of the British towards the house will remain quite traditional, conservative, which is due, on the one hand, to the loss of primacy by English design and the desire to meet the tastes of the majority of the population - with another. Traits such as a love of country life, home building and DIY decor, individual living space, and the influence of the Arts and Crafts movement will not only be preserved in English culture everyday life, but also influence further development design in this country.

Bibliography:

E.N. The family House and Garden – Home Entertainment // The Ideal Home. 1937 Vol. XXXVI(5).
Family House // The Ideal Home. 1937 Vol. XXXVI(5)
Ideal home. London: 1920, Vol. 1(1)
Jeremiah D. Architecture and Design for the Family in Britain, 1900-70. Manchester, NY, Manchester University Press, 2000.
MacCarthy F. All Things Bright & Beautiful. Design in Britain 1830 to Today. London, George Allen & Unwin LTD.
Massey A. Interior Design of the 20th Century. NY, Thames & Hudson, 1990
McBride T.M. The Domestic Revolution. The Modernization of Household Service in England and France 1820-1920. London: Croom Helm, 1976.
Prendergarde T.K. The Financial Side of the Question // The Ideal Home. 1937 Vol. XXXVI(1).

Great Britain in the 1920s and 30s

The period between the First and Second World Wars was the heyday of the British colonial empire and at the same time the beginning of a long economic crisis in Britain.

background

Great Britain, together with the Allies, won the First World War and, as a victor, took an active part in the post-war order of the world. She received part of the former possessions of Germany and the Ottoman Empire in control.

At the same time, the war had taken a heavy toll on the British economy. Great Britain ended the war with a large external debt, in the first post-war years a significant part of the state budget was spent on covering debts.

Developments

1922 - Ireland secedes from the UK. In the post-war period, the anti-colonial movement grows in the territory of the British Empire (primarily in India). However, Great Britain managed to keep all its possessions with the exception of Ireland.

1926 UK general strike. About 5 million workers took part in it (about 3 million - only on the night of May 4), the strikers' demands (maintenance of wages) were not satisfied. In many ways, this strike was the cause of the break in diplomatic relations with the USSR, which Britain accused of supporting the British strike movement.

1928 - Nearly universal suffrage introduced in Great Britain; Married women over 30 also get the right to vote.

1929-1933 - the global economic crisis (or the Great Depression) that affected the UK, causing a rapid increase in unemployment, the depreciation of the pound and, as a result, rising prices. It is worth noting that its impact on the domestic economy was less noticeable than in the United States, for example.

Foreign policy

In the 1930s, the so-called policy of appeasement (for more details: The price of "appeasement"), which the United Kingdom pursued in relation to Nazi Germany, is largely due to the fact that the British authorities saw Germany as a counterbalance to the communist threat.

Conclusion

Insufficiently tough British policy towards Germany allowed the latter to significantly strengthen, which contributed to its success in the early years of World War II. The Second World War will be a cruel test for Britain and hasten the decline of British colonialism.

Abstract

Having emerged victorious from the world war, Great Britain began to play a significant role in political life Europe and the World. The domestic political line of the government was entirely aimed at restoring the domestic economy, burdened by the world war. Compared to other victorious countries, the UK has not been able to take the lead in terms of its economic development, but only restored its pre-war level. However, as in other countries Western Europe, in the UK, the standard of living of the so-called. middle class.

Rice. 1. Representatives of the middle class ()

The capitalist model of the British economy allowed the industry to quickly free itself from under the military-state tutelage and expand significantly. As in other Western countries, the UK saw an increase in business activity and trade. The development of the commercial and industrial base made it possible to "draw" large layers into the orbit of entrepreneurship English society. The "economic boom", the accelerated pace of development and, as it seemed to many, the era of prosperity ended abruptly with the advent of World economic crisis of 1929-1933. The sharp collapse in prices, the closure and bankruptcy of companies and, as a result of all this, unemployment, led to mass protests, which were often suppressed by force.

