The Russian state in the second half of 12 briefly. The Russian State in the Second Half of the 15th

Topic 4. The Russian state in the second half of the XV - early XVII in.

The Novgorod Boyar Republic, which had considerable power, remained independent of the Moscow prince. In 1471 Ivan III took drastic measures to subdue Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on the Shelon River, when the Muscovites, being in the minority, defeated the Novgorodians. In 1478 the republic in Novgorod was finally liquidated. A veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.

In 1480, the Horde yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. Khan Akhmat was at the head of the Horde troops. After standing on the Ugra for several weeks, Akhmat realized that it was pointless to engage in battle. This event went down in history as "standing on the Ugra". Russia, a few years before Akhmat's campaign, stopped paying tribute to the Horde. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.

In 1497, a code of laws was introduced - the "Sudebnik" of Ivan III, which strengthened the power of the sovereign and introduced uniform legal norms throughout the state. One of the articles of the Sudebnik regulated the transfer of peasants from one owner to another. According to the Sudebnik, peasants could leave the feudal lords only a week before and a week after St. George's autumn day (November 26), having paid the old. National governing bodies of the country began to form - orders. There was localism - the procedure for obtaining positions depending on the nobility of the family. Local administration was carried out on the basis of a feeding system: while collecting taxes from the population, the governors kept part of the funds. Strengthening the authority of the sovereign was the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog.

The work of his father was completed by Vasily III (1505-1533), having annexed Ryazan and Pskov, having conquered Smolensk from Lithuania. All Russian lands united into a single Russian state. During the reign Basil III in many Russian cities unfolded stone building. In Moscow, the Annunciation Cathedral was built in the Kremlin and the Archangel Cathedral was finally completed, into which the remains of the great Moscow princes were transferred. The ditch near the Moscow Kremlin was paved with stone. Wooden walls in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and Zaraysk were replaced with stone ones. And in Novgorod, which he liked to run into Grand Duke Moscow, in addition to the walls, streets, squares and rows were rebuilt.
Russia under Ivan IV. Reforms of the middle of the XVI century. Oprichnina policy. After the death of Vasily III, the throne passed to the three-year-old Ivan IV (1533-1584), later nicknamed the Terrible. In fact, the state was ruled by his mother Elena Glinskaya. She entrusted all state affairs to the Boyar Duma. During the reign of Elena Glinskaya, in the war with Lithuania, small territories in the west were annexed, and the raids of the Tatar cavalry on Moscow lands were also repelled. A monetary reform was carried out: the coins of various principalities were replaced by coins of a single sample - kopecks. In 1538, Elena died unexpectedly (there is an assumption that she was poisoned). After her death, the struggle for power between the boyar groups intensified.

Upon reaching the age of 17 in 1547, Ivan Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, becoming the first tsar in Russia. The ceremony of taking the royal title took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. From the hands of the Moscow Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan IV received the cap of Monomakh and other signs of royal power.

Under the young king, a circle of friends formed - the Chosen Rada. It included the nobleman Alexei Adashev, Archpriest Sylvester (confessor of the young king), Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Metropolitan Macarius. The task of these people was to help the king in governing the state and develop reforms.

In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor in the history of the country was convened, which included elected representatives from each class. In the 1550s, the formation of the order system was completed, until 1568 it was called the “order hut”. The creation of orders was caused by the complication government controlled in connection with the growth of subject territories. There were Ambassadorial, Local, Discharge, Robbery orders, petition hut - the highest control body of the state. At the head of the order was a boyar or clerk - a major government official.

In 1550, a new "Sudebnik" was adopted, confirming the rule of St. George's Day.
In 1555-1556 the reform of local government was completed, the feeding system was abolished, the archery army was created, and the labial and zemstvo reforms were carried out. In 1551, Stoglav was adopted - the decision of the church council, which streamlined the affairs of the church.

In 1565–1572 Ivan IV established the oprichnina regime, which led to numerous victims and destruction of the country. The territory of the state was divided into two parts: the oprichnina and the zemshchina. The tsar included the most important lands in the oprichnina. The nobles who were part of the oprichnina army settled in them. Oprichniki in a short time brought these lands to the most miserable situation, the peasants fled from there to the outskirts of the state. This army was to be supported by the population of the zemstvo. The guardsmen wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the canine devotion of the guardsmen to the tsar and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country. At the head of the guardsmen, Ivan Vasilyevich made a punitive campaign against Novgorod and Pskov. The cities that were on the way to Novgorod, Novgorod itself and its environs were subjected to terrible ruin. Pskov managed to pay off with a lot of money. In 1581, "reserved years" were introduced - a ban on the transition of peasants on St. George's Day.

Expansion of the territory of Russia in the XVI century. Livonian war. In foreign policy Ivan IV sought to expand the territory of the state: Kazan was taken in 1552, Astrakhan in 1556, and the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began in 1582.

In 1558–1583 the Livonian War took place for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea. But this war ended in failure for Russia: according to the Yam-Zapolsky peace (1582), Livonia retreated to Poland, according to the Peace of Plus (1583), Sweden secured the Gulf of Finland, part of Karelia, the fortresses of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye, Yam, Karel.

During the Livonian War and the oprichnina in the spring of 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey moved to Moscow. The oprichnina army was unable to resist the external enemy. Moscow was burned down by the khan. Up to 80 thousand people died in the fire.
In 1582, in the face of the threat of a new invasion of the Tatars, Ivan IV was forced to abandon the division of the army. As a result, the united army under the leadership of the governor Prince M. I. Vorotynsky defeated the Tatars near the village of Molodi. Oprichnina was cancelled.

Trouble. Beginning of the Romanov dynasty. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Zemsky Sobor, composed of service people, recognized Ivan IV's son Fyodor as tsar. In 1589, the patriarchate was introduced, which meant the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from Constantinople. In 1597, "lesson years" were introduced - a five-year term for detecting fugitive peasants. In 1598, with the death of Fyodor Ivanovich and the suppression of the Rurik dynasty, the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov to the kingdom by a majority of votes.

Beginning of the 17th century - Time of Troubles. The reasons for the Troubles were the aggravation of social, estate, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV and under his successors.

1) In the 1570-1580s. the most developed in economic terms center (Moscow) and northwest (Novgorod and Pskov) of the country. As a result of the oprichnina and the Livonian War, part of the population fled, the other died. The central government, in order to prevent the flight of the peasants to the outskirts, took the path of attaching the peasants to the land of the feudal landowners. In fact, a system of serfdom was established on a state scale. The introduction of serfdom led to an aggravation of social contradictions in the country and created the conditions for mass popular uprisings.

2) After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible, there were no heirs capable of continuing his policy. During the reign of Fyodor Ivanovich (1584–1598), who was gentle in character, his guardian Boris Godunov was the de facto ruler of the country. In 1591, in Uglich, under unclear circumstances, the last of the direct heirs to the throne, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Tsarevich Dmitry, died. Popular rumor attributed the organization of the murder to Boris Godunov. These events triggered a dynastic crisis.

3) At the end of the XVI century. there is a strengthening of the neighbors of Moscow Russia - the Commonwealth, Sweden, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire. The aggravation of international contradictions will be another reason for the events that erupted during the Time of Troubles.

During the Time of Troubles, the country was actually in a state of civil war, accompanied by Polish and Swedish interventions. Rumors were widely spread that Tsarevich Dmitry, who “miraculously escaped” in Uglich, was still alive. In 1602, a man appeared in Lithuania, posing as Prince Dmitry. According to official version of the Moscow government of Boris Godunov, the man posing as Dmitry was a fugitive monk Grigory Otrepyev. He went down in history under the name of False Dmitry I.

In June 1605, False Dmitry I, a protege of the Polish gentry, entered Moscow. However, his policy caused dissatisfaction with both the common people and the boyars. As a result of a conspiracy of the boyars and an uprising of Muscovites in May 1606, False Dmitry was killed. The boyars proclaim Vasily Shuisky (1606–1610) tsar.

In 1606–1607 there is a popular performance led by Ivan Bolotnikov. In the summer of 1606, Bolotnikov moved from Krom to Moscow. On the way, a small detachment turned into a powerful army, which included peasants, townspeople and even detachments of nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov. The Bolotnikovites laid siege to Moscow for two months, but as a result of the betrayal, some of the nobles were defeated by the troops of Vasily Shuisky. In March 1607, Shuisky published the Code of Peasants, which introduced a 15-year term for the search for fugitive peasants. Bolotnikov was driven back to Kaluga and besieged by the tsarist troops, but escaped from the siege and retreated to Tula. The three-month siege of Tula was led by Vasily Shuisky himself. The Upa River was blocked by a dam and the fortress was flooded. After the promise of V. Shuisky to save the lives of the rebels, they opened the gates of Tula. Breaking his word, the king brutally cracked down on the rebels. Bolotnikov was blinded and then drowned in an ice hole in the city of Kargopol.

At the time when Shuisky was besieging Bolotnikov in Tula, a new impostor appeared in the Bryansk region. Relying on the support of the Polish gentry and the Vatican, in 1608 False Dmitry II came out of Poland against Russia. However, attempts to take Moscow ended in vain. False Dmitry II stopped 17 km from the Kremlin in the village of Tushino, for which he received the nickname "Tushino Thief".

In February 1609, Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden to fight the Tushins. The Swedes gave troops to fight the "Tushinsky Thief", and Russia abandoned its claims to the Baltic coast.

The Polish king Sigismund III ordered the gentry to leave Tushino and go to Smolensk. The Tushino camp disintegrated. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed. The Tushino boyars invited the son of the Polish king, Tsarevich Vladislav, to the Moscow throne.

In the summer of 1610, a revolution took place in Moscow. Shuisky was overthrown, the boyars headed by F.I. Mstislavsky seized power. This government was called "seven boyars". Despite the protests of Patriarch Hermogenes, the "Seven Boyars" concluded an agreement on calling Tsarevich Vladislav to the Russian throne and allowed the Polish interventionists into the Kremlin.

The catastrophic situation stirred up the patriotic feelings of the Russian people. At the beginning of 1611, the First civil uprising led by P. Lyapunov, which besieged Moscow, but due to internal disagreements between the participants, it fell apart, and Prokopiy Lyapunov was killed.

The Swedish troops, released after the overthrow of Shuisky from treaty obligations, captured a significant part of the north of Russia, including Novgorod, besieged Pskov, the Poles captured Smolensk after almost two years of siege. The Polish king Sigismund III announced that he himself would become the Russian tsar, and Russia would enter the Commonwealth.
In the autumn of 1611, the Second People's Militia was formed on the initiative of the Nizhny Novgorod mayor Kuzma Minin and headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In 1612 Moscow was liberated from the Poles.

In February 1613 Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor.

Culture. Literature. One of the most striking works of the second half of the XV century. was "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" by Athanasius Nikitin. A Tver merchant traveled to India in 1466–1472. The work of Athanasius Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. The creation of a unified state contributed to the emergence of an extensive journalistic literature, main theme which became the way of development of the country. Publicism is represented by the correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrey Kurbsky, the works of M. Bashkin, F. Kosoy, I. Peresvetov. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets laid the foundation for book printing in Russia. The first dated Russian book "Apostle" (1564), then "Book of Hours" (1565), the first Russian primer (1574).

Painting. At the end of the XV century. the famous master of icon painting was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of A. Rublev. His creations are characterized by fine drawing, soft color and festive mood. Dionysius created the famous murals of the Ferapontov Monastery.

