Communication as interaction (interaction). Types of interaction. Psychological characteristic cooperation and competition
The interactive side of communication is a conditional term that characterizes those components of communication that are associated with the direct organization of the joint activities of people, their interaction.
The interactive side of communication is a common interaction strategy. There are many types of interaction between people, primarily cooperation and competition. However, an abstract assessment of these types as simple agreement or conflict leads to a formal description of interactions, which does not always satisfy the needs of social psychology.
The communicative process is born on the basis of some joint activity, therefore, the exchange of knowledge and ideas about this activity inevitably implies that the mutual understanding achieved is realized in new joint attempts to further develop the activity, to organize it.
The participation of many people at the same time in this activity means that everyone must contribute to it. This is what makes it possible to explain interaction as an organization of joint activity. In the course of joint activities, it is important for its participants not only to exchange information, but also to organize an exchange of actions, i.e. plan common activities. At the same time, such a regulation of the actions of one individual is possible by plans that have matured in the head of "the other, which makes the activity
really collaborative. In social psychology, there are several approaches to understanding the structure of interaction. One of them belongs to Parsons' theory, according to which social activities interpersonal interactions lie, and human activity in its broad manifestation is built on them, i.e. human activity is the result of single actions. The individual is a certain elementary act, from the totality of which systems of actions are subsequently formed.
Each act is a set of the following elements:
doer;
The other person is the one on whom the action is directed;
The response of the other to the actions of the actor;
The motivation of the actor, consisting in the desire to realize their installations or satisfy their needs;
The system of orientation and expectations of the figure in relation to another person;
Norms by which interaction is organized;
Values that each participant accepts;
The situation in which the action takes place.
An interesting attempt to build a structure of interactive interaction was made by the Polish sociologist Jan Szczepanski. He introduced the concept of social connection to describe the social action of communicating subjects. Social bonding is a consistent exercise of:
Spatial contact;
Mental contact, which is understood as mutual interest;
Social contact, understood as a joint activity;
Interaction, understood as a systematic, constant implementation of actions that cause an appropriate reaction of the partner;
social relationship.
Another, extremely original, approach to the structural description of interactive interaction was taken by Eric Berne in his concept of transactional analysis. Here, the actions of the participants in communication are regulated by adjusting their positions in the context of certain situations and the style of interaction.
From the point of view of E. Bern, each participant in the interaction is in one of three positions, which are conventionally designated as "Child", "Parent" and "Adult". These positions do not have to be associated with the respective social role. This is just a psychological description of a certain strategy in behavior: the position of "Child" - "I want!", the position of "Parent" - "I must!", the position of "Adult" - the integration of "I want" and "I must", a compromise between them. Interaction is effective when transactions are parallel, i.e. match in positions ("Child" - "Child", "Parent" - "Parent", "Adult" - "Adult"). Interaction is inefficient or impossible when transactions are cross-cutting - any two-dimensional combination of three positions.
A similar approach was proposed by P.N. Ershov, who, denoting positions, speaks of three possibilities:
top extension;
Attachment from below;
Addition on an equal footing.
In passing, we note that another indicator of the effectiveness of interaction is an adequate understanding of the situation and an adequate style of action in it.
There are three main styles of action:
Ritual (formal);
Manipulative (managing a partner without his knowledge and consent and for personal gain);
Humanistic.
In social psychology, much attention is paid to the types of interaction. It is intuitively clear that practically people enter into an infinite number of different types of interaction, which can be divided into the two opposite types already mentioned:
Cooperation;
Competition.
Cooperation is understood as such types of interaction that contribute to the organization of joint activities and are positive from this point of view. Competition is understood as interactions that in one way or another undermine joint activity, presenting a certain kind of obstacle to it.
Different types of interaction are distinguished depending on the situation that caused it. This is what led to the emergence of their various classifications.
The most common classification is based on performance orientation.
Types of interaction in the process of communication
Cooperation is an interaction in which its participants achieve mutual agreement about how it is necessary to act in order to achieve common goals and try not to violate it, as long as the areas of their interests coincide.