Rice. 2. Consequences of the World economic crisis ()

Only after the end of the crisis, Great Britain began to recover and recover, but the collapse of industry that occurred during the years of the crisis, she could not overcome to the end. Gradually, this country from the first player in Europe began to fade into the background and third plans. This departure finally took shape after the Second World War, when Great Britain was included in the orbit of the most powerful country - the United States.

In the 1920-1930s. important role in the life of English society began to play unions. These organizations, which defended the rights of workers, during this period of time became quite a powerful force of influence in the UK. In 1925, when the government cut state funding for the coal industry, mine owners began to cut miners' salaries, close unprofitable (inefficient, unprofitable) mines, and massively lay off miners. In response, the unions in Great Britain called a general strike in May 1926. The forceful measures of the government directed against the workers almost led to a social explosion and revolution. In fact, only a concession on the part of the trade unions did not lead English society into a protracted conflict. Individual workers went on strike until 1927, never getting any concessions from the capitalists.

Despite this, the ruling Conservative Party was defeated in the 1929 parliamentary elections. Society supported Labor (labor) party, speaking from the positions of social democracy, so popular in the lower classes of English society. The outbreak of the economic crisis did not contribute to the success of the Laborites. In the next election, they lost 1st place to the Conservatives, who were the leading party until the 1945 elections.

Rice. 3. Army trucks move to suppress the workers' strike ()

The foreign policy of Great Britain was aimed at the inadmissibility of a repetition of the horrors of the First World War. At the same time, remaining the leading colonial power, in the 1930s it ruthlessly suppressed national liberation movements and uprisings in its colonies - in India, Burma, the island of Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and a number of others.

In European politics, Great Britain, together with its ally - France, during the 1920s. tried to dominate Europe and set itself the goal of fighting Bolshevism, being the most consistent in this. The Anglo-Soviet crisis of 1927, associated with the alleged support of the strike movement through the International, almost led to a war between Great Britain and the USSR. The parties severed diplomatic relations and were in an extremely tense state with each other until 1939.

Another party in the policy of Great Britain was the so-called. appeasement policy, i.e. "flirting" with Nazi Germany. The British government, seeking to develop Germany's plans of conquest from West to East, assisted Hitler in every possible way. It turned a blind eye to open non-compliance with the points of the Treaty of Versailles and to increased military spending. All this led to another redistribution of Europe, and then to a new conflict - the Second World War of 1939-1945.

Bibliography

Shubin A.V. General history. recent history. Grade 9: textbook. for general education institutions. - M.: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. - M.: Education, 2010.
Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: - Enlightenment, 2011.

Homework

Read §5 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. pp. 45-49 and 51-52 and answer question 1 on p. 57.
What were the causes of the global economic crisis?
Why do you think the UK trade unions decided to curtail the protest movement?

Academician ().
Ukrainian textbooks ().
Student scientific forum ().

Great Britain in the 1920s and 30s

The period between the First and Second World Wars was the heyday of the British colonial empire and at the same time the beginning of a long economic crisis in Britain.

background

At the same time, the war had taken a heavy toll on the British economy. Great Britain ended the war with a large external debt; in the first post-war years, a significant part of the state budget was spent on covering debts.

Developments

1928 - Nearly universal suffrage introduced in Great Britain; Married women over 30 also get the right to vote.

Foreign policy

Conclusion

Abstract

Having emerged victorious from the World War, Great Britain began to play a significant role in the political life of Europe and the World. The domestic political line of the government was entirely aimed at restoring the domestic economy, burdened by the world war. Compared to other victorious countries, Great Britain was not able to get ahead in terms of its economic development, but only restored its pre-war level. At the same time, as in other countries of Western Europe, the standard of living of the so-called increased in Great Britain. middle class.

Rice. 1. Representatives of the middle class ()

The capitalist model of the British economy allowed the industry to quickly free itself from under the military-state tutelage and expand significantly. As in other Western countries, the UK saw an increase in business activity and trade. The development of the commercial and industrial base made it possible to "draw" large sections of English society into the orbit of entrepreneurship. The "economic boom", the accelerated pace of development and, as it seemed to many, the era of prosperity ended abruptly with the advent of World economic crisis of 1929-1933. The sharp collapse in prices, the closure and bankruptcy of companies and, as a result of all this, unemployment, led to mass protests, which were often suppressed by force.