Architecture. At the end of the XV century. Moscow became the capital of the Russian state, which should have been fixed in the external appearance of the city. During the reign of Ivan III, under the guidance of Italian masters, a modern Kremlin wall with towers was built. For that time it was an outstanding fortification designed for a long siege. Ivan III attracted Italian masters to build new cathedrals inside the Kremlin. The main temple of Russia - the Assumption Cathedral - the architect Aristotle Fioravanti created on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. The Faceted Chamber was built by Pietro Solari and Mark Fryazin. The Annunciation and Archangel Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin were erected. Another Italian architect, Aleviz Novy, took part in the creation of the latter. In the first half of the XVI century. in Russian architecture, a national tent style arose. An outstanding monument of this style was the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. In 1554–1560 In honor of the capture of Kazan, on the orders of Ivan IV, the Pokrovsky Cathedral on the Moat (St. Basil's Cathedral) was built (Russian architects Barma and Postnik), which became a symbol of Russia for many centuries. In the XVI century. stone walls were erected around many cities. The most famous builder of fortifications was Fedor Kon. He built the walls of the White City in Moscow (on the site of the present Garden Ring), the walls of the Smolensk Kremlin.

QUESTIONS FOR RECORDING

1. periodization national history and features of the historical process in Russia.

2. Ethnogenesis of the Slavs and Slavic tribes in the pre-state period.

3. The initial stage of the emergence of the state in Russia. Russia under the first Kyiv princes in the 9th - 10th centuries.

4. heyday Old Russian state under Saint Vladimir and Yaroslav the Wise.

5. Socio-economic and political system ancient Russian state.

6. International position of the Old Russian state in the X - XI centuries.

7. Cultural development in the Old Russian state.

8. Prerequisites and the beginning of the collapse of the Old Russian state.

9. The largest principalities and lands of Russia in the XII - XIV centuries.

10. Mongol invasion. The establishment of the power of the Horde over the Russian lands.

11. Domestic culture in the XII - XV centuries.

12. The policy of the first Moscow princes and the rise of Moscow (end of the 13th - first half of the 15th centuries).

13. The process of formation of the Russian centralized state under Ivan III.

14. Foreign policy of the Russian centralized state in the second half of the 15th - early 16th centuries.

15. Political, economic and administrative structure of the Russian centralized state.

16. Reforms of Ivan the Terrible and the Chosen One.

17. Oprichnina of Ivan IV the Terrible.

18. Foreign policy of Ivan IV the Terrible.

19. Domestic culture in the XV - XVI centuries.

20. The Russian state in the late 16th - early 17th century.

21. The Russian state during the Time of Troubles.

22. Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the XVII century.

23. Cathedral Code of 1649.

24. Urban uprisings in the 17th century. The uprising led by S. Razin.

25. Russia's foreign policy in the 17th century.

26. Domestic culture in the 17th century.

27. Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century. Reforms of Peter the Great. Transformations in the field of economy, state. management, the creation of a regular army and navy.

28. Foreign policy of Russia in the first quarter of the 18th century.

29. Transformations in the field of culture and life in the first quarter of the 18th century.

30. Russia in the second quarter - the middle of the XVIII century. The era of palace coups.

31. Socio-economic and political development of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. Russia during the reign of Catherine II the Great. Politics of enlightened absolutism.

32. Foreign policy of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

33. Higher development of serfdom. The uprising led by E. Pugachev.

34. Culture of Russia in the second half of the 18th century.

35. Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century. Domestic politics Alexandra I.

36. Foreign policy of Russia at the beginning of the 19th century. Russia's participation in the Napoleonic wars in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century.

37. Patriotic War 1812 Foreign campaigns of the Russian army. Russia's foreign policy after the Napoleonic wars.

38. Decembrist movement.

39. Russia in the second quarter of the 19th century. Domestic policy of Nicholas I.

40. Socio-political movements in Russia in the 30-40s of the XIX century.

41. Foreign Policy of Nicholas I and the Crimean War.

42. Culture of Russia in the first half of the 19th century.

43. The abolition of serfdom in 1861

44. Liberal reforms of the 60s - 70s of the XIX century.

45. Foreign policy of Russia during the reign of Alexander II.

46. The revolutionary movement in Russia in the 60s - 70s of the XIX century.

47. Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XIX century. Development of capitalist relations.

48. Counter-reforms of Alexander III.

49. Economic and political development of Russia at the beginning of the 20th century.

50. Russia during the Revolution of 1905-1907.

51. Domestic policy of Russia 1907 - 1917 Reforms of P.A. Stolypin.

52. Russia during the First World War.

53. Russian culture late XIX- the beginning of the XX century.

54. Russia during the Revolution of 1917

55. Domestic and foreign policy of the Soviet government 1917 - 1921. The politics of war communism.

56. Soviet Russia during the Civil War.

57. USSR during the NEP.

58. USSR in the period of collectivization and industrialization.

59. The internal policy of the Soviet government in the 30s. Formation of a totalitarian system.

60. Foreign policy of the USSR on the eve of the Second World War.

61. Great Patriotic War: the first period.

62. The Great Patriotic War: the second period.

63. The Great Patriotic War: the third period and the end of the war.

64. USSR in 1945 - 1953: economy, society, culture and international situation.

65. Domestic policy of the USSR in 1953 - 1957. The beginning of the de-Stalinization of Soviet society.

66. Socio-economic development of the USSR in the period 50 - early 60s.

67. The foreign policy of the USSR in 1953 - 1964

68. Socio-economic development of the USSR in the era of stagnation 1964 - 1985.

69. Political development of the USSR in the era of stagnation 1964 - 1985.

70. Foreign policy of the USSR in the era of stagnation 1964-1985.

71. Perestroika in the USSR 1985 - 1991.

72. 1991 coup attempt and failure. The collapse of the USSR.

73. Becoming a new Russian statehood in the 90s XX century.

74. The international position of Russia in the 90s. XX century.

75. Russia at the beginning of the XXI century: political and socio-economic development.

76. Russia at the Beginning of the 21st Century: International Position and Foreign Policy.

SEMINAR TOPICS.

Topic 1. The Russian state in the second half of the XVII century.

1. Socio-economic development of Russia in the second half of the XVII century.

a. Agriculture and his crisis. feudal landownership.

b. The financial system of the state and tax policy.

c. Social protests against state policy. The uprising led by S. Razin.

d. Cathedral Code of 1649.

2. Political development of Russia in the second half of the 17th century.

3. Foreign policy in the second half of the 17th century.

4. Church and state in the second half of the 17th century. Reform of Patriarch Nikon.

5. Culture of the Russian state in the second half of the 17th century.

The Russian state in the second half of the 15th - early 17th centuries.

Foreign policy in the XVI century.

Period of Troubles

Culture of the 16th century

Formation of the Russian centralized state

The formation of the Russian centralized state chronologically coincides with the formation of monarchies in a number of Western European countries, but at the same time it has its own specifics. In Russia, a special type of feudal society was formed, different from the common European one, with autocracy at the head and a high degree exploitation of the peasantry.

The birth of the Russian state took place in civil strife, the struggle with the Golden Horde, Kazan, Crimean (from the beginning of the 16th century), the Principality of Lithuania, the Livonian Order, and the Kingdom of Sweden.

The originality of Russian statehood was determined:

the length and openness of the borders;

confessional isolation of Russian Orthodoxy;

the fact that the Russian state could become centralized only by throwing off the economic and political dependence of the Horde.

The following can be distinguished reasons for the formation of the Russian state:

It should also be noted that the process of formation of the Russian centralized state proceeded simultaneously in three directions:

unification of lands around Moscow;

strengthening the grand ducal power in Moscow;

struggle to overthrow the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

The unification of the Russian lands was completed under Ivan III and his son Vasily III.

During the reign Ivan III Vasilyevich(1462 - 1505) (Fig. 1.4.1 ) the possessions of the Moscow prince increased significantly. Yaroslavl (1463) and Rostov (1474) principalities were annexed to Moscow peacefully. As a result of hostilities 1471-1478. The Novgorod Republic was conquered. The armed forces were used during the subjugation of the Tver principality (1485). I had to wage war with Lithuania for the annexation of the Verkhovsky principalities (in the upper reaches of the Oka River). Vyatka land (1489), Great Perm (1472) and Yugra land (1500), where Finno-Ugric and other peoples lived, became part of the Moscow principality (Fig. 1.4.2 ).

During the reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich (1462-1505), the possessions of the Moscow prince increased significantly. Yaroslavl (1463) and Rostov (1474) principalities were annexed to Moscow peacefully. As a result of hostilities 1471-1478. The Novgorod Republic was conquered. The armed forces were used during the subjugation of the Tver principality (1485). I had to wage war with Lithuania for the annexation of the Verkhovsky principalities (in the upper reaches of the Oka River). Vyatka land (1489), Great Perm (1472) and Yugra land (1500), where Finno-Ugric and other peoples lived, became part of the Moscow Principality.

While the Muscovite state was consistently strengthening, processes of disintegration continued on the territory of the Golden Horde. There were Siberian, Astrakhan, Kazakh, Uzbek khanates. An attempt to restore its former power was made by the khan of the Great Horde Akhmat. He decided to bring to obedience the Russian ulus, which stopped paying tribute. However, the events of 1480, which went down in history under the name "Standing on the Ugra River" showed the illusory nature of this idea. Despite the difficult situation (the onslaught of the Livonian Order in the west, the performance of Lithuania as an ally of Akhmat, the internecine quarrel with the Grand Duke of the brothers of Ivan III), the Muscovite state was able to emerge victorious, demonstrating its strength. Moscow was perceived by the population as an all-Russian center that solved the problem of people's liberation. Akhmat led his army from the banks of the river. Ugry, which was the fact of the end of the Horde's power over Russia. Thus, national sovereignty was acquired. And in 1502, under the blows of the Crimean Khanate, the Great Horde was finally defeated.

The Moscow principality after the fall of Byzantium remained the only independent Orthodox state. In 1485, Ivan III took the title "Sovereign of All Russia". As a result of the build-up of political power, the tasks of both foreign and policy changed. Moscow is beginning to actively enter the international arena. More than two dozen European and Asian states are becoming Russia's diplomatic partners. Among the allies of Ivan III are the Crimean Khanate and the Kazan Khanate, where a protege of Moscow was placed on the throne. Relations are established with the Ottoman Empire, Rome, Venice, Milan, Moldova, Hungary, the Holy Roman Empire. Many Western specialists are invited to Moscow: doctors, architects, builders, jewelers, foundry workers, cannon craftsmen, and ore seekers. Roman diplomacy considered it possible to use the growing Russia in the fight against the Turkish threat.

In the restless Baltic region for Moscow, the threat came from the Livonian Order and Sweden. Moscow's old enemy, the Principality of Lithuania, intended to create an anti-Russian coalition, and the fight against it diverted many forces. True, success accompanied Moscow, because due to national and confessional oppression, the Russian princes of Lithuania sought to come under the leadership of Ivan III. So, Novgorod-Seversky lands, the possessions of the princes of Starodubsky, Trubetskoy, Mosalsky, turned out to be part of Russia. The western border of Russia has advanced a hundred kilometers.

Moscow's claims to a worthy role in world politics were determined not least by the idea of Russian succession from Byzantium. The second wife of Ivan III was the niece of the last emperor of Constantinople -. Probably, not without her influence, a ceremonial was established in Moscow, demonstrating the special position of the sovereign-autocrat, free in making his decisions. The genealogy of the Moscow Rurikovich was erected to the ancient Roman emperor Augustus. Imperial ambitions were expressed in the work "The Legend of the Princes of Vladimir". The Russian state adopted the Byzantine coat of arms - in the form of a double-headed eagle, and in Moscow the grandiose construction of the Kremlin according to the plan of Aristotle Fiorovanti and temples, designed to prove the greatness of the "Third Rome", unfolded. This idea - about Moscow as the "Third Rome" - sounded at the beginning of the 16th century. in the message of the Pskov elder Philotheus Vasily III. According to this idea, the Muscovite state is assigned a special historical mission: being the center of the true Christian faith, it must be responsible for the fate of the entire Orthodox world.

Son of Ivan III - Vasily III(1505-1533) continued his father's policy of uniting the Russian lands and centralizing power. In 1510, he managed to annex Pskov, where the veche administration was abolished and governors from Moscow were appointed. In 1514, Smolensk, conquered from Lithuania, became part of the state. In 1521 Ryazan was annexed to Russia. Under Basil III, Russia began to play a prominent role in European affairs. He repeatedly waged wars and negotiations with Poland, Lithuania, Denmark, Austria, the Livonian Order, the Crimean Khanate.

