If the condition for the existence of any social education, emerging as a result of the interaction of its members, is its orderliness, i.e., at least the relative stability of such interaction, its organization, then an inevitable characteristic of any social system is also a manifestation of elements of social disorganization. Disorganization of the social system manifests itself in the appearance of types of behavior, the content of which deviates from the social norms that characterize the system as a whole. Disorganization, like deviant behavior, is inevitably inherent in any social system along with its basis - social organization and social norms.

Deviant behavior is always (albeit to varying degrees) present wherever they act. These can be norms of behavior of a moral, ethical, aesthetic nature. Alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution are examples of types of behavior related to the types of social deviations within the framework of accepted systems of social assessments. Certain types of deviant behavior are regarded by the state as offenses, crimes.

Society did not exist and it is impossible to exist without social deviations and crime. Moreover, in any social system, in a society of any type, social deviations (including crime) perform a certain social function. This function is to ensure the possibility of deviations from the average, normal type, to maintain the necessary level of openness of the social system to inevitable changes.

In this sense, it is necessary to clarify the concept of social disorganization". Its most obvious manifestation is social deviation. In the case of their disproportionate growth, the very existence of a social organization of this type is threatened. However, a disproportionately small number (or complete absence) of social deviations also leads to social disorganization, as it marks the loss of such an organization's most important condition for its survival - the ability to adequate social changes, to timely adaptation. “In order to be able to express the individuality of an idealist whose dreams are ahead of time, it is necessary that there also be the possibility of expressing the individuality of a criminal who is below the level of his contemporary society. One is unthinkable without the other."

This circumstance also determines the functions of social control. An inevitable condition for the existence of any social organization is the presence of explicit, obvious definitions of a polar nature (good and evil, moral and immoral, permissible and criminal, etc.). Sanctions applied for negative (from the point of view of the dominant system of values) deviations serve as a clear, obvious manifestation of such values, their obvious confirmation. Visual confirmation of the boundaries of the accepted social norm is an important function of social control that ensures the stability of a given social organization. The problem is that when denoting such boundaries, it is important not to bring the system into a state of stagnation, to deprive it of another most important condition for survival - the ability to change, to update.

It is necessary to consider the question of how those limits of the objective social norm are determined, going beyond which entails the recognition of an act as a deviation, an anomaly, subject to appropriate influence. To resolve this issue, it should be taken into account that the concept of a social norm includes two components: a) an objective (material) characteristic of a certain type of behavior that takes place in objective reality; b) its subjective (social) assessment in terms of desirability or undesirability, usefulness or harmfulness for society and the state.

It is this kind of assessment that serves as an external expression of the boundaries of the social norm, beyond which lies the area of ​​social deviations. The material essence of a certain kind of human activity and their social assessment are inseparable elements of the social norm, but they are not connected by a rigid connection. This relationship is mobile, since the indicated social assessments of specific objective characteristics may, on the one hand, be late, lag behind the development, changes in the essence of social phenomena; on the other hand, such a social assessment may change depending on social (subjective) factors, in the course of the evolution of sociocultural values. It is through the evaluation component that the role of the political component in determining the social norm is manifested. The evaluative element of the social norm also embodies the basic social, religious, ethical and other values ​​and categories. public consciousness.

It is important to emphasize that this fusion of the objective (material) and evaluative, subjective (social) is manifested in specific acts of action by real individuals, is a set of socially significant actions that are not indifferent to society, and therefore receive an appropriate assessment. This assessment is usually embodied in a rule of law, in which the description of a behavioral act (the disposition of the norm), deviation from the norm (the hypothesis of the norm) and the type of legal response (the sanction of the norm) are merged. The assessment of the norm, expressed in an imperative form, becomes a measure of behavior (for the individual) and a measure of behavior assessment (for the state). The measure of behavior is guided by the individual, the assessment belongs to society (the state).

The problem, however, is to ensure that the measure of behavior embodied in the rule of law is in optimal proportion with the actual behavioral acts that form the social norm. At the same time, one should keep in mind the difference that exists between the social norm and social ideals, i.e., ideas about the desired state of social phenomena (processes, objects, objects, etc.), which has not yet been achieved, but the achievement of which (from the point of view of dominant social values) is the goal community development.

Offenses and crime

Increasing social disorganization leads to the loss social institutions given society the opportunity to realize the main function - the satisfaction of a specific social need. An unsatisfied social need leads to spontaneous manifestations of normatively unregulated activities that seek to fill the function of legitimate institutions, but at the expense of existing norms and rules. In extreme manifestations, such activity can manifest itself in illegal, criminal actions.

Crime that arises in connection with the dysfunction of social institutions is predominantly instrumental, i.e., aimed at achieving a specific goal, and structured, i.e. with. internally interconnected. Its features are the planning of criminal activity, systematicity, elements of organization, i.e., the distribution of criminal roles. Similar features of structured crime are associated with its function - illegally satisfying a need that is not recognized or not adequately provided by social institutions. Such a narrow functionality, ie. the satisfaction of a particular social need leads at the same time to the disorganization of more general social systems.

Dysfunctions of political institutions that grow out of the disorganization of society, often associated with a change in forms of government, in the face of a weakening of the legitimacy of state power, can cause an increase in political, t. s. anti-state crimes (forcible seizure or retention of power, violent change in the constitutional order, public calls for such a change, terrorism, etc.). Crime is functionally connected with the course of social processes that determine the nature and direction of social development, the content of social changes.