Rice. 2. Consequences of the World economic crisis ()

Rice. 3. Army trucks move to suppress the workers' strike ()

Bibliography

Shubin A.V. General history. Recent history. Grade 9: textbook. for general education institutions. - M.: Moscow textbooks, 2010.
Soroko-Tsyupa O.S., Soroko-Tsyupa A.O. General history. Recent history, 9th grade. - M.: Education, 2010.
Sergeev E.Yu. General history. Recent history. Grade 9 M.: - Enlightenment, 2011.

Homework

Read §5 of A.V. Shubin's textbook. pp. 45-49 and 51-52 and answer question 1 on p. 57.
What were the causes of the global economic crisis?
Why do you think the UK trade unions decided to curtail the protest movement?

Academician ().
Ukrainian textbooks ().
Student scientific forum ().

The consequences of the First World War for Great Britain are determined primarily by the fact that she emerged victorious from this war, thanks to which she achieved a lot. For example, the danger of Germany ceased to exist. Increased power navy Great Britain, and its influence in the world has grown. In the League of Nations, she occupied one of the leading places. The mandate system introduced by the League of Nations has benefited the UK the most. For example, most of the colonies of the defeated countries, Germany and Turkey, went to Great Britain. Great Britain received the right to govern Palestine, Transjordan and Iraq in the Middle East. In Africa, she received the right to manage part of Tanganyika, Togo and Cameroon. In addition, the dominions of Great Britain did not stand aside. In particular, the League of Nations transferred the right to manage the South African Union of German South-West Africa; Australia - German colonies in New Guinea; and New Zealand - the islands of Western Samoa.

However, it should be emphasized that the war not only brought great success to Great Britain, it also caused great damage to its international position and leading positions in international trade. Now she was not leading in the financial sector either. As a result, the UK has turned from a creditor country into a debtor country. For example, the internal public debt of Great Britain in 1914 rose from 650 thousand pounds to 8 billion pounds. It owes $5 billion to the United States alone.

Industrial production dropped sharply. Volume foreign trade country was halved due to a sharp decline in the competitiveness of manufactured products.

After that, the UK was no longer able to restore the title of "queen of the sea." The naval power of Germany was broken, now the United States was trying hard to increase its naval power. As a result, Great Britain in 1920 was forced to abandon the maintenance of a fleet equal to the navy of the two states. These factors and the national liberation movement in the British colonies led to a crisis in the colonial system.

Changes in the economic life of the country

The ruling circles of Great Britain tried in every possible way to change the situation in the country. By the end of 1918, an economic recovery began in the country, which continued until the middle of 1920. This was achieved due to the growing demand of the population for consumer goods and the need to restore the destroyed economy.

This was evidenced by the growth of foreign trade. For example, during this period, exports rose to 38.1%, but such a rise was not observed for long. In the autumn of 1920, an economic crisis began that engulfed all sectors of the country's economy. In 1921 the volume industrial production decreased by a third and amounted to 68%. Coal production amounted to 30%, the volume of foreign trade fell by half compared to the pre-war level.

The sharp decline in production led to unemployment. For example, if the number of unemployed in 1920 was 375 thousand people, then in 1921 - about 2.2 million. In 1922-1923, the economy continued to stagnate.

In 1924-1929. in the economic situation of developed countries began a period of recovery. However, the UK economy stood still. For example, the volume of industrial production in 1929 hardly reached the level of 1913, thanks to the development of new industries - mechanical engineering, aircraft building, chemical and automotive.

If in 1913 the share of Great Britain in the volume of industrial production of developed countries was 14.8%, then in 1929 it fell to 9.8%.

The main reason for the backwardness of Great Britain in the economy was the low spending on capital renewal, the large contribution of investments in "overseas" countries, and the uncompetitiveness of the equipment used in industry. The ruling circles of England did not consider these factors in time. Due to the technical backwardness, Great Britain was gradually losing its positions in the world market, exports were declining, and the volume of foreign trade was 87% of the pre-war level. The share of imports kept growing. This, of course, had a negative impact on the standard of living of the common people, which dropped noticeably, as did the level of wages.