Centralization of power. The new lands included in the Moscow Principality retained their features for a long time. But the logic of the centralization process required the introduction of uniform standards of life throughout the country. This concerned central and local government, tax and legal systems, and the spiritual sphere. In 1497, the first all-Russian Sudebnik was compiled. It was mainly devoted to the issues of judiciary. It also introduced the norm of a single term for the transition of privately owned peasants from one owner to another. The transition was allowed in the fall, a week before St. George's Day (November 14) and a week after St. George's Day, subject to payment of the elderly (tax). This measure was relevant in the context of the development of the local system.

The annexation of new territories to Moscow and the policy of land confiscation from the local nobility and the church (especially in the Novgorod possessions) made it possible Ivan III concentrate in their hands a large fund of state lands. These lands were distributed as estates to the nobles for their service. This is how the formation of the service class, directly dependent on the sovereign, went on. It included serfs of the prince, landowners of the former specific princes, impoverished patrimonials from princely and boyar families. Moreover, votchinniki could simultaneously have both votchinas and estates located in different parts of the country.

These noble landlords made up the noble militia, which replaced the former princely squads. The Muscovite state now had a strong, well-armed army, designed to repel external aggression. But it needed land provision, and this assumed the further growth of territories and their processing by dependent peasants. Therefore, the strong power of the sovereign, who granted estates, seemed to be the ideal of the service nobility.

The highest position in the social hierarchy was occupied by the descendants of the specific princes - representatives of the Rurik family. They ended up in the service of the Moscow ruler, they were "charmed". A new meaning of the word "boyar" has been added, meaning "rank". The boyars, along with the roundabouts, sat in the Boyar Duma - an advisory body under the sovereign. The old Moscow boyars were pushed aside from power. The princes and boyars formed the core of the Sovereign's court, from which all appointments to the military and civil service were made. Seniority was determined by the origin and official significance of the genus.

The most important central authorities were the Grand Palace and the Treasury. Here the order system and branch management in the state apparatus were born. Over time in orders the leading role will be played by clerks - people from various social strata. The local government of the country, which was divided into counties, volosts and camps, was represented by governors and volosts. Their activities were carried out with the help of staff, which they brought with them. All service people of the Moscow sovereign addressed him in official documents according to the formula: "Behold, your serf."

The growing autocratic power was supported by the church. But among the clergy there was no unity on the issue of land ownership by monasteries. Part of church leaders, followers Joseph Volotsky - josephites, considered it necessary to provide monasteries with landed property for the possibility of active social activities. Their ideal was the union of church and state. Others, followers of the Trans-Volga elder Nil Sorsky - nonpossessors- expressed the opinion about the detachment of monks from worldly concerns, the increase in the moral authority of the clergy, free from land ownership. Ivan III accepted at first the point of view of the nonpossessors, which was in his interests.

However, at the church council of 1503, the Josephites won. The church managed to defend its right to own land. The Grand Duke was forced to accept and supported the followers of Joseph Volotsky. The Josephites put forward the thesis about the divine origin of the great princely power. The union of the autocratic state and the Orthodox Church became even closer.

The processes of centralization continued in the 16th century, by the beginning of which the name “Russia” was increasingly assigned to the Muscovite state.

Russia during the reign of Ivan IV the Terrible

Economy . The main occupation of the Russian population in the 16th century was arable farming. A three-field system was widespread almost throughout the entire territory of the state, when the first plot was sown with spring crops, the second with winter crops, and the third remained unsown (rested under fallow). The yield from such a system did not increase, but was stable. The most common winter crop was rye, and the most common spring crop was oats. Peasants kept horses, cows, sheep, poultry.

The community (peace) played an important role in the life of the peasants. Its functions included the distribution of arable plots and vegetable gardens, the use of hayfields, fishing areas, lakes and rivers, the distribution of state taxes and duties. The community was preserved even when state lands were transferred to private hands.

In the XVI century. handicraft production expanded. Bakers, pastry makers, sbitenshchiks, tanners, cheese houses, etc. appeared in the cities. The most common type of craft was the production of weapons. The quality of the weapons cast at the Cannon Yard was so great that it was forbidden to sell it to the southern and eastern neighbors.

The growth of cities continued, their importance as centers of crafts and trade increased. The largest trade and craft centers were Moscow, Pskov, Arkhangelsk, Yaroslavl, Kostroma, Tver, Novgorod, Tula, Smolensk, Nizhny Novgorod. The main population of the cities were artisans and merchants.

Trade developed. A large number of urban and rural trades and markets appeared, where local artisans sold their products, and peasants sold food products. Fairs were organized once a year near large cities or monasteries. The main commodity at the fairs was bread. It also traded honey, salt, cattle, meat, fish and handicrafts. Fairs contributed to the strengthening of economic ties between different regions of the country.

The main foreign trade partners of Russia were Poland, Livonia, Hansa, the Lithuanian principality, the Tatar khanates, the Caucasus, Central Asia and the Ottoman Empire. Close trade relations began with England. In 1556, the British received the right to trade duty-free throughout the country. the first major seaport Arkhangelsk became Russia (until 1613 Novokholmogory).

The growth and development of trade demanded monetary reform. A single all-Russian monetary unit was introduced - the Moscow ruble. In 1534, the State Mint was founded in Moscow, which produced coins for the whole country.

Political processes . After the death of Vasily III, his son Ivan was only 3 years old. Before his death, the tsar appointed a board of trustees of seven influential boyars, who were supposed to take care of Ivan until the age of 15. But soon Ivan's mother, Elena Glinskaya, took control of the state into her own hands. She continued her husband's policy of centralizing the state. During her reign, a monetary reform was carried out, uniform measures of length and weight were introduced. The queen died unexpectedly in 1538 (according to her contemporaries, she was poisoned). The boyar rule (1538-1547) began, which was characterized by murders, imprisonment, forced monastic tonsure. The early death of his parents and a similar environment developed in the young prince such qualities as rigidity, painful suspicion and suspiciousness.

At the age of 16, Ivan declared Metropolitan Macarius about his desire to get married not to a great reign (as it was before him), but to a kingdom. The Metropolitan supported his intention, which meant a significant strengthening of the supreme power. The adoption of the royal title by the ruler of the state also raised the international prestige of Russia. On January 16, 1547, in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the metropolitan crowned Ivan IV with the Hat of Monomakh to the kingdom. Grand Duke Ivan Vasilyevich became the first "God-crowned Tsar" (Fig. 1.4.3 ).

First period of government Ivan IV, @@@ nicknamed the Terrible (1549-1560), was favorable for the Russian state. Together with the tsar, the Chosen Rada ruled - the circle of Ivan IV's close associates. It included nobleman A.F. Adashev, priest Sylvester, princes M.I. Vorotynsky, A.M. Kurbsky, boyars Sheremetevs, clerk I. M. Viskovaty. The elected Rada enjoyed the support of the head of the church, Metropolitan Macarius. During this period, a number of reforms were developed and put into effect, which set as their main goal the strengthening of the power of the king and the strengthening of statehood.

In 1549, a new state body was created - the Zemsky Sobor, which was elected by the population and included representatives of the clergy, the nobility, the top of the townspeople and the black-haired (state) peasants. The Zemsky Sobor resolved the most important state issues. Thus, Russia turned into a class-representative monarchy, like most European countries that time.

In 1550, a new Sudebnik was approved at the Zemsky Sobor, in which the further enslavement of the peasants was carried out (an increase in the payment for living on the land of the feudal lord), the norms for the transfer of peasants from one landowner to another on St. George's Day were specified, a tax collection unit was established, and punishment for bribery was introduced , the rights of governors were limited.

In 1550 was held military reform. Localism was abolished for the period of military campaigns. People with military talent were appointed to the highest military positions, regardless of the nobility of their family. First created standing army- Streltsy regiments, which received money, weapons and uniforms from the treasury. An elected thousand was formed - the core of the local militia, subordinate to the king. In 1556, the “Code of Service” was adopted, which determined the exact norms of mandatory military service for all landowners.

In 1551 the Church Cathedral was assembled. The church reform introduced unified church rites, recognized all local saints as all-Russian, limited monastic land ownership, and outlined measures to strengthen the morality of the clergy.

In 1556 was held local government reform. The system of feeding and governors was abolished. In counties where private landownership predominated, positions of labial elders were introduced, who were elected by landowners. Zemstvo elders were elected in counties where the majority of the population was made up of black-eared peasants, and in urban township communities. In cities, local government was carried out by city clerks. The functions of elected bodies included: the court, the collection of taxes, the preservation of law and order.

The reforms have fulfilled their tasks:

the central state power and the supreme position of the king increased;

strengthened the military power of the country;

prerequisites were created for solving foreign policy tasks.

After returning from the Kazan campaign, the tsar suddenly and seriously fell ill. Being near death, he demanded from his close associates to take the oath to his newly born son. But the courtiers, who remembered the horrors of boyar rule, were in no hurry to go through this procedure. They preferred to see on the throne not the baby tsar, but the cousin of Ivan IV - Prince Staritsky. After his recovery, the king changed a lot. It seemed to him that he was surrounded by enemies, ready to betray at any moment. In 1560, the tsar's beloved wife, Anastasia, died. Rumors spread throughout Moscow that Sylvester and Adashev had “exterminated” her, whom the tsarina did not forgive for their hesitation during the tsar’s illness. Ivan, whose disagreements with the members of the Chosen Rada were intensifying, willingly believed in these rumors. Both close associates were condemned by the Zemsky Sobor, and soon they were deprived of their lives.

The dissatisfaction of the boyars after this massacre intensified. Many noble people fled abroad, including Prince Kurbsky, who was close to Ivan. Meanwhile, the Livonian War was fought with varying success. Victories gave way to defeats, in which the tsar blamed the traitors-voivode. Ivan the Terrible decided to become the sole ruler, eliminate the independence of the boyars and deprive them of influence on state affairs. For this purpose, the oprichnina was introduced.

Oprichnina (1565 - 1572)- the policy of Ivan the Terrible, which led to the division of the Russian state into zemshchina(ruled by the Boyar Duma) and oprichnina(sovereign's destiny) with a special army - guardsmen. It was accompanied by a number of repressions as a means to achieve political goals. Landowners whose estates were included in the oprichnina (these were the richest and most prosperous regions of the country) had to leave their possessions. Their lands were crushed and transferred to guardsmen, and in return they were given possessions in remote places. Oprichnina significantly weakened the economic power of the old boyar-princely families.

The oprichnina dealt the main blow to those forces that could threaten the autocracy. In particular, the specific prince Staritsky was poisoned together with his family. For about six weeks, the massacre continued in Veliky Novgorod against the boyars, who were accused of plotting against the tsar. Metropolitan Philip, who did not support the tsar, was strangled. Oprichnina strengthened the regime of personal power of Ivan the Terrible, but plunged the state into an economic crisis. In addition, the oprichnina army showed its inability to repel the attack of the Crimean Tatars on Moscow, after which the tsar decided to cancel the oprichnina.

The results of the reign of Ivan IV were:

strengthening the status of autocratic power as supreme;

the weakening of the boyar-princely nobility, the suppression of the possibilities for the development of the political model of Russia according to the Polish-Lithuanian version of the aristocratic-class monarchy;

further enslavement of peasants ( "Decree on reserved years" 1581 introduced a ban on the peasant transition from one feudal lord to another);

the economic crisis caused by the Livonian War and the Oprichnina;

lack of a worthy successor.

Foreign policy in the XVI century.

In the 16th century, the Russian state faced the following foreign policy tasks:

the fight against the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates - the remnants of the Golden Horde;

achieving access to the Baltic Sea;

the return of the lands that were part of the ancient Russian state.