Modernization, stability and political violence

As the dominant type of social change, the process of modernization is considered, which covers to varying degrees the countries of the world, divided according to this criterion into developed (modernized), developing and traditional countries. As indicators of the level of modernization are considered: the percentage of urban residents; percentage of gross national income derived from agriculture; percentage employed in agriculture; per capita income; prevalence of funds mass media and communications; the level of participation in politics (voting, stability of the executive branch); social benefits (education, literacy, life expectancy). These are the main conditions that affect the level of political violence in society.

As a general rule, modernized countries exhibit less levels of political unrest and violence than those found in less developed countries. Economic modernization, availability of modernized mass media, level of health, education, participation in political life associated with less political violence.

Political violence is directly related to the level of stability of a given society. On a scale ranked by the degree of increase in the level of political instability, the following indicators of the growth of instability are noted: from 0 (maximum stability) to 6 (maximum instability). Zero level - a sign of a normal level of political stability - is considered to be regularly held elections; the first level of growth of instability is frequent changes (layoffs or resignations) of the government; the next sign of increasing instability is the demonstrations and the arrests that accompany them; an even more serious indicator of the level of instability is the murder (or attempt on life) politicians(except for the head of state); a further indicator of the growth of this level is the assassination (or attempt on the life) of the head of state or terrorism; the next level is a coup d'état or guerrilla war; the highest (seventh) level - Civil War or mass executions.

Political development and levels of violence

The level of political violence also depends on the nature of the current regime. The nature of the regime can be assessed by the degree of predominance in the regulation process public relations either coercive methods or permissive methods (coercive mode and permissive mode). The categories that make it possible to judge such characteristics of the political regime in a particular country are data on the presence of legal competition, competition in the political system (multi-party system, etc.), on the level of restriction of freedoms of citizens by the police. As a general rule, countries with the most permissive regime are characterized by the least violence. Political violence increases with the growth of the coerciveness of the regime, but decreases somewhat under conditions of extreme, maximum coercion of such a regime.

The level of political development is also related to the level of violence. Indicators of political development are indicators of the participation of the population in political issues, government decisions and political groupings, as well as the existence of an influential legislature and the level of freedom of the press. In conditions where the military or a political party play only their own, specialized role in politics, there are conditions for democracy and pluralism. In conditions when these structures monopolize the sphere of politics, conditions are created for the domination of the authoritarian elite.

Political development associated with the growth of democratic structures is closely related to economic and social development. The higher the level of political development of society, the higher the level of income and literacy of the population. Trends in political violence look different. With the growth of the economic and social sectors of society, the political system also changes. Such changes, the development of the economy and the social sphere lead to an increase in social conflicts and political violence, and a decrease in the level of political stability. However, when a country reaches full modernization (an important indicator is the literacy rate of the population), and the economy reaches the level of mass consumption (per capita income far exceeds the level sufficient only to maintain existence), political stability increases and the level of violence falls.

Thus, the legitimacy of power, the characteristics and pace of social change, the degree of modernization of society, the nature of the regime, the level of political development - these are the sociological characteristics that determine the conditions for the emergence, state and trends of political crime, revealing its derivative nature, its dependence on the state of the political institutions of a given society. and the social processes that take place within it. At the same time, modernized countries are characterized by lower levels of political unrest and violence, while less developed countries are characterized by higher levels.

The nature of the political regime and violence

The level of political violence depends on the position of the given country on the scale "permissive regime - prohibitive regime". Permissive countries have the lowest level of political violence. The latter increases with the growth of the coerciveness of the regime, but decreases to some extent under conditions of extreme coercion. The same trend is shown by the indicator of political instability. In contrast, the level of modernization falls as one moves from a highly permissive regime ( highest level modernization) to highly coercive conditions (the lowest level of modernization).

Democratic countries are characterized by a low level of political indignation, although governments of countries with a repressive, totalitarian regime are able to effectively suppress open expressions of popular discontent. It is governments in countries with a medium level of political development and a moderately permissive regime that face the greatest political indignation.

Economic crime

Economic crime is a phenomenon that occurs during and in connection with the interaction between the state and the economy. As a result of this interaction, state structures that have a political and legal resource of power intersect with economic institutions, subjects of economic relations that have material (property, monetary) resources. Fundamental in this regard is the scope of the powers of the state in the sphere of economic relations, where the economy, property relations are the object, and the state is the subject of economic regulation.

The liquidation of the institution of private property in Soviet Russia, its delegization created a situation where the state was both the owner and the sole regulator of property relations. The function of possession (possession, disposal) merged with the function of control and regulation; The violent methods of the command economy ensured the absolute monopoly of state property, complete, uncontrolled freedom of disposal of it by agents of political power. Where there is no separation of the object and the subject of regulation, where they are merged into one, regulation ends and arbitrariness begins, since real regulation involves an expediently oriented restriction of the activity of the object of regulation on the part of the regulatory subject on the basis of principles, rules and norms that are binding on both of them.

In reality, private property in Soviet Russia was not completely eliminated, along with market relations, it continued to exist in fact, illegally, being a real and inseparable feature of the economy, constituting the backbone of economic crime within the framework of the legislation of that period. The illegal position of a private entrepreneur in the economy has led to the emergence of a special kind of symbiosis of political power holders (resource - power, violence) and an illegal private owner (resource - money), in which the economic entity buys the very possibility of existence through criminal means. For their part, in such a situation, the holders of power become dependent on illegal "tributaries", there is a vital interest in maintaining their illegal status - a guarantee of receiving an abundant "tribute". The legalization of private property deprives the holders of power of such a way of enrichment.