Political life of the country

Political life in the country during this period was determined by the struggle of three political parties: liberal, conservative and labor. The Liberal Party, which was at the head of the government during the First World War, was losing ground day by day. The leader of the Liberal Party, Prime Minister D. Lloyd George (1863-1945), in order to maintain the positions of his party, held parliamentary elections in December 1918. Thanks to the victory in the First World War, the Liberal Party had an impressive weight among the military. The Liberal and Conservative parties went to the polls together.

They participated in the elections under the slogan of economic and political reconstruction of the country, promising voters jobs, fair wages, cheap housing, peace and social transformation.

The Laborites promised the voters the construction of a new society, which would create the possibility of socializing the means of production, the creation of a government of workers, a national transport system, the purchase of energy resources and banks from their private owners in order to nationalize them.

The election was won by an alliance of liberals and conservatives. They took 477 out of 707 seats in Parliament (of which 136 seats belonged to the Liberals). Labor won 62 seats: 5 times as many as in 1910. 2.5 thousand voters voted for them. Thus, this party in the political arena of struggle began to put pressure on the liberal party.

Lloyd George took over as prime minister and led the government until 1922. During this period, the government faced setbacks both at home and abroad. It failed to deliver on promises made to voters. As a result, the first powerful strikes of workers began. More than 2.5 thousand people took part in this movement in 1919.

The workers demanded a 40-hour working week and maintaining wages. Particularly large were the miners' strikes, which demanded a 30% increase in wages and the establishment of a 6-hour working day.

Under these conditions, in October 1920, the country's parliament issued emergency powers to the government to suppress the labor movement. The owners of the mines, who did not want to satisfy the demands of the miners, declared a lockout on April 1, 1921. The government declared a state of emergency and sent army units to the mines.

The railway and transport workers, in solidarity with the miners, also went on strike. However, the protests of the workers were suppressed.

Lloyd George's government, as noted above, also failed in foreign policy. The national liberation movement blew up the British colonial empire from within. For example, in 1919, India's struggle for independence intensified, in 1919-1921. there were uprisings in Egypt, in 1919 a war for independence began in Afghanistan against Great Britain. The ruling circles of Great Britain were forced to make concessions in order to preserve the colonial empire. In particular, in 1918, changes were made to the constitution, which gave the right to local Indian personnel to take part in the government of the country. At the Paris Peace Conference, the dominions were granted the right to participate as an independent entity. The independence of Afghanistan was forced to be recognized. Egypt, albeit in words, was also recognized as an independent state. The UK government is in big trouble with regard to Ireland.

The ruling circles of Great Britain this time again remained true to their traditional slogan "divide and rule". In the national freedom movement Ireland was split. His right wing entered into negotiations with Britain. In 1921, an agreement was signed between Ireland and Great Britain. In accordance with it, Ireland split into two parts. Southern Ireland, with Dublin as its capital, was granted dominion rights. Northern Ireland remained part of the UK. After that, the country became officially known as the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".

The struggle of the British government against Soviet Russia ended in failure. In addition, on March 16, 1921, she was forced to conclude a trade agreement, which in fact meant the recognition of Russia.

In addition, the aggression organized by Great Britain together with Greece against Turkey was defeated. Patriotic forces led by Kemal Atatürk were able to maintain Turkey's independence.

Such a defeat in foreign policy greatly disturbed the Conservative Party, it decided to withdraw from the coalition government. On October 19, 1922, British Prime Minister Lloyd George was forced to resign. The chair of the Prime Minister was briefly occupied by the leader of the Conservative Party B. Low, and then he was replaced by S. Baldwin. The main task of the government of S. Baldwin was to bring the country out of the economic crisis. Only in this case it would be possible to put an end to the main disease of society - unemployment and to launch enterprises at full capacity.

To this end, the government began to apply the method of protectionism. However, this did not give the desired results. On the contrary, by the end of 1923, the British economy came to a standstill, which, naturally, caused discontent among the people. Under these conditions, elections were held in the country in 1923. Although the Conservative Party won them (258 seats), the Labor Party also achieved an impressive victory (191 seats). This party promised its voters the nationalization of the coal industry.