As in the domestic policy of Ivan the Terrible, the first period of the tsarist reign was marked by success in foreign policy. In 1552, after stubborn resistance, the Kazan Khanate was annexed, and in 1556, the Astrakhan Khanate. Russia did not at all seek to seize these former Horde territories (with whose governments it immediately established diplomatic relations), since it was not difficult for Ivan III, Vasily III, and the young Ivan IV to do this after the collapse of the Horde. However, this did not happen for a long time, since representatives of the Kasimov dynasty, friendly to Russia, were in power in the khanates at that time. When the representatives of this dynasty were defeated by their competitors and a pro-Ottoman Crimean dynasty was established in Kazan (which by that time had become one of the centers of the slave trade) and Astrakhan, only then was a political decision made on the need to include these lands in Russia. The Astrakhan Khanate, by the way, was bloodlessly incorporated into the Russian state.

In 1555, the Great Nogai Horde and the Siberian Khanate entered the Russian sphere of influence as vassals. Russian people come to the Urals, get access to the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus. Most of the peoples of the Volga region and the North Caucasus submitted to Russia. Russia included lands inhabited by Chuvashs, Udmurts, Mordvins, Maris and many others. In the Caucasus, friendly relations were established with the Circassians and Kabardians, other peoples of the North Caucasus and Transcaucasia. The entire Volga region, and hence the entire Volga trade route, became Russian territories, on which new Russian cities immediately appeared: Ufa (1574), Samara (1586), Tsaritsyn (1589), Saratov (1590).

In 1556, Bashkiria voluntarily became part of Russia. The accession of the Volga region ensured the security of the southern and southeastern borders of Russia, opened the way for direct trade and political contacts with the countries of the East. The entry of these lands into the empire did not lead to any discrimination and oppression of the ethnic groups inhabiting them. Within the framework of the empire, they completely retained their religious, national and cultural identity, traditional way of life, as well as management systems. Yes, and most of them reacted to this very calmly: after all, the Muscovite state for a significant time was part of the Dzhuchiev ulus, and Russia, which adopted the experience accumulated by the Horde in managing these lands and actively implementing it in the implementation of its internal imperial policy, was perceived by them as a natural heir to the Mongol proto-empire.

The central event in Russia's foreign policy during the reign of Ivan the Terrible was Livonian War (1558-1583). The reason for the war was the refusal of the Livonian Order to pay tribute to Russia for the city of Yuryev. Russian troops entered the Baltic and occupied Derpt (Yuriev), Narva, approached Revel and Riga. The Livonians requested a truce. The Russian Tsar agreed. This became a serious mistake. Livonian Order became part of Lithuania, and Russia found itself in the face of a new strong enemy - the Polish-Lithuanian state, as well as its allies - Denmark and Sweden. After Stefan Batory became the king of the Commonwealth, the Russians were ousted from Livonia. In 1581, the Poles invaded Russian territory and laid siege to Pskov. Sweden also began hostilities against Russia and captured Narva. Russia was unable to wage war on two fronts and was forced to retreat. In 1582, a truce was concluded with Poland, and in 1583, a peace with Sweden. Russia was defeated in the war.

In the XVI century. the development of the eastern territories began. The advance of the Russians to Siberia was also not due to any national super-task and public policy development of these lands. V.L. Makhnach explained the development of Siberia, which began in the 16th century, by two factors: firstly, the aggressive policy of the Siberian Khan Kuchum, who made constant raids on the Stroganov possessions, and secondly, the tyrannical rule of Ivan IV, fleeing from whose repressions, Russian people fled to Siberia.

In the Siberian Khanate, which was formed around 1495, which, in addition to the Siberian Tatars, included Khanty (Ostyaks), Mansi (Voguls), Trans-Ural Bashkirs and other ethnic groups, there was a constant struggle for power between two dynasties - Taibungs and Sheibanids. In 1555, Yediger Khan-Taibungin turned to Ivan IV with a request for citizenship, which was granted, after which the Siberian khans began to pay tribute to the Moscow government. In 1563, Sheibanid Kuchum seized power in the khanate, who initially maintained vassalage relations with Russia, but later, taking advantage of the turmoil in the Russian state in 1572 after the raid of the Crimean Khan on Moscow, broke off these relations and began to pursue a rather aggressive policy towards the border lands of the Russian states.

The constant raids of Khan Kuchum prompted eminent and wealthy merchants of the Stroganovs to organize a private military expedition to protect the borders of their possessions. They hire Cossacks led by ataman Ermak Timofeevich (Fig. 1.4.4 ), arm them, and they, in turn, unexpectedly for everyone, smash Khan Kuchum in 1581-1582, who, by the way, had established diplomatic relations with Moscow, and capture the capital of the Siberian Khanate - Isker. Of course, the Cossacks could not solve the problem of settling and developing these lands and, perhaps, they would soon leave Siberia, but a stream of fugitive Russian people poured into these lands, fleeing the repressions of Ivan the Terrible, who began to actively develop sparsely populated new territories.

The Russians did not meet much resistance in the development of Siberia. The Siberian Khanate was internally unstable and soon became part of Russia. Kuchum's military failures led to the resumption of civil strife in his camp. A number of Khanty and Mansi princes and elders began to help Yermak with food, as well as pay yasak (tax) to the Moscow sovereign. The elders of the indigenous Siberian peoples were extremely pleased with the reduction in the size of the yasak that the Russians collected, compared to the yasak that Kuchum took. And since there was a lot of free land in Siberia (it was possible to walk a hundred or two hundred kilometers without meeting anyone) - there was enough space for everyone (both Russian explorers and indigenous ethnic groups), the development of the territory went at a rapid pace.

In 1591, Khan Kuchum was finally defeated by Russian troops and expressed his obedience to the Russian sovereign. The fall of the Siberian Khanate - the only more or less strong state in these open spaces, predetermined the further advancement of the Russians in the Siberian lands and the development of the expanses of eastern Eurasia.

Thus, by the end of the 16th century, Russia realized its foreign policy plans only in the eastern direction.

Period of Troubles

At the turn of the XVI - XVII centuries. Russia has entered a period, the events of which plunged the country into a systemic crisis that affected all spheres of society and brought Russia to the brink of destruction of state principles and loss of independence. In pre-revolutionary historiography, this period was called the Time of Troubles. In the literature there is no unambiguous approach to the definition of the essence of the Time of Troubles. Some researchers believe that this is a peasant war, others call the Time of Troubles a covert intervention, others insist that the Time of Troubles can be called a civil war. We believe that the concept of "Trouble" is broader. It includes elements of civil war, intervention, social struggle, economic crisis, changes in ideology, and more. This is a complex of events caused by the formation of the state-serf system in Russia and at the same time contributed to the strengthening of this system.

There are several interpretations of the chronology of the Time of Troubles in the literature. Some historians believe that it began immediately after the death of Ivan the Terrible in 1584, others attribute its beginning to the first social unrest (1602-1603). There is no consensus on the end of the Time of Troubles. According to one version, the end of the Time of Troubles is considered to be the date of the accession of Mikhail Romanov (1613), according to another, the Deulino truce with Poland (1618). In our opinion, the most acceptable periodization is the division of the Time of Troubles into 3 stages:

1598-1605 - the reign of Boris Godunov and the beginning of the Troubles.

1605-1607 - False Dmitry I and the peasant war.

1608-1613 - Polish-Swedish intervention, the end of the Time of Troubles.

AT last years reign of Ivan the Terrible, Russia found itself in plight. The Oprichnina and the Livonian War caused a protracted economic crisis, the strengthening of serfdom and the actual enslavement of the peasants (the cancellation of St. George's Day) exacerbated social contradictions.

One of the causes of the Troubles was the dynastic crisis.

Shortly before his death on November 19, 1581, Ivan the Terrible killed his eldest son, the heir to the throne, John. The weak and sick became the new heir of Ivan the Terrible Fedor (1584-1598) who was not interested in state affairs.

According to the descriptions of contemporaries, Fedor Ioannovich (Fig. 1.4.5 ) was small, obese and perpetually pale. He did not inherit the aristocratic beauty of his ancestors. They say that he always smiled, moved slowly, stiffly. Tsar Fedor is known for his extraordinary meekness, combined, as N.M. wrote. Karamzin, "with a timid mind, with boundless piety, with indifference to worldly greatness." “On the thunderous throne of a fierce tormentor,” continued N.M. Karamzin, “Russia saw a faster and a silent one, more for a cell and a cave than for the sovereign power of a born.” A kind, meek and merciful tsar could become a dream come true for Russia tormented by Ivan the Terrible. But the trouble is that Fyodor Ioannovich was not able to rule: sickly and weak, stupid at best, and weak-minded at worst. Both the boyars and the common people were worried that because of the inability of the young tsar to rule in the country, unrest would begin again. But things did not come to this, since Fyodor Ioannovich transferred all affairs of government to the hands of Boris Fyodorovich Godunov, his wife's brother.

Thus, Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich reigned, but did not rule. Boris Godunov turned out to be a smart, cunning and skillful politician. The boyars closest to the throne were very dissatisfied with his elevation, but Godunov managed to cope with them. Relative calm was established in the state: Russia rested and recovered after the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

The most important tasks facing the country at that time were overcoming the economic crisis and uniting the tops of society. Since 1592, the Decree on reserved years began to operate permanently, and in 1597 a decree was issued on a 5-year search for fugitive peasants. These measures contributed to the strengthening of local and patrimonial land tenure.

In 1590, during another war with Sweden, Russia managed to return the cities of Yam, Koporye, Ivangorod, lost under Ivan the Terrible. In 1591, the Crimean Khan Kazy Giray tried to raid Moscow. It was smashed under the walls of the city not far from the Danilov Monastery. This is the last Tatar raid on the capital of the Russian state.

During the reign of Fyodor Ioannovich, the city of Arkhangelsk was founded on the White Sea, and the fortresses of Tobolsk, Pelym, Berezov, Obdorsk (now Salekhard) and others were built in Siberia.

One of the few decisions of Fyodor Ivanovich himself was the approval of the patriarchate in 1589. The first Patriarch of Moscow was St. Job.

Fedor Ioannovich had no sons. Tsarevich Dmitry, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible and Maria Feodorovna, was considered his heir. By decision of Boris Godunov, in order to avoid troubles and disagreements on the issue of the inheritance of power, Tsarevich Dmitry and his mother Maria Feodorovna lived in Uglich. And there, young Dmitry died on May 15, 1591. The cause of his death has not been precisely determined. An official investigation concluded that the prince, who suffered from epilepsy, accidentally ran into his own knife during a seizure. The rumor claimed that Dmitry was killed by Godunov.

One way or another, but with the death of Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich, the Rurik dynasty was interrupted, which, according to N.M. Karamzin, "Russia owes its existence, name and greatness - from the beginning so small, through a series of stormy centuries, through fire and blood, having achieved dominance over the North of Europe and Asia by the warlike spirit of its rulers and people, by the happiness and providence of God!"

On February 17, 1598, the Zemsky Sobor elected brother-in-law Fyodor Ioannovich to the kingdom - Boris Godunov(1598-1605) (Fig. 1.4.6 ). A close property outweighed the distant relationship of possible contenders for the throne. No less important was the fact that Godunov had long actually ruled the country on behalf of Fedor and was not going to let go of power after his death.

The reign of Boris began successfully. The new king developed trade and cultural ties with Western Europe. He provided benefits to English and German merchants, sent a group of noble children to study in Europe, and invited foreigners to Russia. Godunov's government sought to stabilize the situation in Russia. His policy was quite balanced and reasonable. A number of measures were taken to improve the economy of the service nobility, a limit was placed on the growth of the possessions of the church, the activities of orders were streamlined, and great successes were achieved in foreign policy.