Legalization of private property, development of market relations in Russian society in the 1990s. introduce new elements into the interaction between the economy and the state. Normal, legal market relations are threatened by two dangers. The first is in the form of criminal encroachments by state officials who abuse power and trade in their right to make decisions in the economic sphere. The merging of figures of illegal, criminal business (drugs, arms trade, smuggling, etc.) with patrons from among corrupt officials who mutually feed and protect each other remains. The second danger is from the market participants themselves, those who seek to make a profit not as a result of fair competition, but by obtaining unjustified privileges and benefits through bribing officials.

Under these conditions, the illegal gain of some means a corresponding loss of others, since the purchased privilege shifts benefits, the volume of which is always limited, in favor of the bribe-giver at the expense of those who do not give bribes, or puts the briber in a more profitable compared to others, but not deserved them a position. The market economy is undermined by consumer fraud, profit-making by hiding from taxes, as a result of conspiracy to fix prices on the market, etc. Finally, there may be a complete rejection of competition in cases of criminal encroachment on the property of a competitor or on his life (contract killings).

Without achieving real dominance in the market of legal, influential private capital, a serious growth in the productive economy is impossible. The achievement of such dominance leads to two consequences of sociocriminological significance. The marginal (secondary, marginal, subordinate) position of private capital leads to the fact that the relations between economic entities established in the course of economic interactions are unsystematic, often random, and largely chaotic. In such a situation, there is a tendency to use the current situation at once, not restrained by the need to take into account the further consequences of the existing interaction, there is a desire to get the maximum gain by any, including illegal, criminal ways (get a loan and hide, establish a fictitious company and disappear, appropriate profits by robbing partners, ruining shareholders, etc.).

Only under conditions of domination of private capital in the economy does the regularity come into play, according to which the maximum profit is achieved not by economic robbery, but by stable, forward-looking production and trade activities. Only under these conditions does it become obvious that real economic success depends on the orientation towards stable, predictable actions of partners, that honesty is economically beneficial, and a reliable business reputation is a condition for obtaining real profits that far exceed criminal “booty”. Under these conditions, the algorithm of market entrepreneurship is implemented: credit (loan) + investment (investment) = profit.

In translation, the word "credit" means "trust". This moral category is built into the structure of stable market relations. The initial, elementary cell of market relations (the exchange of money for goods or goods for money) has important feature. The specified exchange can never be synchronous, instantaneous (one counterparty sends money and then receives the goods or sends, transfers the goods and then receives the money), a time gap is inevitable here, someone must trust someone, be sure of the guaranteed continuation of this interaction , in inviolability of the respective contractual relations. The prospects for a successful fight against economic crime, therefore, are directly related to the formation and development of legal private capital and a stable market in the economy.

Abstract number 1. Social norms and deviant behavior. Social norms are usually understood as the rules established in society, patterns, standards of human behavior that regulate social life. There are the following types of social norms: 1) moral norms, i.e. such norms in which people's ideas about good and bad, good and evil, about justice and injustice are expressed, the implementation of which is ensured by the internal conviction of people or the power of public opinion; 2) norms of traditions and customs. A custom is a historically established rule of behavior that has become a habit as a result of its repeated repetition. The implementation of this kind of norms is provided by the force of habit of people; 3) religious norms, which include the rules of conduct contained in the texts of sacred books or established by religious organizations (church). People follow these rules, guided by their faith or under the threat of being punished (by God or the church); 4) political norms. - norms set by various political organizations. These rules of conduct must be observed first of all by the members of these organizations. The implementation of such norms is ensured by the internal convictions of the people who are members of these organizations, or by the fear of being excluded from them; 5) legal norms - formally defined rules of conduct, established or sanctioned by the state, the implementation of which is ensured by its authority or coercive force. Social norms define the boundaries of acceptable behavior of people in relation to the specific conditions of their life. As already mentioned above, compliance with these norms is usually ensured by the internal beliefs of people or by applying social rewards and social punishments to them in the form of so-called social sanctions. Social sanction is usually understood as the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. According to their content, sanctions can be positive (encouraging) and negative (punishing). In reality, the behavior of people in society does not always correspond to established social norms, and even, on the contrary, they are violated. In this case, one speaks of deviant behavior of the subject. Deviant (deviant) is usually called such behavior that does not meet the requirements of social norms accepted in society. Sometimes such deviations can be positive and lead to positive consequences. But in most cases, deviant behavior is spoken of as a negative social phenomenon that is harmful to society. The most serious manifestations of such behavior are crime, drug addiction and alcoholism. Alcoholism and drug addiction is a type of chronic disease that develops as a result of the systematic use of alcohol or drugs by a person. A crime is a socially dangerous guilty act, provided for in the Special Part of the Criminal Code. The totality of crimes in sociology has a special name - delinquent behavior.

Abstract number 2.

Human social life is governed by norms and rules. Norms betray modern world regularity and predictability. People often deviate from the rules they are supposed to follow, which is called deviation (from Latin deviation). This can be defined as a discrepancy with the existing norm, accepted by a significant part of the people in a group or society. Deviations are not only individual, but also group. Most often, we follow social rules and norms, because in the process of socialization we are accustomed to doing just that, or we believe that the prescribed behavior is true. All social norms accompanied by sanctions.A sanction is any reaction on the part of others to the behavior of an individual or group, the purpose of this reaction is to guarantee the fulfillment of a given social norm. Sanctions can be positive or negative, formal or informal.Informal positive: praise, smile, approval.Informal negative: swearing, reprimanding, ignoring the individual.Formal sanctions are mainly related to the system of punishments. There are laws for them.
Theories explaining deviant behavior:1. Explanation from a biological standpoint2. From a psychological standpoint3.Social institutions of societyThere is also anomie theory:In modern society, traditional standards and norms are destroyed without being replaced by new ones. In certain areas of social life there are no clear standards of behavior. People experience anxiety, fear of uncertainty, so anomie can become one of social factors influencing suicidal tendencies. The authors of this theory are Durkheim and Merton. The latter believes that anomie is tension in the behavior of an individual in a situation where accepted norms come into conflict with social reality. However, deviant behavior can also be positive.Marginality is a state that characterizes people who are, as it were, in an intermediate position between social groups. Such may be those who have left their homeland, people who consider themselves superior to their former environment, but who have not risen to a higher stratum.