The Labor Party together with the Liberal Party (together 158 seats) expressed no confidence in the government of S. Baldwin. As a result, the government was forced to resign.

Now, for the first time in British history, the right to form a government has been given to the Labor Party. In January 1924, such a government under the leadership of the leader of the Labor Party, R. MacDonald (1866-1937), was created. It did not last long, because, under pressure from big capital, it could not fulfill the promises made to voters (nationalization of the coal industry, reduction of unemployment, construction of housing for workers, etc.).

On October 8, 1924, MPs from the Conservative Party expressed no confidence in the Labor government, which did not have a majority of votes. R. MacDonald was forced to resign. The Conservatives won the parliamentary elections on October 29 with 415 seats. In November, S. Baldwin again took the chair of the Prime Minister.

Events of 1926.

During the tenure of S. Baldwin (1924-1929) as prime minister, there were no noticeable changes in the UK economy. Although industries such as automotive, electrical and chemical industries have developed rapidly. Traditional industries like shipbuilding and coal were still in stagnation.

The British capitalists preferred to export their capital rather than invest it in the reconstruction of the country's industry in a modern way. Great Britain was unable to restore its pre-war position in the world; the dominions and colonies began to develop their own national production, and the import of American currency increased.

Once flourishing in the UK industry - coal was in particularly difficult conditions. Before the war, 1 million 200 thousand people worked in this industry, 290 thousand tons of coal are mined in the country annually. After the war, the situation deteriorated sharply, this industry has become one of the most backward. The main reasons were that many small mines had closed and their equipment was outdated. In addition, the cost of the land on which the coal deposits were located was very high, for which it was necessary to pay the owners of the land a huge amount. These factors led to an increase in the cost of coal in the country. As a result, expensive English coal could not compete with cheap German and Polish.

The owners of the mines tried to increase their profits by reducing the wages of workers and increasing the length of the working day, the workers strongly resisted this. But in 1925 they still managed to reduce wages. On July 31, 1925, the miners decided to go on strike, they were supported by transport workers and railway declaring their solidarity with them. The government of S. Baldwin, in order to prevent a nationwide strike, decided to give subsidies to the owners of the mines. However, this government subsidy was only enough for 9 months.

In April 1926, the owners of the mines issued an ultimatum to the workers. It outlined the following requirements - a reduction in the wages of miners, an increase in the length of the working day by 1 hour, an agreement to annul the agreement between the owners of the mines and trade unions (trade unions). In case of refusal, they threatened to announce a lockout. The ultimatum caused sharp discontent in the country, but nevertheless, on May 1, 1926, a reduction in wages was announced.

In response, on May 4, a general strike began in the UK. In total, 6 million people took part in this strike. The trade unions put forward purely economic demands. However, there was a danger that the general strike would turn into a political conflict.

Foreign workers also expressed their solidarity with the British. They stopped loading goods destined for Great Britain, began to raise funds to transfer them as material assistance to British workers.

The Supreme Council of Trades Unions, fearing that the general strike would turn into a political conflict, decided to declare May 12 as the end date of the general strike and enter into negotiations with the government. The workers were compelled to submit to the decision of the Supreme Council of Trade Unions. The miners continued to fight until December, but they, in the end, stopped the strike. Thus the general strike of 1926 was defeated.

This happened because the leadership of the trade unions supported the existing socio-political system and sought to preserve it. The ruling circles decided to strengthen their positions. For example, they passed a law prohibiting strikes. In accordance with it, a strike could be held at one enterprise or in any one branch of industry.

Second Labor government

In May 1929, another parliamentary election was held in Great Britain. The Labor Party won by a small margin (287 seats, the Conservative Party - 260).

This victory was won by the Laborites through their promises made in 1927 to the trade unions to nationalize the coal industry, transport, banks, reduce unemployment and restore the 7-hour working day. In June, R. Macdonald formed his second Labor government.