Competition is an interaction that is characterized by the achievement of one's personal or social goals and interests in the face of opposition of interests between people.
Types of interpersonal interaction often determine the nature of relationships between people. The division into types can be based on the intentions and actions of people, which indicate how each of the participants in the interaction understands the meaning of what is happening. In this case, 3 more types are distinguished.
Types and types of interaction
Additional. Such interaction, in which partners calmly and objectively relate to each other's position.
Intersecting. An interaction during which the participants, on the one hand, demonstrate an unwillingness to understand the position and opinion of other interaction partners. At the same time, on the other hand, they actively show their own intentions in this regard.
hidden interaction. This type includes two levels at once: external, expressed in a verbal way, and hidden, manifested in the thoughts of a person. It presupposes either good knowledge participant in the interaction, or your susceptibility to non-verbal means of communication. These include tone of voice, intonation, facial expressions and gestures, in general, everything that can give a conversation a hidden meaning.
Styles and types of interaction and their features
Cooperation. It is aimed at the full satisfaction of partners in the interaction of their needs and aspirations. Here one of the motives given above is realized: cooperation or competition.
Counteraction. This style involves focusing on one's own goals, without taking into account any interests of the other party involved. The principle of individualism is manifested.
Compromise. It is implemented in the partial achievement of the goals and interests of both parties.
Compliance. It involves sacrificing one's own interests in order to achieve the partner's goals, or abandoning petty needs in order to achieve some more significant goal.
avoidance. This style represents withdrawal or avoidance of contact. In this case, it is possible to lose your own goals to exclude winnings.
Sometimes activity and communication are considered as two components of the social existence of society. In other cases, communication is designated as a certain aspect of the activity: it is included in any activity and is part of it. The activity itself appears to us as a condition and basis for communication. Moreover, in psychology, the concept of "interaction" "communication" are on the same level as "personality" "activity" and are fundamental.
Types of interaction in psychology play a huge role not only in interpersonal communication, but also in the process of human development and, as a result, society as a whole. Without communication, human society would not be able to fully function, and we would never have reached such social heights. economic development like now.
There is another descriptive approach in the analysis of interaction - the construction of classifications of its various types. It is intuitively clear that in practice people enter into an infinite number of different types of interaction. For experimental studies, it is extremely important to at least identify some of the main types of these interactions. The most common is the dichotomous division of all possible types of interactions into two opposite types: cooperation and competition. Different authors designate these two main species with different terms. In addition to cooperation and competition, they talk about agreement and conflict, adaptation and opposition, association and dissociation, and so on. Behind all these concepts, the principle of distinguishing different types of interaction is clearly visible. In the first case, such manifestations are analyzed that contribute to the organization of joint activities, are “positive” from this point of view. The second group includes interactions that in one way or another "shatter" joint activity, representing a certain kind of obstacle to it.
Cooperation, or cooperative interaction, means the coordination of the individual forces of the participants (ordering, combining, summing up these forces). Cooperation - necessary element joint activity, generated by its special nature. A.N. Leontiev named two main features of joint activity: a) division of a single process of activity between participants; b) change in the activity of everyone, because the result of everyone's activity does not lead to the satisfaction of his needs, which in general psychological language means that the "subject" and "motive" of the activity do not coincide (Leontiev, 1972, p. 270-271).
How is the direct result of the activity of each participant connected with the final result of joint activity? The means of such a connection are relations developed in the course of joint activity, which are realized primarily in cooperation. An important indicator of the tightness of cooperative interaction is the involvement of all participants in the process. Therefore, experimental studies of cooperation most often deal with the analysis of the contributions of the participants in the interaction and the degree of their involvement in it.
As for another type of interaction - competition, here most often the analysis is concentrated on its most striking form, namely, on conflict. When studying conflict by social psychology, first of all, it is necessary to determine one's own point of view in this problem, since conflicts are the subject of research in a number of other disciplines: sociology, political science, etc.