Abstract number 3

In any community, there are always social norms adopted in this society, according to which it lives. Deviation from these norms or their non-compliance is called social deviation or deviation.

Social norms are the requirements, prescriptions and expectations of appropriate behavior. The emergence and functioning of social norms, their place in the socio-political organization of society are determined by the objective need to streamline societies and relations.

At the heart of the emergence of social norms are, first of all, the needs of material production. The repetition of acts of production, distribution and exchange require the existence of such general rules that would allow the participants in the respective societies, relations to regularly and uniformly enter into these interactions. Social norms, therefore, embody an abstract model of these interactions, enabling individuals to foresee the actions of other participants in societies, relationships and build their own behavior accordingly.

Social norms, ordering the behavior of people, regulate the most diverse types of relationships. They are formed into a certain hierarchy of norms, distributed according to the degree of their social significance. First, they promote social inclusion. Secondly, they serve as peculiar stages of behavior as a kind of "instructions" for individuals and social groups performing certain roles. Thirdly, they contribute to the control of deviant behavior. Fourth, ensure the stability of society. By the nature of regulation social behavior Distinguish between norms-expectations and norms-rules. The first of them only outline the framework of socially approved behavior. Their violation causes disapproval on the part of society or a social group, but does not entail any serious sanctions. The norms belonging to the second group are distinguished by a greater degree of rigor. They define the boundaries of acceptable behavior, as well as activities that are considered unacceptable and therefore prohibited. Violation of such norms entails the application of serious sanctions, for example, criminal or administrative. According to the spheres of activity, the norms can be divided into group ones, operating on the scale of one or several groups, and universal, functioning on the scale of the whole society.

Norms form habits, customs, traditions. Most modern societies the most important and significant norms acquire legal status and are enshrined in laws.

Social norms are acquired by a person in the process of socialization. Behavior that conforms to the norms defined in society is designated as conformist. In contrast to conformist, there is deviant or deviant behavior.

Normative systems of society are not fixed, forever valuable. Norms themselves change, attitudes towards them change. Deviation from the norm is as natural as following them. At all times, society has tried to suppress undesirable forms of human behavior. Sharp deviations from the average norm, both in positive and negative directions, threatened the stability of society.

In most societies, the control of deviant behavior is not symmetrical: deviations in a bad direction are condemned, and in a good direction they are approved. Depending on whether the deviation is positive or negative, all forms of deviation can be placed on a certain continuum. At one pole there will be a group of people exhibiting the most disapproved behavior, at the other pole there will be a group with the most acceptable deviations.

Any behavior that causes disapproval of public opinion is called deviant. This is an extremely wide class of phenomena: from traveling without a ticket to killing a person. AT broad sense deviant - any person who has gone astray or deviated from the norm. The forms of deviant behavior include criminality, alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, gambling, suicide.

In a narrow sense, deviant behavior also means deviations that do not entail criminal punishment, are not illegal.

A detailed sociological explanation of deviation was first given by the French scientist E. Durkheim. He proposed the theory of anomie, which reveals the significance of social and cultural factors. According to Durkheim, the main cause of deviation is "lack of regulation", "normlessness". In essence, this is a state of disorganization of society, when values, norms, social ties are either absent or become unstable and contradictory. E. Durkheim considers deviation as natural as conformism. Moreover, the deviation from the norms carries not only a negative, but also a positive beginning. Deviation confirms the role of norms, values, gives a more complete picture of the diversity of norms. The reaction of society, social groups to deviant behavior clarifies the boundaries of social norms, strengthens and ensures social unity. Deviation contributes to social change, reveals an alternative to the existing one, and leads to the improvement of social norms.

The American sociologist S. Merton, who substantiated this theory, believed that deviation occurs when there is a gap between the goals of society and, at the same time, the means to achieve them.

According to the prominent contemporary sociologist T. Parsons, anomie is “a condition in which a significant number of individuals are in a position characterized by a serious lack of integration with stable institutions, which is essential for their own personal stability and the successful functioning of social systems.”

The basis of psychoanalytic theories of deviant behavior is the study of conflicts occurring in the mind of the individual. According to the theory of Z. Freud, each person has an area of ​​the unconscious under the layer of active consciousness. The unconscious is our psychic energy, in which everything natural, primitive, not knows the boundaries. This is the biological essence of a person who has not experienced the influence of culture. The main idea of ​​cultural theories explaining deviation (Celine, Miller, Sutherland, Claward) is the conflict between the norms of the subculture and the dominant culture. The theory of labeling (Becker) proceeds from the fact that deviation is a kind of label that some groups with power "hang" on the behavior of weaker groups.

Basically, all theories are called deviant behavior that deviates from the norms with a minus sign. But in any society there are always people whose behavior is ahead of existing standards and is more progressive in comparison with them. This type of behavior is most characteristic of society in times of various social changes.

The above theories identify different causes of social deviations. These reasons can be many, they change with the development of society.

But the constant and main source of deviations, which makes this phenomenon objective and always characteristic of human society, is social inequality as unequal opportunities to meet needs.