However, truly terrible events soon broke out. In 1601, there were long rains, and then early frosts broke out and, according to a contemporary, “beat the strong scum of all the work of human deeds in the fields.” The next year, the crop failure was repeated. A famine began in the country, which lasted three years. The price of bread has increased 100 times. Boris forbade selling bread more than a certain limit, even resorting to the persecution of those who inflated prices, but he did not achieve success. In an effort to help the starving, he spared no expense, widely distributing money to the poor. But bread became more expensive, and money lost its value. Boris ordered the royal barns to be opened for the starving. However, even their supplies were not enough for all the hungry, especially since, having learned about the distribution, people from all over the country reached out to Moscow, leaving the meager supplies that they still had at home. About 127 thousand people who died of starvation were buried in Moscow, and not everyone had time to bury them. There were cases of cannibalism. People began to think that this was God's punishment. There was a conviction that the reign of Boris is not blessed by God, because it is lawless, achieved by untruth. Therefore, it cannot end well.

In 1601-1602. Godunov even agreed to temporarily restore St. George's Day. True, he did not allow the exit, but only the export of the peasants. The nobles thus saved their estates from final desolation and ruin. The permission given by the Godunovs concerned only small service people, it did not extend to the lands of members of the Boyar Duma and the clergy. But even this step did not increase the popularity of the king, popular riots began.

One of the significant popular unrest at the beginning of the Time of Troubles is the performance of Cotton Kosolap, whose detachment operated near Moscow itself in 1603. The government troops suppressed this rebellion with great difficulty, losing their leader, governor Basmanov, in a fierce battle.

At that time, rumors stubbornly spread around Moscow that Tsarevich Dmitry had miraculously escaped reprisal and was about to appear in his state in order to make life easier for the common people. And indeed, in 1602, the monk Grigory Otrepiev, who fled to the Polish-Lithuanian state, declared himself Tsarevich Dmitry. The Polish king Sigismund III initially did not want to openly interfere in the affairs of Russia and secretly helped the impostor. False Dmitry I secretly converted to Catholicism and promised to marry the daughter of the Sandomierz governor Marina Mnishek. He generously distributed promises: to the Pope - to introduce Catholicism in Russia, to the Polish king - Smolensk and Seversk land, to his father-in-law - Novgorod, Pskov and a million in gold. In the end, Sigismund III allowed him to recruit a detachment in his lands.

Godunov assessed the threat looming over him: in comparison with the "born" sovereign, he is nobody. It is no coincidence that detractors called him - "worker". At the beginning of 1604, a letter from a foreigner from Narva was intercepted, in which it was announced that the Cossacks had miraculously escaped Dmitry and great misfortunes would soon befall the Moscow land.

October 16, 1604 False Dmitry I with a handful of Poles and Cossacks moved to Moscow. Even the curses of the Moscow Patriarch did not cool the enthusiasm of the people. Peasants, townspeople, Cossacks and even nobles joined him. The people willingly believed in the “good and just” king. On January 21, near the village of Dobrinichi, a battle took place between the forces of the impostor and the royal army, led by Prince F.I. Mstislavsky. False Dmitry I was utterly defeated and miraculously escaped by fleeing to Putivl.

During this critical period for the impostor, on April 13, 1605, Boris Godunov died unexpectedly. As early as 1599, there are references to his illnesses, and the king was often unwell in the 1600s. April 13, 1605 Boris Godunov seemed cheerful and healthy, he ate a lot and with appetite. Then he climbed the tower, from which he often surveyed Moscow. Soon he went out of there, saying that he felt faint. They called the doctor, but the king felt worse: blood began to flow from his ears and nose. The king lost his senses and soon died. There were rumors that Godunov poisoned himself in a fit of despair; the version of natural death is more likely, since Godunov had often been ill before. He was buried in the Kremlin Archangel Cathedral.

The son of Boris, Fedor, became king, an educated and extremely intelligent young man. Soon there was a rebellion in Moscow, provoked by False Dmitry. Tsar Fyodor and his mother were killed, leaving only Boris's daughter Xenia alive. The bleak fate of the impostor's concubine awaited her. It was officially announced that Tsar Fedor and his mother were poisoned. Their bodies were exposed. Then Boris's coffin was taken out of the Archangel Cathedral and reburied in the Varsonofevsky Monastery near Lubyanka. His family was also buried there: without a funeral service, like suicides.

The path of False Dmitry I to the Russian throne was open.

Moscow opened the gates to the impostor and swore allegiance to the "true tsar" Dmitry. However, the new king was in no hurry to fulfill these promises. He did not even think of freeing the peasants from serfdom, moreover, he allowed the nobles to secure the peasants who came to them in the famine years. The boyars also did not want to obey an impostor without family and tribe. In addition, the new tsar promised them to obey the Boyar Duma in everything, but in fact removed the boyars from conducting state affairs. Even the Poles who made up the court of False Dmitry I expressed dissatisfaction, since he was in no hurry to transfer the Russian lands to the Poles. Discontent ripened in Moscow.

The last straw was the marriage of False Dmitry I to Marina Mnishek, which was attended by about 2,000 Polish guests. The marriage took place with many violations of Orthodox customs, the bride did not accept Orthodoxy, and the guests beat and robbed the inhabitants.

The boyar elite organized a new uprising. On the night of May 17, 1607, the conspirators broke into the Kremlin, seized and killed False Dmitry I.

Three days later, the Zemsky Sobor, hastily assembled from the inhabitants of Moscow, proclaimed the new tsar the organizer of the conspiracy against False Dmitry I - Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610), a well-born boyar from the Rurik dynasty.

But this did not bring stability to the situation. The country was disturbed by rumors about the salvation of "Tsar Dmitry". The city of Putivl in the south of the country became the center of the anti-government movement. The rebellious Cossacks, peasants and townspeople were led by the former military serf of Prince Telyatevsky Ivan Isaevich Bolotnikov. Gathering a large force, he moved to Moscow.

In the autumn of 1606, having defeated several tsarist detachments, Bolotnikov approached Moscow and settled down in the village of Kolomenskoye. Crowds of people flocked to the camp of the rebels - archers, Cossacks, peasants and serfs, as well as nobles and boyars, dissatisfied with the rule of Vasily Shuisky. The siege of Moscow lasted 5 weeks and ended in defeat on December 2, 1606. The rebels retreated to Kaluga and Tula.

Vasily Shuisky managed to gather a large army and in the battle along Kashira in May 1607, Bolotnikov suffered a new defeat and took refuge with the remnants of his army behind the fortress walls of Tula. The siege lasted about 4 months. By order of Shuisky on the river. Upe was built a dam, and the city was flooded. Famine began in Tula, and on October 10, 1607, the rebels surrendered. The participants in the uprising were brutally massacred. Bolotnikov was exiled to a monastery, where he was soon blinded and drowned. The uprising under the leadership of I. Bolotnikov 1606-1607. considered to be the first peasant war in Russia.

But Vasily Shuisky did not celebrate the victory for long. A new impostor appeared in Russia, a protege of the Poles - False Dmitry II. According to one version, he was found in Mogilev at the request of Ivan Bolotnikov. In appearance, he resembled False Dmitry I. In May 1608, the tsarist troops were defeated near Bolkhov, and a detachment of False Dmitry II, consisting of Polish mercenaries, moved to Moscow. On the way, he was joined by the remnants of the Bolotnikovites and the Cossack detachments of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky. In June 1608, they approached Moscow, but, having been defeated, they camped near the village of Tushino, for which False Dmitry II received the nickname "Tushino Thief".

In fact, dual power was established in the country. Tushino had its own Boyar Duma, its own orders, its own patriarch (Filaret Romanov, captured by the Poles). Boyars and nobles flocked here, dissatisfied with the rule of Vasily Shuisky. The Tushino detachments controlled a significant territory of the Russian state. Initially, the Russian population supported the Tushino tsar, but soon the popular mood changed. The Tushino Poles behaved like conquerors, ruining and robbing the population, which caused legitimate indignation among the masses. Militias began to gather everywhere. Monasteries became centers of resistance. The Trinity-Sergius Monastery withstood a 16-month siege, but never surrendered to the enemy.

In order not to lose control over the situation, Vasily Shuisky decided to ask for help from the enemy of Poland - Sweden. In the spring of 1609, Russian-Swedish troops under the command of the tsar's nephew Mikhail Skopin-Shuisky set out from Novgorod. The Tushinos began to suffer defeat, and on March 12, 1610, Skopin-Shuisky entered Moscow. The impostor managed to escape to Kaluga. In April 1610, Skopin-Shuisky died unexpectedly. There were rumors that he was poisoned on the orders of Dmitry Shuisky, the tsar's brother, who was afraid of his nephew's popularity.

Meanwhile, the situation in the country escalated to the limit. The Russo-Swedish alliance gave Poland a welcome pretext for an open invasion of Russia (Poland and Sweden were at war). In September 1609 Poland declared war on Russia. The Polish king began the siege of Smolensk. An attempt by Vasily Shuisky to send an army to help Smolensk ended in failure, it was defeated by the Polish hetman S. Zholkevsky. From near Smolensk Zholkevsky moved to Moscow. In the battle near the village of Klushino, he defeated the tsarist army under the command of Dmitry Shuisky and went from Mozhaisk to Moscow.

Meanwhile, False Dmitry II again approached Moscow. The fate of Vasily Shuisky was decided. On July 17, 1610, the tsar was overthrown and forced to become a monk. Power passed into the hands of the "Seven Boyars" - a government of 7 boyars headed by F.I. Mstislavsky. The boyars decided to call the Polish prince Vladislav to the Russian throne, on the condition that he accept Orthodoxy. On the night of September 21, 1610, the boyars opened the gates of Moscow and let the army of hetman Zolkiewski into the city, thereby betraying the national interests of Russia.

The Swedes also took advantage of the plight of Russia. After the Klushinsky defeat, part of the Swedish troops went north and later, in 1611, captured Novgorod and the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland.

False Dmitry II failed to correctly assess the situation and stand at the head of the popular movement against the invaders. Repeatedly betrayed by his supporters, he now trusted no one. General distrust and suspicion reigned in his entourage. Violent executions began. In December 1610, the impostor was killed while hunting by his own guard.

The Polish-Swedish intervention brought Russia to the brink of collapse and loss of national independence. Foreign intervention caused a broad upsurge in the patriotic movement. Ryazanians were the first to come out against the Poles. They created the First People's Militia, led by Prokopy Lyapunov. Soon they were joined by the Cossacks of I. Zarutsky and the detachment of Prince D.T. Trubetskoy. In March 1611, the advance detachment of the militia occupied the outskirts of Moscow. At the same time, an uprising began in Moscow. Weakly armed detachments of militias and rebels were forced to retreat, and soon disagreements in the leadership of the militia led to its collapse. Prokopy Lyapunov was killed.

In the summer of 1611, the situation in Russia was extremely difficult. The Polish king captured Smolensk, the Swedes negotiated with the Novgorod boyars to recognize the Swedish prince Karl-Philip as the Russian tsar. From the south, the troops of the Crimean Khan invaded Russian land. The Russian state, having neither a central government nor an army, stood on the brink of a national catastrophe.

Nizhny Novgorod became the new center of the liberation movement. In the autumn of 1611, the zemstvo elder Kuzma Minin-Sukhoruk appealed to the townspeople with an appeal to assemble a new militia to liberate Moscow. The call was warmly supported by the townspeople, who decided to give a third of their property to create a militia. Prince D.M. was invited to head the Second Militia. Pozharsky. In March 1612, the militia moved to Moscow and in August approached the capital. On August 22-24, fierce battles took place under the walls of the capital, the Poles were defeated. Moscow was finally liberated on October 26, when the invaders who had settled behind the walls of the Moscow Kremlin surrendered.

After the liberation of Moscow, the second most important task was to restore the central government in Moscow. In January 1613, the Zemsky Sobor was assembled, which was attended by about 700 people from various classes. Tsar was elected 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov, the son of Metropolitan Filaret, who was at that time in Polish captivity. The new tsar became a symbol of independence and the Orthodox faith. Russia came out of the Time of Troubles.

The final end of the Time of Troubles is the cessation of hostilities with the Commonwealth and Sweden. In 1617, the Stolbovsky peace was concluded with Sweden, according to which Novgorod returned to Russia, but it lost land along the Gulf of Finland and lost access to the Baltic. In 1618, a truce was established with the Commonwealth. Russia was losing Smolensk and the Seversk cities, Russian prisoners were returning home, including Mikhail Romanov's father, Filaret.