The global economic crisis that began in the autumn of 1929 made it difficult for the government to fulfill these promises. The economic crisis in Great Britain began in 1930, and in 1932 it reached its climax. This year, the volume of industrial output in comparison with 1929 decreased by 20%, the number of unemployed reached 3-3.5 million people. The exchange rate of the pound sterling fell by a third, and so did real wages. The volume of agricultural production also decreased.

The same situation was in foreign trade. The process of exclusion of Great Britain from traditional sales markets has intensified.

But despite this, even in such conditions, the government fulfilled part of the promises. For example, a 7-hour working day was established in coal mines, adopted new law on unemployment benefits, the period for receiving unemployment benefits was extended from three months to one year.

A ministry to combat unemployment was formed, and a new special committee for the employment of the unemployed was set up. These measures contributed in some way to improving the situation of the unemployed. However, under the pressure of big capital, the issues of reducing wages and unemployment benefits and indirectly raising taxes were on the agenda. This provision led to a split in the Labor Party.

R. Macdonald, a supporter of the above issues, formed a new coalition government on August 25, 1931 (it included representatives of the National Labor, National Liberal and Conservative parties). In October 1931, special parliamentary elections were held, which were won by the Conservative Party (740 seats). A national government was formed (1931 - 1935). It was again headed by R. MacDonald. The government began to implement a program to overcome the crisis by reducing the cost of wages and social issues. The government, frightened by the flight of British capital abroad, canceled the exchange of the pound sterling for gold. At the same time, US and French banks lent the UK £80 million.

In the field of foreign trade, the government took the path of protectionism (protection of the national economy). In accordance with this, it was established that when goods are imported into the territories that are part of the empire, customs duties on English goods are set 10% lower than on goods imported from other states. This event strengthened the position of Great Britain in the markets of the empire.

The measures taken by the government have paid off. And from the end of 1932, some recovery of the economy began. By 1934, the volume of industrial output reached the level of 1929.

In the parliamentary elections held at the end of 1935, the Conservative Party won (385 seats). The leader of this party, S. Baldwin, formed a national government for the second time, which continued the policy of a complete recovery of the economy. In particular, the policy of protectionism was continued, which had a positive impact on the development of the automotive, aviation, electrical and chemical industries.

The continuation of the refusal to exchange the pound sterling for gold also gave its positive results, this prevented the export of English capital abroad. Now the capitalists tried to invest their capital within the country. For example, if in 1936 the export of capital from Great Britain amounted to 61 million pounds sterling, then 217 million pounds sterling was invested inside the country. This, in turn, led to an even more accelerated development of industry. Placement of private capital on domestic market aided by the government's financial policy. In particular, the government has introduced a procedure for lending by banks to entrepreneurs 2%. (Earlier it was 10-12%).

However, the UK has not been able to fully cope with the economic crisis. Since the autumn of 1937, the volume of production began to fall again, for example, in 1938 it decreased by 12% compared to the level of 1937. The number of unemployed remained high. Thus, by the end of the 1930s, the economic position of Great Britain in the world had declined significantly. Now, not only the United States were its competitors, but also Germany, Italy and Japan.

Foreign policy 1924-1939

R. Macdonald began his political career when Great Britain was a strong state, and ended his activity when only memories remained of her former greatness. Due to the fact that R. MacDonald was a realist politician, he understood well that it was impossible to revive the former greatness and power of Great Britain. But despite this, he wanted to see Great Britain in the future as a state capable of implementing its aspirations and did everything for this. Although he was against the Soviets, he proceeded from the real state of affairs - he recognized this state in 1924, establishing diplomatic relations with it.

Great Britain was one of the initiators of the event in 1925. conferences in Locarno. This conference served as a pretext for the reconciliation of Germany with the rest of the Western countries. At the same time, the Western countries did not create a system of guarantees to prevent the free advance of Germany to the east of Europe.

On March 24, 1927, Britain intervened militarily against China. Its goal was to establish the government of Chiang Kai-shek in China, which was established on April 18 in Nanjing.

In the 1930s the British foreign policy ran into two major problems. Firstly, the aggressive policy of Germany in Europe. Secondly growing in colonial countries: national liberation movement.