Other sources and causes of social deviations include the following.

1. When in the process of socialization by an individual of patterns of behavior, social norms and values, failures, failures, and shortcomings are allowed.
2. Dysfunctional families. Numerous studies of youth crime have shown that about 85% of young people with deviant behavior were brought up in dysfunctional families. American researchers in the field social psychology Five key factors have been identified that determine family life as unfavorable: super-severe paternal discipline; insufficient maternal supervision; insufficient paternal affection; insufficient maternal affection; lack of cohesion in the family.
3. Numerous cases of manifestation of deviant behavior in perfectly prosperous families. The norms accepted from childhood can be revised or discarded in the course of interaction with the surrounding reality, in particular with the social environment.
4. Anomie (a state of absence of norms). This happens in a constantly changing society, where there is no single and unchanging system of norms. In such a situation, it can be difficult for a person to choose a line of normative behavior, which subsequently gives rise to deviant behavior of the individual.

Thus, deviant behavior plays a dual role in society: on the one hand, it poses a threat to the stability of society, on the other hand, it maintains this stability.

To control the observance of norms and values, as well as to prevent deviant behavior, social sanctions are applied. Social control is understood as the normative regulation of people's behavior and their relationships, which ensures the self-regulation of the social system. Social control stimulates positive changes in society. The problem of the relationship between the individual and society occupies a major place in the establishment of social control. Theoretically, the relationship of society to the individual under social control looks quite simple: the adjustment of individual qualities to the social standard. In reality, relations are complicated by the presence of individual consciousness in the individual, and, consequently, the possibility of conscious evaluation, acceptance, rejection or change of stereotypes, norms and values ​​that are offered to the individual at the level of social consciousness. Social control is carried out through the reaction of society, the social community to the individual behavior of the individual. In society, there are many different sanctions. Some of them (legal sanctions) are strictly regulated, formalized and applied by full-time persons, power structures in accordance with the rule of law. Other sanctions (moral) are informal and are applied in the form of approval or condemnation. But full-fledged social control is a set of means and methods of influencing society on undesirable forms of behavior. Therefore, social control can be effective when its various mechanisms are used, taking into account the characteristics of the deviations themselves.

The approach and consideration of deviance, social control and the political regime in Russia requires special attention.

Russia has never been a democratic state, it has never been and rule of law. (Declaring it as such in Article 1 of the Constitution Russian Federation- at best, an advance with unclear prospects). In Russia, "neither the authorities nor the people have ever had respect for the law." Extremely short historical attempts at democratization (the 60s of the 19th century, from February to October 1917, Gorbachev's perestroika) ended with a return to the circles of absolutism, totalitarianism, and authoritarianism. The population of Russia has never lived in conditions of political freedom and respect for the rights of an independent individual. Moreover, as the well-known "dissident" and human rights activist V. Bukovsky recently said: "We don't even know if the people want to live in conditions of freedom and democracy." I’m afraid that “the Russia we lost” was no better (not more democratic, not freer, not more civilized) than the one we created and have…”

Russia at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century is characterized by a relatively stable number and level (per 100,000 people) of registered crimes. Thus, the average crime rate was 177 in 1874-1883, 149 in 1884-1893. The “echo” of the 1905 revolution, the defeat in the war with Japan, the revolutionary situation of the early twentieth century. reflected in the level of registered crimes: (1899-1905 - 229, 1906-1913 - over 270 annually).

More tragic is the practice of the totalitarian Soviet regime. From 1918 to 1953 more than 3 million 700 thousand people were convicted for "counter-revolutionary crimes", of which at least 820 thousand highest measure punishment - shooting. Only for the terrible years of 1937-1938. 1 million 350 thousand people were convicted for this, of which 682 thousand were sentenced to death.

The end of the Stalin era did not mean the end of the totalitarian regime. All the features of totalitarianism were inherent in the Soviet government from October 1917 to Gorbachev's perestroika.

Khrushchev's "thaw" weakened the oppression of totalitarianism, Stalin's personality cult was exposed, and the idea of ​​prevention was revived in the field of criminal policy. N. Khrushchev spoke in favor of the crime prevention criterion at the 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956), and then repeated this at the 21st Congress (1959). “It is necessary to take such measures that would prevent, and then completely exclude the appearance by individuals of any acts that are harmful to society. The key is prevention and educational work". At the XXI Congress (1961) was adopted new program CPSU, according to which the main attention in criminal policy "should be directed to the prevention of crime." Khrushchev saw prevention as a panacea for deviant manifestations. Therefore, this period is characterized by the mass transfer of the accused - on bail, and the convicts - "for re-education to the labor collective."

I must say that the "sip of freedom" during the "thaw" had a positive impact on the public climate. The crime rate has dropped to its lowest level in years. Soviet power(1963 - 397.7, 1964 - 392.2, 1965 - 388.7 per 100,000 thousand). Another important social indicator - the suicide rate also turned out to be relatively low: 17.1 in 1965, while already in 1970 - 23.1 and then a constant increase until Gorbachev's perestroika (in 1984 - 29.7 in the USSR and 38. 7 in the RSFSR with a subsequent decrease during the years of perestroika). The death rate (per 1,000 people) fell below 10 for the first time since 1955 and continued to decline until 1964.

The period from L. Brezhnev to M. Gorbachev is characterized by the ongoing collapse of the socialist economy, the agony of the regime, accompanied by an unprecedented increase in the number of anti-Soviet jokes. I had to urgently introduce into the criminal code (Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR of September 16, 1966, followed by an addition of December 3, 1982) the “anecdotal” article 190-I: “Dissemination of deliberately false fabrications discrediting the Soviet state and social order". (With punishment up to 3 years in prison).