The consequences of the Troubles were catastrophic. Many lands in the south and west were devastated and abandoned. Russia suffered significant territorial losses (the return of these lands will take 100 years). Among the domestic political results: the accession of a new dynasty, a fragile social peace, many unresolved problems. After the Troubles, according to V.O. Klyuchevsky, "the political tradition was interrupted, the old custom on which order was kept in the Muscovite state of the 16th century." The troubled times largely determined further development Russian state.

Culture of the 16th century

The process of folding a single centralized state was reflected in the development of Russian culture. Many features of the development of local cultural traditions were lost. Entire icon-painting schools disappeared, as happened, for example, with Tver icon-painting. Art of the 16th century closely related to the interests of the state. In the reign of Ivan IV, the state began to directly control art. Such measures, of course, harmed art, encouraging handicraft and thoughtless repetition of "patterns".

Second half of the 16th century turned out to be unfavorable for the development of Russian culture. Due to the crises of domestic and foreign policy, as well as the disasters of the late XVI century. many cultural processes go deep and declare themselves again only in the next century.

Science and Literacy. During this period, literacy develops in Russia. Knowledge of writing and counting was required in many branches of activity. Birch bark letters from Novgorod and other centers, various written records (chronicles, stories, etc.), inscriptions on handicrafts indicate that literate people were never translated into Russia. Wealthy people kept written records of their households; from the 16th century various types of accounting books have been preserved. There were manuals on grammar, arithmetic, herbal treatment (alphabetics, herbalists, etc.).

The circle of geographical knowledge was expanded by Russian travelers. They left descriptions of their travels. These are the merchants V. Poznyakov, T. Korobeinikov. Russian people, penetrating to the north, to Siberia, made descriptions, "drawings" of new lands; ambassadors - article lists with information about foreign states.

Review world history gave Chronographs of the 15th-16th centuries, which glorified the activities of princes, hierarchs of the church, canonized saints, as well as the Life (of Dmitry Donskoy, Sergius of Radonezh, Stefan of Perm, etc.).

Translated literary works were in circulation; from them, as well as various collections, educated Russian people drew thoughts, sayings of Democritus, Aristotle and other philosophers and writers.

public thought . In the writings of religious freethinkers-heretics of the 16th century. bold judgments are preached about the need for a "cheap" church, about the meaninglessness of church sacraments and icons. The theses about the trinity of God are disputed. The equality of people, peoples, faiths is proclaimed. These reformative, humanistic ideas were strangled in the beginning and middle of the 16th century.

A notable feature of the 16th century - the rise of journalism. The most important issues of society become the subject of wide discussion not only by church, but also by secular authors who develop ideas:

centralization;

strengthening the grand ducal and royal power;

the role of the church;

about the condition of the peasantry, etc.

The emergence of book printing in Russia was of great importance. The printing of books began only in the middle of the 16th century, under Ivan the Terrible. In the early 50s. 16th century The first printing house begins its activity in Moscow.

Painting. In the XVI century. The themes of ancient Russian painting began to expand significantly. Much more often than before, artists turn to the plots and images of the Old Testament, to the instructive narratives of parables and, most importantly, to the legendary-historical genre.

Never before historical theme did not take up so much space in the works of icon painters. In this regard, in artistic creativity more and more penetrating genre, interest in everyday life, more and more often Russian realities appear in compositions.

At the same time, in the painting of the XVI century. there is a perceptible inclination towards abstract “philosophizing”. The church and the state tightly controlled iconography, so at that time iconographic originals (collections of samples), which established the iconography of the main plot compositions, as well as individual characters, became widespread.

Moscow painting of the end of the 15th century. marked by great achievements. This is due to the work of outstanding masters - Dionysius and his school. He and his assistants decorated with frescoes the cathedrals of Joseph-Volokolamsk, Pafnutyevo-Borovsky, Ferapontov monasteries, etc. They also created the iconostasis of the Assumption Cathedral in the Moscow Kremlin.

The creations of Dionysius vividly reflected the main milestones of their time:

gaining independence from the Horde;

unification of Russian lands;

creation of a single state headed by Moscow.

That little of everything that painting of the late 15th-16th centuries gave to Russian art can be defined as:

skill in drawing;

brightness of colors;

joyful feeling of being;

the rise of the national spirit.

But at the same time, there is a certain departure from the mighty examples of Andrei Rublev and Theophan the Greek, a decrease in the heroic breath of art from the era of the Battle of Kulikovo. At the same time, the progressive development of painting prepared his future successes.

Architecture. The most outstanding achievement of Russian architecture at the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. was the construction of the buildings of the Moscow Kremlin. Old, dilapidated buildings were replaced with new ones: Uspensky; Arkhangelsk; Cathedral of the Annunciation; Temple-pillar of Ivan the Great.

For ceremonial receptions, the Faceted Chamber was built. A whole complex of buildings made up the palace of the Grand Duke. Finally, new fortress walls and archers (towers) appeared.

In the XVI century. built on a larger scale. Many churches and cathedrals were erected throughout the country. Some of them have taken an outstanding place in domestic and world architecture. Such, for example, is the famous Church of the Ascension in the village of Kolomenskoye near Moscow (now within the city). It was built (1532) on the occasion of the birth of the son of Ivan, the future Tsar of the Terrible, at the Grand Duke Vasily III. The model for the building was the old wooden hipped-roof churches. Throughout the century, wooden construction, as before, prevails. In addition to the widespread huts, mansions of rich people are being built.

Masters of filigree (filigree), chased, foundry, jewelry, silk sewing achieve high perfection.

Gen. In the XVI century. life basically retained its former features. But there was also something new. Noble people lived in mansions, usually two-story, with various outbuildings, residential and household - for themselves, yard servants, livestock and poultry. Houses are mostly wooden, but there were also stone ones. They are filled with cellars with crockery, silver and copper, pewter and glass; chests with clothes, jewelry (rings, earrings, etc.). Clocks sometimes hung on the walls. There were foreign fabrics, jewelry, dishes, clothes; oriental shoes, carpets, weapons. Even greater splendor is inherent in royal palaces and courtyards.

The nobles even then began to cut their hair short in the Western manner, shave or pluck their mustaches and beards.

The meals were plentiful and varied. Spices were used for seasonings: pepper and saffron, cinnamon and cloves. We were familiar with lemons, raisins, almonds, rice and sugar.

Noble people had fun at feasts with buffoons, playing folk instruments, dancing. No matter how the church pursued the "devilish games", it was difficult to get them out. They were fond of bear baiting, dog and falconry. At home they played dice and cards, checkers and chess.

Ordinary nobles lived more modestly. The bulk of the population - the peasants - lived in wooden huts covered with straw or shingles; there were cages for property, barns for cattle, sheds. The huts were heated in black, lit with splinter. In winter, small cattle and poultry were placed in them. The situation in the hut was very poor: wooden, roughly made tables and benches, a dress was kept in chests and boxes (the poor people hung it on poles leaning against the wall).

In summer they wore clothes made of homemade canvas, in winter - from homespun cloth and mutton fur, on their feet - bast shoes, for those who are richer - boots.

Crockery - wooden and earthenware: dishes and plates, ladles, ladles, bowls, cups, brothers, wooden spoons and clay pots, occasionally - boilers and pans made of iron and copper.

Bread and pies, kissels, beer and kvass were prepared from grain and flour; they ate cabbage, fresh and sauerkraut, carrots and cucumbers, beets and horseradish, radishes and turnips. Meat was on the table mainly on holidays. They ate a lot of fish, river and lake.

Similar to the peasants, but more prosperous, the townspeople lived in the cities. The yard often consisted of a chamber, which stood on the podizbitsa, a canopy in the shade, a cage on the basement, a bathhouse; it is surrounded by a fence with a gate that had a canopy. There were mica and "glass" windows. In the house, among other things, there were icons, sometimes richly decorated, a lot of dishes, including silver, and clothes, sometimes fur.

The guests lived richly, large trading people - stone chambers, a large number of dishes, gold and silver, and other property.

Folk festivals with songs, dances, buffoon performances gave the working people the opportunity to take a break from work. There were also circus performances with a bear, a goat and other animals. Buffoons went all over Russia, as well as across Europe, right up to Italy. The authorities and especially the clergy persecuted buffoons.

In general, Russian culture of the XVI century. is of great importance. Firstly, it fully reflected the final transition from a fragmented Russia to a centralized state with its new requirements for art. Further, she was able to withstand the ideological pressure of the second half of the century and prepare the consciousness of the Russian people for the significant changes and shifts that took place in the cultural development of the 17th century.

test questions

Under what rulers of the Moscow principality a single centralized state?

What lands became part of Russia under Ivan III?

Describe the reign of Basil III.

What two periods is the reign of Ivan the Terrible divided into?

What reforms did the Elected Rada carry out?

What is an oprichnina? List its goals and implications.

Describe the results of the reign of Ivan the Terrible.

What reasons led Russia to the Time of Troubles?

What riots took place during the Time of Troubles? How did they end?

List the consequences of the Troubles.

Completion of the unification of Russian lands and the formation of the Russian state. After the death of Vasily II, the throne passed to his son without any mention of the Horde. During the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505), the Principality of Moscow successfully developed: practically without resistance, many Russian lands were annexed to Moscow - Yaroslavl, Rostov, as well as Perm, Vyatka, with non-Russian peoples living here. This expanded the multinational composition of the Russian state. Chernigov-Seversky possessions passed from Lithuania.
The Novgorod Boyar Republic, which had considerable power, remained independent of the Moscow prince. In 1471 Ivan III took drastic measures to subdue Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on the Shelon River, when the Muscovites, being in the minority, defeated the Novgorodians. In 1478 the republic in Novgorod was finally liquidated. A veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.
In 1480, the Horde yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the Ugra River. Khan Akhmat was at the head of the Horde troops. After standing on the Ugra for several weeks, Akhmat realized that it was pointless to engage in battle. This event went down in history as "standing on the Ugra". Russia, a few years before Akhmat's campaign, stopped paying tribute to the Horde. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.
In 1497, a code of laws was introduced - Ivan III's Code of Laws, which strengthened the power of the sovereign and introduced uniform legal norms throughout the state. One of the articles of the Sudebnik regulated the transfer of peasants from one owner to another. According to the Sudebnik, peasants could leave the feudal lords only a week before and a week after St. George's autumn day (November 26), having paid the old. National governing bodies of the country began to form - orders. There was localism - the procedure for obtaining positions depending on the nobility of the family. Local administration was carried out on the basis of a feeding system: while collecting taxes from the population, the governors kept part of the funds. Strengthening the authority of the sovereign was the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog.
The work of his father was completed by Vasily III (1505-1533), having annexed Ryazan and Pskov, having conquered Smolensk from Lithuania. All Russian lands united into a single Russian state. During the reign of Vasily III, stone construction began in many Russian cities. In Moscow, the Annunciation Cathedral was built in the Kremlin and the Archangel Cathedral was finally completed, into which the remains of the great Moscow princes were transferred. The ditch near the Moscow Kremlin was paved with stone. Wooden walls in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna and Zaraysk were replaced with stone ones. And in Novgorod, which the Grand Duke of Moscow liked to visit, in addition to the walls, streets, squares and rows were rebuilt.
Russia under Ivan IV. Reforms of the middle of the XVI century. Oprichnina policy. After the death of Vasily III, the throne passed to the three-year-old Ivan IV (1533-1584), later nicknamed the Terrible. In fact, the state was ruled by his mother Elena Glinskaya. She entrusted all state affairs to the Boyar Duma. During the reign of Elena Glinskaya, in the war with Lithuania, small territories in the west were annexed, and the raids of the Tatar cavalry on Moscow lands were also repelled. A monetary reform was carried out: the coins of various principalities were replaced by coins of a single sample - kopecks. In 1538, Elena died unexpectedly (there is an assumption that she was poisoned). After her death, the struggle for power between the boyar groups intensified.
Upon reaching the age of 17 in 1547, Ivan Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, becoming the first tsar in Russia. The ceremony of taking the royal title took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. From the hands of the Moscow Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan IV received the cap of Monomakh and other signs of royal power.
Under the young king, a circle of friends formed - the Chosen Rada. It included the nobleman Alexei Adashev, Archpriest Sylvester (confessor of the young king), Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Metropolitan Macarius. The task of these people was to help the king in governing the state and develop reforms.
In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor in the history of the country was convened, which included elected representatives from each class. In the 1550s, the formation of the order system was completed, until 1568 it was called the “order hut”. The creation of orders was caused by the complication of state administration due to the growth of subject territories. There were Ambassadorial, Local, Discharge, Robbery orders, Petition hut - the highest control body of the state. At the head of the order was a boyar or clerk - a major government official.
In 1550, a new "Sudebnik" was adopted, confirming the rule of St. George's Day.
In 1555-1556. the reform of local government was completed, the feeding system was abolished, the archery army was created, and the labial and zemstvo reforms were carried out. In 1551, Stoglav was adopted - the decision of the church council, which streamlined the affairs of the church.
In 1565-1572. Ivan IV established the oprichnina regime, which led to numerous victims and the ruin of the country. The territory of the state was divided into two parts: oprichnina and zemshchina. The tsar included the most important lands in the oprichnina. The nobles who were part of the oprichnina army settled in them. Oprichniki in a short time brought these lands to the most miserable situation, the peasants fled from there to the outskirts of the state. This army was to be supported by the population of the zemstvo. The guardsmen wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the canine devotion of the guardsmen to the tsar and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country. At the head of the guardsmen, Ivan Vasilyevich made a punitive campaign against Novgorod and Pskov. The cities that were on the way to Novgorod, Novgorod itself and its environs were subjected to terrible ruin. Pskov managed to pay off with a lot of money. In 1581, "reserved years" were introduced - a ban on the transition of peasants on St. George's Day.
Expansion of the territory of Russia in the XVI century. Livonian war. In foreign policy, Ivan IV sought to expand the territory of the state: Kazan was taken in 1552, Astrakhan in 1556, and the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began in 1582.
In 1558-1583. the Livonian War took place for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea. But this war ended in failure for Russia: according to the Yam-Zapolsky peace (1582), Livonia retreated to Poland, according to the Peace of Plus (1583), Sweden secured the Gulf of Finland, part of Karelia, the fortresses of Narva, Ivangorod, Koporye, Yam, Karel.
During the Livonian War and the oprichnina in the spring of 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey moved to Moscow. The oprichnina army was unable to resist the external enemy. Moscow was burned down by the khan. Up to 80 thousand people died in the fire.