Great Britain, trying to weaken the influence of France in Europe, began to use Germany for this purpose. As proof of this, on June 30, 1935, Great Britain signed a naval treaty with Germany. In accordance with it, Germany acquired the right to create its own fleet, constituting 1/3 of the British Navy. This was an open violation of the Treaty of Versailles.

Even with the entry of German troops into the Rhineland, Great Britain remained a silent observer of what was happening. This was tantamount to allowing Germany to continue such attacks in the future. While in 1936 Germany extended a helping hand to Spain in establishing the fascist dictatorship of Franco, Great Britain pursued a policy of non-interference in the affairs of Spain. This policy was confirmed by the fact that Great Britain suspended the export of weapons to the legitimate government of Spain, thereby helping fascism to come to power in Spain.

In 1937, the leader of the Conservative Party N. Chamberlain (1869-1940) came to power in Great Britain. During his 3-year tenure as Prime Minister, he initiated the policy of "appeasement" of Hitler.

Therefore, in fact, Great Britain helped Germany in the conquest of Austria and Czechoslovakia. She repeatedly repeated that with her small "concessions" she saved the world for a whole generation.

However, rumors soon reached the UK that Germany was going to attack Western countries first, and not Soviet Union. Now Great Britain began to intensively prepare for war. She doubled her military spending.

In addition, Great Britain developed a new military doctrine, in which it planned to protect France along with itself. On April 15, 1939, for the first time in peacetime history, Great Britain declared universal conscription. In the event that Germany attacks Poland, Great Britain will provide her with military assistance. She gave the same guarantees to Greece and Rumania.

To this day, however, Chamberlain has not given up the hope of coming to terms with Germany. Its purpose was to direct the spearhead of aggression against the Soviet Union. After Germany occupied Prague, Chamberlain's hopes were dashed. Now war was inevitable. This provision forced Britain to negotiate with Moscow. But due to the fault of both sides, these negotiations ended in vain. In particular, the goal of Great Britain and France was to impose unilateral obligations on the Soviet Union, draw it into a war with Germany, and remain outside observers themselves.

But Moscow has received information that Britain is conducting secret negotiations with Germany on dividing the world into spheres of influence. As a result, the Soviet government, in response to this, began to look for ways of rapprochement with Germany. And on August 23, 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union signed a mutual non-aggression pact. Germany, having consolidated its positions in the east, attacked Poland in September 1939. Britain and France 2-3 September declared warGermany. Thus, World War II began. Britain was now reaping the fruits of Chamberlain's policy of "pacifying" Germany.

Position in the colonies and dominions

The colonies of Great Britain never ceased their national liberation struggle, while the dominions continued their struggle to expand their rights. Therefore, Great Britain was forced to keep a large army there. In April 1930, the Indian National Congress called the Indian people to civil disobedience (the first stage took place in 1919-1922). This led to large-scale mass demonstrations. The British administration severely punished the leaders of this demonstration.

In 1931, Great Britain was forced to adopt a document annulling the restrictions on the rights of its dominions. This document went down in British history as the Statute of Westminster. The document declared the complete independence of their domestic and foreign policy.

Now the decisions taken by the dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand) did not have to be approved by the British Parliament. Thus, the law was repealed, prescribing the passage of the decision taken by the dominions in the Parliament of Great Britain, which could annul it. However, Great Britain was in no hurry to give the status of the dominion of India. At the same time, the government sought to keep the dominions in its sphere of influence,

In accordance with the "Statute of Westminster", the dominions united with Great Britain in the "British Commonwealth of Nations". (This commonwealth exists to this day. The leaders of the former dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand are still appointed by the Queen of Great Britain today). In the 1930s, the situation in Ireland became more complicated again. In 1937, Southern Ireland declared itself an independent state, while Northern Ireland remained part of the empire.

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Great Britain in 1918-1939 Updated: November 22, 2016 By: admin

Great Britain in the 1920s and 30s

background

Developments

Foreign policy

Conclusion

Abstract

Great Britain in the 1920s and 30s

background

Developments

Foreign policy

Conclusion

Abstract

Changes in the economic life of the country

Political life of the country

Events of 1926.

Second Labor government

Foreign policy 1924-1939

Position in the colonies and dominions

Read also