Gorbachev's "perestroika" was objectively one of the most radical attempts to save the dying system. He succeeded in abolishing the dominance of one party, which seemed impossible, in establishing freedom of speech and the press, and in securing free elections, approve private property and free enterprise, destroy the "iron curtain", ensure freedom of movement, including abroad. The punitive practice has somewhat softened. If in 1985 45.2% of convicts were sentenced to imprisonment, then in 1986 - 37.7%, in 1987 - 33.7%, in 1988 - 34.1% with a subsequent increase. It is significant that even short-term attempts to liberalize the totalitarian regime lead to favorable social consequences. This is hardly an accident, because the dynamics of some deviations in other countries of the former "socialist camp" expresses the same trends.

The "perestroika" of the political regime in the direction of liberalization ended after Russia moved to radical, drastic changes. Today, sociologists speak with concern about criminalization Russian society. As social causes influencing this process, the following stand out: crisis and disintegration of values ​​and social norms; anomie; marginalization of society; widespread delinquent subcultures; weakening of the institutions of social control; the growth of corruption in the state apparatus of power. AT recent times the government declares adherence to liberal-democratic values. But at the same time, the tightening of the political regime continues. It is accompanied, unfortunately, by a departure from the liberalization of economic, social, and especially political relations (the construction of a "vertical of power", the actual appointment of elected officials, political and economic pressure on the opposition media, etc.).

In a reformed society, where some norms are destroyed and others are not created, the problem of the formation, interpretation and application of the norm becomes an extremely difficult matter. Destroying the norms formed in Soviet time, we are feverishly trying to create norms for the current stage of our development, turning our eyes either to the West or to the pre-revolutionary past.

The deviance of society and deviant behavior have been, are and will be as long as society exists.

Social control, as a mechanism for the self-organization of society, was, is and will be as long as society exists.

Social control or any other mechanism of self-preservation of society will never be able to "eliminate", "overcome", "overcome" deviance in general and any of its manifestations.

The modern world provides mankind with unprecedented opportunities, but also puts forward problems of incredible complexity.

On the one hand: the globalization of the economy, politics, culture, modern means of communication, the global information network, the experience of integration, the achievements of science, technology, and medicine could serve as the basis for a peaceful creative life for millions of people. On the other hand, political and religious extremism, international terrorism, inter-ethnic bloody conflicts, the ambitions of dictators and the impotence of peoples, the growing gap between the countries of the "golden billion" and the rest of the world.

Undoubtedly, most societies are able to assimilate a considerable number of deviations from the norm without serious consequences for themselves, but constant and widespread deviations can disrupt or even undermine the organized life of society.

In this regard, it seems to us that the survival of both individual societies and humanity as a whole is possible on the condition that:

1. liberalization and democratization of political regimes;
2. rejection of political extremism and forceful methods of resolving interstate and internal conflicts;
3. maximum tolerance towards dissent and dissent, towards minorities, other cultures and subcultures;
4. real embodiment in the external and domestic politics states the principles of the inviolability of the individual and the protection of his rights and freedoms, the absolute value of every life and non-violence.

Interacting with each other, individual individuals and social groups enter into relations that are commonly called social. To regulate these relations, society develops certain rules or norms. . social norms- these are general rules and patterns of behavior in society, which are the result of the conscious activity of people. Social norms are formed historically, with the development of society, being to some extent binding. They define the mutual obligations of the members of society.

There are a number of classifications of social norms. Social norms are divided: according to the method of establishment; by means of protection; by origin and implementation, by content. The most significant division of social norms, depending on the characteristics of their emergence and implementation. On this basis, five varieties of social norms are distinguished: 1) norms of customs, 2) norms of morality, 3) corporate norms, 4) religious norms and 5) legal norms.

Norms of customs become a habit as a result of their repeated repetition. A variety of customs are traditions that express the desire of people to preserve certain ideas, values, forms of behavior. Another kind of customs are rituals that regulate the behavior of people in everyday life, in the family, in the sphere of religion. moral standards- these are rules of conduct that reflect people's ideas about good and evil, about justice and injustice, about good and bad. Their implementation is ensured by the power of public opinion and the convictions of the people themselves. Corporate regulations established public organizations, social groups: fans, fishermen, firms, parties. Their implementation is ensured by the inner conviction of the members of these organizations. Under religious norms understand the rules of conduct contained in the sacred books or established by the church, provided by the internal convictions of people and the activities of the church. Religious norms apply only to believers of a given denomination and are optional for other people. Legal regulations- these are generally binding rules of conduct, established or sanctioned by the state, the implementation of which is ensured by the coercive power of the state.

With the development of society, social norms gradually became more complicated. Scientists believe that the first type of social norms were prohibitions, taboos that arose in primitive society. At the same time, rituals appeared with their strictly prescribed form of performance. Rituals accompanied most events in life primitive people: seeing off for hunting or war, taking office as a leader, presenting gifts to the gods. Later, in ritual actions, rites that had a symbolic meaning began to be distinguished. Unlike rituals, they pursued the goal of influencing the human psyche. Manifestation more high level development of mankind became customs that regulated almost all aspects of the life of primitive society.

In the era of primitiveness, religious norms also arose. Initially, the object of religious admiration was a real-life fetish object. Then a person began to worship an animal or plant - a totem, seeing in it his ancestor and protector. Totemism was replaced by animism, i.e. faith in spirits, the soul and the universal spirituality of nature. Over time, among the supernatural beings, people singled out the most important - the gods. This is how the first polytheistic and then monotheistic religions appeared.