Social psychology focuses on two issues: on the one hand, on the analysis of secondary socio-psychological aspects in each conflict (for example, awareness of the conflict by its participants); on the other hand, on the allocation of a particular class of conflicts generated by specific socio-psychological factors. Both of these tasks can be successfully solved only if there is an adequate conceptual scheme of research. It should cover at least four main characteristics of the conflict: the structure, dynamics, function and typology of the conflict (Petrovskaya, 1977, p. 128).
The structure of the conflict is described differently by different authors, but the basic elements are practically accepted by all. This is a conflict situation, the positions of the participants (opponents), the object, the "incident" (trigger), the development and resolution of the conflict. These elements behave differently depending on the type of conflict. The ordinary idea that any conflict necessarily has a negative meaning has been refuted by a number of special studies. So, in the works of M. Deutsch, one of the most prominent conflict theorists, two types of conflicts are called: destructive and productive.
The definition of destructive conflict is more in line with the ordinary idea. It is this type of conflict that leads to a mismatch of interaction, to its loosening. A destructive conflict often becomes independent of the cause that gave rise to it, and more easily leads to the transition "to the individual", which gives rise to stress. It is characterized by a specific development, namely the expansion of the number of involved participants, their conflict actions, the multiplication of the number of negative attitudes towards each other and the sharpness of statements (“expansion” of the conflict). Another feature - the "escalation" of the conflict means an increase in tension, the inclusion of all more false perceptions of both the traits and qualities of the opponent, and the situations of interaction themselves, the growth of prejudice against the partner. It is clear that the resolution of this type of conflict is especially difficult, the main method of resolution - a compromise - is implemented here with great difficulty.
A productive conflict often occurs when the clash is not about the incompatibility of personalities, but is generated by a difference in points of view on a problem, on ways to solve it. In this case, the conflict itself contributes to the formation of a more comprehensive understanding of the problem, as well as the motivation of a partner who defends a different point of view - it becomes more “legitimate”. The very fact of a different argument, the recognition of its legitimacy contributes to the development of elements of cooperative interaction within the conflict and thus opens up the possibility of its regulation and resolution, and hence finding the optimal solution to the problem under discussion.
The idea of two possible varieties of conflict interaction provides a basis for discussing the most important general theoretical problem of conflict: understanding its nature as a psychological phenomenon. In fact: is the conflict only a form of psychological antagonism (i.e. represented by contradictions in consciousness) or is it necessarily the presence of conflict actions (Kudryavtsev, 1991, p. 37). Detailed description various conflicts in their complexity and diversity allows us to conclude that both of these components are mandatory signs of a conflict.
The problem of conflict research has many practical applications in terms of developing various forms of attitude towards it (conflict resolution, conflict prevention, conflict prevention, mitigation, etc.) and, above all, in situations business communication: for example, in production (Borodkin, Karyak, 1983).
When analyzing various types interactions, the problem of the content of the activity within which certain types of interaction are given is fundamentally important. Thus, it is possible to state a cooperative form of interaction not only in the conditions of production, but, for example, in the implementation of any asocial, illegal acts - joint robbery, theft, etc. Therefore, cooperation in socially negative activities is not necessarily the form that needs to be stimulated: on the contrary, activities that are conflicting in the context of asocial activities can be assessed positively. Cooperation and competition are only forms of the “psychological pattern” of interaction, while the content in both cases is given by a broader system of activity, where cooperation or competition is included. Therefore, when studying both cooperative and competitive forms of interaction, it is unacceptable to consider them both outside general context activities.
Interactive side of communication- this is a conditional term denoting the characteristics of those components of communication that are associated with the interaction of people, with the direct organization of their joint activities.
The process of interaction, or the interactive side of communication, includes two components: external and internal. The external component is represented by a kind of regulated procedure in each specific situation. You can even talk about the etiquette of communication.
The second component refers to the psychological side of the interaction. Entering into interaction, people satisfy a number of needs related to maintaining their mental balance; their satisfaction requires the expenditure of psychic energy.
The most common antagonistic halving type of interaction: cooperation and competition, consent - conflict, adaptation - opposition, etc.