In 1582, in the face of the threat of a new invasion of the Tatars, Ivan IV was forced to abandon the division of the troops. As a result, the united army under the leadership of the governor Prince M. I. Vorotynsky defeated the Tatars near the village of Molodi. Oprichnina was cancelled.
Trouble. Beginning of the Romanov dynasty. After the death of Ivan the Terrible, the Zemsky Sobor, composed of service people, recognized Ivan IV's son Fyodor as king. In 1589, the patriarchate was introduced, which meant the independence of the Russian Orthodox Church from Constantinople. In 1597, “lesson summers” were introduced - a five-year term for detecting fugitive peasants. In 1598, with the death of Fyodor Ivanovich and the suppression of the Rurik dynasty, the Zemsky Sobor elected Boris Godunov to the kingdom by a majority of votes.
Beginning of the 17th century - Time of Troubles. The reasons for the Troubles were the aggravation of social, estate, dynastic and international relations at the end of the reign of Ivan IV and under his successors.
1) In the 1570-1580s. the most economically developed center (Moscow) and north-west (Novgorod and Pskov) of the country fell into disrepair. As a result of the oprichnina and the Livonian War, part of the population fled, the other died. The central government, in order to prevent the flight of the peasants to the outskirts, took the path of attaching the peasants to the land of the feudal landowners. In fact, a system of serfdom was established on a state scale. The introduction of serfdom led to an aggravation of social contradictions in the country and created the conditions for mass popular uprisings.
2) After the death of Ivan IV the Terrible, there were no heirs capable of continuing his policy. During the reign of the mild-mannered Fyodor Ivanovich (1584-1598), his guardian Boris Godunov was the de facto ruler of the country. In 1591, in Uglich, under unclear circumstances, the last of the direct heirs to the throne, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, Tsarevich Dmitry, died. Popular rumor attributed the organization of the murder to Boris Godunov. These events triggered a dynastic crisis.
3) At the end of the XVI century. there is a strengthening of the neighbors of Moscow Russia - the Commonwealth, Sweden, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire. The aggravation of international contradictions will be another reason for the events that erupted during the Time of Troubles.
During the Time of Troubles, the country was actually in a state of civil war, accompanied by Polish and Swedish interventions. Rumors were widely spread that Tsarevich Dmitry, who “miraculously escaped” in Uglich, was still alive. In 1602, a man appeared in Lithuania, posing as Prince Dmitry. According to the official version of the Moscow government of Boris Godunov, the man posing as Dmitry was a fugitive monk, Grigory Otrepiev. He went down in history under the name of False Dmitry I.
In June 1605, False Dmitry I, a protege of the Polish gentry, entered Moscow. However, his policy caused dissatisfaction with both the common people and the boyars. As a result of a conspiracy of the boyars and an uprising of Muscovites in May 1606, False Dmitry was killed. The boyars proclaim Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610) tsar.
In 1606-1607. there is a popular performance led by Ivan Bolotnikov. In the summer of 1606, Bolotnikov moved from Krom to Moscow. On the way, a small detachment turned into a powerful army, which included peasants, townspeople and even detachments of nobles, led by Prokopy Lyapunov. The Bolotnikovites laid siege to Moscow for two months, but as a result of the betrayal, some of the nobles were defeated by the troops of Vasily Shuisky. In March 1607, Shuisky published the Code of Peasants, which introduced a 15-year term for the search for fugitive peasants. Bolotnikov was driven back to Kaluga and besieged by the tsarist troops, but escaped from the siege and retreated to Tula. The three-month siege of Tula was led by Vasily Shuisky himself. The Upa River was blocked by a dam and the fortress was flooded. After the promise of V. Shuisky to save the lives of the rebels, they opened the gates of Tula. Breaking his word, the king brutally cracked down on the rebels. Bolotnikov was blinded and then drowned in an ice hole in the city of Kargopol.
At the time when Shuisky was besieging Bolotnikov in Tula, a new impostor appeared in the Bryansk region. Relying on the support of the Polish gentry and the Vatican, in 1608 False Dmitry II came out of Poland against Russia. However, attempts to take Moscow ended in vain. False Dmitry II stopped 17 km from the Kremlin in the village of Tushino, for which he received the nickname "Tushino Thief".
In February 1609, Shuisky concluded an agreement with Sweden to fight the Tushins. The Swedes gave troops to fight the "Tushinsky Thief", and Russia abandoned its claims to the Baltic coast.
The Polish king Sigismund III ordered the gentry to leave Tushino and go to Smolensk. The Tushino camp disintegrated. False Dmitry II fled to Kaluga, where he was soon killed. The Tushino boyars invited the son of the Polish king, Tsarevich Vladislav, to the Moscow throne.
In the summer of 1610, a revolution took place in Moscow. Shuisky was overthrown, the boyars headed by F.I. Mstislavsky seized power. This government was called "seven boyars". Despite the protests of Patriarch Hermogenes, the "Seven Boyars" concluded an agreement on calling Tsarevich Vladislav to the Russian throne and allowed the Polish interventionists into the Kremlin.
The catastrophic situation stirred up the patriotic feelings of the Russian people. At the beginning of 1611, the First People's Militia was formed, led by P. Lyapunov, which besieged Moscow, but due to internal disagreements between the participants, it fell apart, and Prokopiy Lyapunov was killed.
The Swedish troops, released after the overthrow of Shuisky from treaty obligations, captured a significant part of the north of Russia, including Novgorod, besieged Pskov, the Poles captured Smolensk after almost two years of siege. The Polish king Sigismund III announced that he himself would become the Russian tsar, and Russia would enter the Commonwealth.

In the autumn of 1611, the Second People's Militia was formed on the initiative of the Nizhny Novgorod mayor Kuzma Minin and headed by Prince Dmitry Pozharsky. In 1612 Moscow was liberated from the Poles.
In February 1613 Mikhail Romanov was elected to the throne by the Zemsky Sobor.
Culture. Literature. One of the most striking works of the second half of the XV century. was "Journey Beyond the Three Seas" by Athanasius Nikitin. The Tver merchant traveled to India in 1466-1472. The work of Athanasius Nikitin is the first description of India in European literature. The creation of a unified state contributed to the emergence of an extensive journalistic literature, the main theme of which was the path of the country's development. Publicism is represented by the correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Andrei Kurbsky, the works of M. Bashkin, F. Kosoy, I. Peresvetov. In 1564, Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavets laid the foundation for book printing in Russia. The first dated Russian book "Apostle" (1564), then "Book of Hours" (1565), the first Russian primer (1574).
Painting. At the end of the XV century. the famous master of icon painting was Dionysius, who continued the traditions of A. Rublev. His creations are characterized by fine drawing, soft color and festive mood. Dionysius created the famous murals of the Ferapontov Monastery.
Architecture. At the end of the XV century. Moscow became the capital of the Russian state, which should have been fixed in the external appearance of the city. During the reign of Ivan III, under the guidance of Italian masters, a modern Kremlin wall with towers was built. For that time it was an outstanding fortification designed for a long siege. Ivan III attracted Italian masters to build new cathedrals inside the Kremlin. The main temple of Russia - the Assumption Cathedral - the architect Aristotle Fioravanti created on the model of the Assumption Cathedral in Vladimir. The Faceted Chamber was built by Pietro Solari and Mark Fryazin. The Annunciation and Archangel Cathedrals of the Moscow Kremlin were erected. Another Italian architect, Aleviz Novy, took part in the creation of the latter. In the first half of the XVI century. in Russian architecture, a national tent style arose. An outstanding monument of this style was the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. In 1554-1560. In honor of the capture of Kazan, on the orders of Ivan IV, the Pokrovsky Cathedral on the Moat (St. Basil's Cathedral) was built (Russian architects Barma and Postnik), which became a symbol of Russia for many centuries. In the XVI century. stone walls were erected around many cities. The most famous builder of fortifications was Fedor Kon. He built the walls of the White City in Moscow (on the site of the present Garden Ring), the walls of the Smolensk Kremlin.

The Russian state in the second half of the 15th - early 17th centuries. After the death of Vasily II, the throne passed to his son without any mention of the Horde. During the reign of Ivan III (gg.), the Moscow principality developed successfully: with virtually no resistance, many Russian lands were annexed to Moscow - Yaroslavl, Rostov, as well as Perm, Vyatka, with non-Russian peoples living here. This expanded the multinational composition of the Russian state.

The Novgorod Boyar Republic, which had considerable power, remained independent of the Moscow prince. In 1471 Ivan III took drastic measures to subdue Novgorod. The decisive battle took place on the river. Sheloni, when the Muscovites, being in the minority, defeated the Novgorodians. In 1478 the republic in Novgorod was finally liquidated. A veche bell was taken from the city to Moscow. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.

In 1480, the Horde yoke was finally overthrown. This happened after the clash of Moscow and Mongol-Tatar troops on the river. Acne. Khan Akhmat was at the head of the Horde troops. After standing on the Ugra for several weeks, Akhmat realized that it was pointless to engage in battle. This event went down in history as “standing on the river. Eel. Russia, a few years before Akhmat's campaign, stopped paying tribute to the Horde. In 1502, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey inflicted a crushing defeat on the Golden Horde, after which its existence ceased.