It is impossible to determine the time of the emergence of morality, since it is an integral system and expresses a certain degree of maturity of a person and human society. Obviously, the formation of moral norms went in parallel with the development of other social regulators.

With the emergence of the state, the first rules of law appear. Corporate norms have become the latest.

All social norms are common features: these are the rules of conduct general; they are designed for repeated use; they operate continuously in time; they apply to an indefinite circle of persons; they have a specific implementation order, i.e. have a sign of procedurality; each type of social norms has a certain mechanism for the implementation of prescriptions, i.e. has a sign of authorization.

Society in one form or another monitors the observance of social norms, exercising social control. Society itself monitors the observance of customs, traditions, moral standards. For example, by controlling her son's behavior, the mother acts on the basis of existing social norms and thereby exercises primary social control. Compliance with legal norms is controlled by the state. Compliance with or violation of social norms implies appropriate sanctions in the form of rewards or punishments. Under social sanction refers to the reaction of a society, social group or state to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. Sanctions can be positive (rewarding) and negative (punishing); formal (formal) and informal (informal). Thus, the awarding of a diploma is a formal positive sanction, while the contempt of comrades is an informal negative one.

Sociologists define deviant (deviant) behavior as a form of disorganization of the behavior of an individual in a group or a certain category of persons in society, manifested in non-compliance with social expectations and requirements; departing from generally accepted social norms. There are positive (positive) and negative (negative) deviant behavior. If the consequences of unusual behavior can be assessed positively (cold water pouring), it is positive and vice versa. Based on the goals and direction of deviant behavior, destructive (harmful to the individual himself - alcoholism, drug addiction) and asocial (harmful to society - violation of the rules) are distinguished. traffic) types. Behavior that is the opposite of deviant behavior is called conformist or normative, corresponding to social norms. In a narrow sense, deviant behavior refers to deviations that do not entail criminal punishment, i.e. not illegal. Main forms deviant (disapproved) behavior: criminality, alcoholism, drug addiction, prostitution, homosexuality, gambling, mental disorder, suicide.

There are several varieties deviations: 1) cultural and mental; 2) individual and group; 3) primary (committed one-time pranks, mistakes, eccentric tricks) and secondary; 4) culturally approved and culturally condemned. To types deviant behavior include: conformity - compliance with cultural goals and means; innovation - agreement with the goals approved by a given culture, but the rejection of traditional means of achieving them; ritualism - the denial of the goals of a given culture with the simultaneous acceptance and use of traditional means to achieve them; retreatism - the simultaneous denial of the goals approved by society and the means to achieve them; rebellion, rebellion - the desire to replace the old goals and means, alienation from the dominant goals and standards, replacing them with new ones. To reasons deviant behavior include physical and mental abnormalities, deficiencies in education, social conflicts, heredity. Behavior associated with the violation of the law, in sociology is called delinquent, i.e. criminal behaviour. A crime is a socially dangerous guilty act encroaching on the rule of law, provided for by criminal law.

To protect its interests, society uses various means social control. social control- a special mechanism for maintaining public order, which includes two main elements (means of control) - norms and sanctions. Social control is carried out by the state, as well as by any social group through group social pressure, coercion, and also through socialization.

Social control through group pressure is carried out by condemning individual members of the group whose behavior, appearance or views do not meet the standards established in this group. The range of sanctions in this case varies from remarks to expulsion from the group. Group pressure is also carried out depending on the characteristics and status of the individual, on the characteristics of the group. Social control through coercion is carried out formally (by establishing laws and punishments), as well as through informal group control. Social control through socialization is carried out as an unconscious fulfillment by the individual of his usual role.

The following groups of social sanctions are distinguished: 1) formal positive ones (public approval by official organizations); 2) informal positive (friendly praise, compliments, applause, glory, honor, respect); 3) formal negative (punishments provided for by laws, government decrees, administrative instructions); 4) informal negative (remark, ridicule, censure).

An important means of control is self-control, i.e. managing one's behavior under the influence of the social environment or one's own biological mechanisms - drives, emotional outbursts, addictions. The concept of conscience is connected with the concept of self-control.

Human existence outside of society is impossible. In the course of his life, a person constantly enters into social interaction with other members of society. Human behavior is regulated by social norms that have developed as a result of historical development.

The concept of social norms

Social norms are clearly defined rules of behavior that govern the relationship of a person with society. Social norms play the role of the main deterrent that does not allow a person to violate other people's interests in order to satisfy personal needs.

All modern social norms originated from the spiritual norms characteristic of religious dogma. Many of them have been changed and modernized in view of the needs of modern society.

Variety of social norms

As a rule, all social norms are closely interconnected with each other. At the moment, there are such types of social norms:

Legal norms (rules of human behavior, which are enshrined in the relevant regulations);

Religious norms (norms of behavior that are enshrined in religious scriptures);

Moral norms (rules of behavior that are dictated by society to a person).

Deviant Behavior: Causes and Prevention

Deviant behavior is a person's behavior that deviates from social norms.

The reason for deviant behavior can be such factors as insufficient knowledge of social norms, inability to perceive social norms due to gaps in education, diseases (alcoholism, drug addiction).

The main preventive method of deviant behavior is educational work with children at school and at home. Providing medical and psychological help people who suffer from alcoholism and drug addiction.

Social control and self-control

Social control is the control of society over a person, which is carried out in order to prevent him from committing an illegal act.

Self-control is an independent control of a person's own actions and their correlation with existing social norms.

Social norms and deviant behavior.

Option 1

social norms is rules established in society, patterns, standards of human behavior that regulate social life.

Types of social norms:

• moral standards - these are norms in which people's ideas about good and bad, about good and evil, about justice and injustice are expressed, the implementation of which is ensured by the internal conviction of people or the power of public opinion;
• Norms of traditions and customs. A custom is a historically established rule of behavior that has become a habit as a result of its repeated repetition. The implementation of this kind of norms is provided by the force of habit of people;
• Religious norms- these are the rules of conduct contained in the texts of sacred books or established by religious organizations (church). People follow these rules, guided by their faith or under the threat of being punished (by God or the church);
• Political norms- norms set by various political organizations. These rules of conduct, first of all, must be observed by members of these organizations. The implementation of such norms is ensured by the internal convictions of the people who are members of these organizations, or by the fear of being excluded from them;
• Legal regulations - formally defined rules of conduct, established or sanctioned by the state. The implementation of these norms is ensured by its authority or coercive force.

In reality, the behavior of people and society does not always correspond to established social norms. In this case, one speaks of deviant (deviant) behavior of the subject.

Deviant behavior- this is behavior that does not meet the requirements of social norms accepted in society. Such behavior sometimes contributes to the progress of society (the activities of scientists, military, politicians, inventors, etc.), but in general, people with such behavior interfere with it.

Alcoholism (drug addiction) - a disease that develops as a result of the systematic use of alcohol (drugs).

A crime - this is a socially dangerous guilty act, provided for in the special part of the Criminal Code.

Delinquent behavioris a set of crimes in sociology.

Option 2

The main instrument for establishing and maintaining order in society, stabilizing it social structures is social control, which is a set of means by which society regulates the behavior of its members, making it socially useful and predictable. The main elements of social control are social norms and sanctions - means of encouragement or punishment aimed at maintaining social norms. Social norms are generally accepted patterns of behavior that are acquired by an individual in the process of socialization and perform the following functions:

1. serve as models, standards of behavior;
2. regulate the general course of socialization;
3. integrate, include individuals in social communities;
4. control deviant behavior.

Exist different kinds social norms. Thus, the classification of social norms in order of increasing their social significance includes habits, customs, moral norms, institutional norms (ie norms of institutions of religion, politics, education, family, etc.), laws. In this classification, in ascending order, the degree of need to follow the norms increases. If habits and customs are norms of desirable behavior and their violation does not imply strong negative sanctions, then moral, institutional norms, and even more so laws, are norms of proper, obligatory behavior, and violation of laws usually involves simultaneous, formal and informal, sanctioning of the individual.

At all times, society has tried to suppress undesirable forms of human behavior. Sharp deviations, both in positive and in negative side, threatened the stability of society, which has always been valued above all else. Behavior that does not comply with social norms is called deviant, i.e. deviant behaviour.

In society, the control over deviant behavior is not symmetrical: deviations in the negative direction are condemned, in the positive direction they are approved. Hence the two main types of deviation (deviations)

Culturally condemned deviations (terrorists, traitors, criminals, alcoholics, homeless people)

Culturally approved (saints, geniuses, heroes, outstanding artists, athletes, scientists).

Thus, the term deviant behavior can include a variety of types of social deviations. Currently, in sociology, there are many theories of deviant (culturally condemned) behavior that complement each other. Their analysis allows us to identify three main approaches to explaining the causes of deviation:

biological (theories of physical types),

psychological (psychoanalytic theory of 3. Freud),

sociological (the theory of anomie by E. Durkheim, the theory of anomie by R. Merton, the theory of labeling by G. Becker).

Option 3

Social norms are usually understood as the rules established in society, patterns, standards of human behavior that regulate social life. There are the following types of social norms:
1) moral norms, i.e. such norms in which people's ideas about good and bad, good and evil, about justice and injustice are expressed, the implementation of which is ensured by the internal conviction of people or the power of public opinion;
2) norms of traditions and customs. A custom is a historically established rule of behavior that has become a habit as a result of its repeated repetition. The implementation of this kind of norms is provided by the force of habit of people;
3) religious norms, which include the rules of conduct contained in the texts of sacred books or established by religious organizations (church). People follow these rules, guided by their faith or under the threat of being punished (by God or the church);
4) political norms. - norms set by various political organizations. These rules of conduct must be observed first of all by the members of these organizations. The implementation of such norms is ensured by the internal convictions of the people who are members of these organizations, or by the fear of being excluded from them;
5) legal norms - formally defined rules of conduct, established or sanctioned by the state, the implementation of which is ensured by its authority or coercive force.
Social norms define the boundaries of acceptable behavior of people in relation to the specific conditions of their life. As already mentioned above, compliance with these norms is usually ensured by the internal beliefs of people or by applying social rewards and social punishments to them in the form of so-called social sanctions. Social sanction is usually understood as the reaction of society or a social group to the behavior of an individual in a socially significant situation. According to their content, sanctions can be positive (encouraging) and negative (punishing).
In reality, the behavior of people in society does not always correspond to established social norms, and even, on the contrary, they are violated. In this case, one speaks of deviant behavior of the subject. Deviant (deviant) is usually called such behavior that does not meet the requirements of social norms accepted in society. Sometimes such deviations can be positive and lead to positive consequences. But in most cases, deviant behavior is spoken of as a negative social phenomenon that is harmful to society. The most serious manifestations of such behavior are crime, drug addiction and alcoholism.
Alcoholism and drug addiction is a type of chronic disease that develops as a result of the systematic use of alcohol or drugs by a person.
A crime is a socially dangerous guilty act, provided for in the Special Part of the Criminal Code. The totality of crimes in sociology has a special name - delinquent behavior.