In 1497, a set of laws was introduced - the “Sudebnik” of Ivan III, which strengthened the power of the sovereign and introduced uniform legal norms throughout the state. One of the articles of the Sudebnik regulated the transfer of peasants from one owner to another. 1. According to the Sudebnik, peasants could leave the feudal lords only a week before and after St. George's autumn day (November 26), having paid the old. 2. National governing bodies of the country began to form - orders.

3. There was localism - the procedure for obtaining positions depending on the nobility of the family. Local administration was carried out on the basis of a feeding system: while collecting taxes from the population, the governors kept part of the funds. Strengthening the authority of the sovereign was the marriage of Ivan III to the Byzantine princess Sophia Paleolog. The work of his father was completed by Vasily III (1505 - 1533), having annexed Ryazan and Pskov, having conquered Smolensk from Lithuania. All Russian lands united into a single Russian state.

During the reign of Vasily III, stone construction began in many Russian cities. In Moscow, the Annunciation Cathedral was built in the Kremlin and the Archangel Cathedral was finally completed, into which the remains of the great Moscow princes were transferred. Wooden walls in Nizhny Novgorod, Tula, Kolomna were replaced with stone ones.

Russia under Ivan IV. After the death of Vasily III, the throne passed to the three-year-old Ivan VI (), later nicknamed the Terrible. In fact, the state was ruled by his mother Elena Glinskaya. She entrusted all state affairs to the Boyar Duma. During the reign of Elena Glinskaya, small territories in the west were annexed in the war with Lithuania. A monetary reform was carried out: the coins of various principalities were replaced by coins of a single sample - kopecks. In 1538 Elena died unexpectedly.

After her death, the struggle for power between the boyar groups intensified. Upon reaching the age of 17 in 1547, Ivan Vasilyevich was married to the kingdom, becoming the first tsar in Russia. The ceremony of taking the royal title took place in the Assumption Cathedral of the Kremlin. From the hands of the Moscow Metropolitan Macarius, Ivan VI received the cap of Monomakh and other signs of royal power.

Under the young tsar, a circle of friends formed - the Chosen Rada. It included the nobleman Alexei Adashev, Archpriest Sylvester (confessor of the young king), Prince Andrei Kurbsky, Metropolitan Macarius. The task of these people was to help the king in governing the state and develop reforms. In 1549, the first Zemsky Sobor in the history of the country was convened, which included elected representatives from each class.

In the 1550s completed the folding of the command system. The creation of orders was caused by the complication of state administration due to the growth of subject territories. The petition hut is the highest control body of the state. At the head of the order was a boyar or clerk. In 1550, a new "Sudebnik" was adopted, confirming the rule of St. George's Day.

In 1555 - 1556. the reform of local self-government was completed, the feeding system was abolished, the archery army was created, and the labial and zemstvo reforms were carried out. In 1551, Stoglav was adopted - the decision of the church council, which streamlined the affairs of the church. In 1565 - 1572. Ivan IV established the oprichnina regime, which led to numerous victims and the ruin of the country.

The territory of the state was divided into 2 parts: oprichnina and zemshchina. The tsar included the most important lands in the oprichnina. The nobles who were part of the oprichnina army settled in them. Oprichniki in a short time brought these lands to the most miserable situation, the peasants fled from there to the outskirts of the state. This army was to be supported by the population of the zemstvo. The guardsmen wore black clothes. Dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing the canine devotion of the guardsmen to the tsar and their readiness to sweep treason out of the country.

At the head of the guardsmen, Ivan Vasilyevich made a punitive campaign against Novgorod and Pskov. The cities that were on the way to Novgorod, Novgorod itself and its environs were subjected to terrible ruin. Pskov managed to pay off with big money. In 1581, "reserved years" were introduced - a ban on the transition of peasants on St. George's Day.

Expansion of the territory of Russia in the XVI century. Livonian war. Ivan IV sought to expand his state: Kazan was taken; city - Astrakhan; g. - the conquest of the Siberian Khanate began. - Livonian war for Russia to gain access to the Baltic Sea.

During the Livonian War and the oprichnina in the spring of 1571, the Crimean Khan Devlet-Girey moved to Moscow. The oprichnina army could not resist an external enemy. Moscow was burned down by the khan. 80 thousand people died in the fire. In 1572, in the face of the threat of a new invasion of the Tatars, Ivan IV was forced to abandon the division of the army. As a result, the united army under the leadership of the governor Prince M. I. Vorotynsky defeated the Tatars near the village of Molodi. Oprichnina was cancelled.

2) After the death of Vasily III, Ivan IV came to the throne, who ruled a) d. b) d. c) d. d) d.

3) In 1549 a) a streltsy army was created b) localism was abolished c) the first Zemsky Sobor was convened d) feeding was liquidated 4) What event happened earlier than others a) Stoglavy Cathedral b) the capture of Kazan c) the beginning of the oprichnina d) the introduction of reserved years

AT 4. read an excerpt from the work of the historian S.M. Solovyov and write the name of the meetings in question. “In addition to the usual seats of a great state with the boyars, there were also emergency meetings, to which the higher clergy and elected representatives from other estates were invited. These emergencies were usually on the question: to start or not to start a dangerous, difficult war, moreover, a long and hard service of military people would be required, on the other hand, monetary donations from hard-working people would be required; it is necessary to call on elected or council people from both, from all ranks, so that they say their thoughts, and if they say that it is necessary to start a war, then so that they do not complain afterwards, they themselves impose a burden. Elected or council people came from Moscow and the regions, from different ranks, two people each; from the nobles and children of the boyar large cities, two people each, from the smaller ones by person, from the guests, three people each, from the living room and the cloth hundreds, two each, from the black hundreds and settlements and from the cities, from the settlements by person. There were no elected peasants.”

A3. What was the result of the event that went down in history as “standing on the Ugra River” 1) The devastation of Veliky Novgorod by the Horde army 2) The end of Russia’s dependence on the Horde 3) The devastation of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality by the Horde army 4) The establishment of the Basque system in Russian lands

Trouble. Beginning of the Romanov dynasty. Under Time of Troubles traditionally understand the events from 1604 (the invasion of the detachment of False Dmitry I into Russia) until 1613 (the election of Mikhail Romanov to the kingdom). Troubles - a civil war, which was accompanied by Polish and Swedish intervention. 1) dynastic crisis; 2) serfdom; 3) Strengthening neighbors: the Commonwealth, Sweden, the Crimean Khanate, the Ottoman Empire.

In 1601–1603 in Russia, a monstrous crop failure and famine broke out. The situation escalated sharply, in 1603 an uprising of peasants and military serfs broke out under the leadership of a certain Cotton, suppressed with great difficulty. The people began to doubt the legitimacy of the chosen tsar, Boris Godunov. The boyars also intrigued against him. Rumors spread that Tsarevich Dmitry was alive, and soon he really showed up in the Commonwealth.

According to an almost generally accepted version, it was Grigory Otrepyev, a fugitive monk from the Chudov Monastery. He was supported by some Polish magnates, and in the fall of 1604 a small detachment of this False Dmitry I crossed the Russian border. In the midst of a confrontation with him, Boris Godunov died. His young son Fedor was betrayed and killed by the boyars-conspirators who relied on the impostor. In June 1605, False Dmitry I entered Moscow and became tsar

In the spring of 1606, False Dmitry I was killed by conspiring boyars. The head of the conspiracy, the boyar Vasily Shuisky, became king, agreeing to some limitation of his power. In the south, a powerful movement arose against him under the leadership of the military serf Ivan Bolotnikov, which was previously called the first peasant war in Russia. Bolotnikov's army approached Moscow, but was repulsed, and the uprising was crushed.

In 1608, a new impostor appeared in the south, who went down in history under the name of False Dmitry II. With the help of the Poles, he approached Moscow and camped in Tushino (hence the nickname "Tushinsky Thief"). Many boyars began to run from Vasily Shuisky to the Tushino camp and back, bargaining for privileges and lands everywhere (“Tushino flights”).

To fight the Tushins and the Poles, Vasily Shuisky concluded an agreement with the Swedes (enemies of the Poles). In exchange for military assistance, he gave the Swedes the Korelsky volost. In 1609, the Russian-Swedish army led by M.V. Skopin-Shuisky inflicted a number of defeats on the Tushins, after which they fled (False Dmitry II was soon killed).

However, the appearance of the Swedes gave the Poles a pretext for direct intervention: the army of the Polish king Sigismund III invaded Russia and laid siege to Smolensk. At the beginning of 1610, Skopin-Shuisky's army entered Moscow, but he himself soon died under mysterious circumstances. The Russian-Swedish army, left without a talented commander, was defeated by the Poles near the village of Klushino.

In Moscow, a group of boyars forced Vasily Shuisky to abdicate, power passed into the hands of the so-called. "seven boyars". She decided to invite the Polish prince Vladislav to the throne on certain conditions (transition to Orthodoxy, observance of Russian customs, etc.).

In 1611, the First Militia was created in the Ryazan region to liberate Moscow from the Poles. It was made up of Ryazan nobles (leader - P. Lyapunov) and Cossacks (D. Trubetskoy, I. Zarutsky). The militia besieged Moscow, but strife broke out between the nobles and the Cossacks, which led to its collapse: Lyapunov was killed by the Cossacks, the nobles left, and the Cossacks remained to rob Moscow. Then Smolensk fell. The Swedes captured Novgorod. Russia was on the verge of complete destruction.

In the autumn of 1611, a second militia was created in Nizhny Novgorod, which consisted of townspeople (K. Minin) and nobles (Prince D. Pozharsky). In 1612, this militia approached Moscow, where the remnants of the First Militia joined it. After stubborn fighting and a siege, the Poles capitulated.

Literature p.p. XIX. Romanticism developed, singing the lofty ideal. It was reflected in the work of V. A. Zhukovsky, K. N. Batyushkov, K. F. Ryleev. From romanticism there has been a transition to realism - A. S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, A. S. Griboyedov, N. V. Gogol. There was a magazine "Sovremennik".

Domestic policy of Alexander II. Reforms of the 1900s Emperor Nicholas I died in the midst of Crimean War. On February 19, 1855, his son, Alexander II () ascended the throne. The defeat in the war showed the deepening of the crisis of the empire and forced A II. to begin carrying out reforms, called the "Great Reforms" - peasant, zemstvo, judicial, urban and military.

The main act was the abolition of serfdom. In 1856 AII. declared that it is better to give freedom to the peasants from above than to wait until this happens from below. Committees of the nobility were created, in which a struggle broke out between conservatives and liberals on ways to grant freedom. A prominent role was played by Ya.I. Rostovtsev, N.A. Milyutin.

After project approval State Council, February 19, 1861 AII signed the Manifesto and the "Regulations on the peasants who emerged from serfdom." The peasants received: -personal freedom, could freely get hired, go to the city or engage in crafts. -peasants were given land not free of charge, but for service and then ransom. Those. first, the peasants were transferred to the position of "temporarily liable", then the peasant paid 20% for the ransom, the state - 80%. And for 49 years to pay this amount to the state - redemption payments

The landlords tried to establish such sizes of allotments for the peasants so that they could cut off in their favor - segments. The peasant community and mutual responsibility in the countryside have been preserved in order to make it easier for the state to receive redemption payments. After the abolition of serfdom, Russia embarked on the path of capitalism, but feudal remnants remained!!!

Zemstvo reform of 1864 introduced in the provinces and districts local government: zemstvo assemblies and their executive bodies - zemstvo councils. Zemstvos did not have political rights, they were engaged in solving local problems (fighting epidemics, opening first-aid posts, schools, hospitals).

The city reform of 1870 created city self-government: the city duma and council, which solved communal issues (fighting fires, monitoring sanitary conditions, problems of schools, shelters). As a rule, the most prosperous townspeople were elected to the Duma, and the mayor was at the head of the Duma and the Council.

Education reform. Since 1863, a university charter has been introduced, which approved a certain autonomy and democracy of these educational institutions. In 1870, women's gymnasiums began to open. "Great Reforms" of the 1990s contributed to the transformation of Russia into a bourgeois monarchy, but were half-hearted and consolidated the remnants of feudalism.

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