Cooperation- coordination of the individual forces of the participants, which is manifested in mutual assistance, mutual influence. Without cooperation, successful interaction is hardly possible. In fact, it is impossible to imagine a full-fledged communication of partners, each of which is silent, does not show activity.
Degrees of productive competition: competition, rivalry, confrontation, conflict.
Conflict is a form of interaction characterized by the presence of opposite tendencies among the subjects of interaction.
Modern social psychology in conflict distinguishes the following elements:
1) parties (participants) of the conflict (personality trait - personality trait; personality - personality; personality - group and group - group);
2) conditions for the course of the conflict (spatio-temporal; socio-psychological (psychological climate, type and level of communication, degree of confrontation, the state of the participants in the conflict); social (involvement in the conflict, interests of various social groups));
3) images conflict situation(perception of oneself, of the opposite side, of the environment and conditions of the conflict);
4) possible actions of the participants in the conflict (the nature of the action (offensive, defensive, neutral); the degree of activity in their implementation (active - passive, initiating - response); the focus of these actions (on the opponent, on third parties, on oneself));
5) outcomes of conflict actions (full or partial subordination to another; compromise; interruption of conflict actions; integration).
R. Blake, D. Mouton, K. Thomas single out five interaction strategies:
- Interaction strategy- a set of dominant features of human behavior in relations with other people, manifested in a particular social situation.
- Fixture- smoothing out contradictions, restructuring their positions.
"Conflicts with children" - Not a confirmation of parental expectations. Typical reaction on a conflict situation - confrontation, rivalry. For what and against what is the child fighting in the transitional age? avoidance. Cooperation. Causes of conflicts. Never takes responsibility for a decision. Reminder for parents.
"Conflict" - Emotional. Sexy. interpersonal conflict. Do not move from words to actions And most importantly: 8. Try to keep the position "on an equal footing." Conflicts. Tricks to divert attention, etc. The main stages of the conflict. The emergence of a conflict. Positional. Between parents and children. Let your partner speak.
"Competition" - Squirrels live in the hollow of a tree. Males, with their tails up, stand up in threatening postures. Hollow. The strongest feasts, the weak leaves with his tail between his legs! In search of food, squirrels are busy 50-60% of the daytime. Per the best place there are whole battles. But after the appearance of the offspring, the female drives the male away, jealously guarding the cubs!
"Monopoly and competition" - Reasons for formation and main forms. Price leadership model. Graphical analysis of positive and zero economic profits. The main characteristics of the oligopoly market. As a result, the firm will lose its customers. Lesion. Broken demand curve. Reasons for the emergence and existence of monopolies.
"School conflicts" - Division into groups: How do you feel about the conflict? Is it possible to do without conflict in school and family education? Issues for discussion: quarrelsomeness and aggressive behavior parents. Analysis of the conflict situation: What is the mistake in the behavior of parents? "The formula for resolving school conflicts." "Punishment of parents" Opera - [punishment of parents 1:: Video on RuTube -].
"Conflict Resolution" - Conducted about 500 programs. The decision is up to the parties to the conflict. School reconciliation services exist in: We offer partnerships. The service seeks to resolve the maximum number of situations in reconciliation programs. At the center of the program are human experiences and compensation for the damage caused.
Cooperation as a type of interaction is manifested in many specific relationships between people: business partnership, friendship, solidarity, political union between parties, states, etc. It is the basis for bringing people together in organizations or groups, showing mutual assistance, mutual support, etc.
Mutual interest, beneficial interaction for both parties;
possible focus on achieving an emerging joint goal;
Reinforcing cooperation with such means of exchange as fidelity, appreciation, respect.
Rivalry as a type of interaction assumes as prerequisites the existence of a single indivisible object of claims of both parties (authority, territory, power rights, powers, votes, etc.). Rivalry basis:
1. the desire to remove, subdue, destroy the opponent;
2. the absence of common goals, but the obligatory presence of similar goals regarding an indivisible object: both want to take possession of the buyer's wallet, power, etc .;
3. reinforcement of long-term rivalry with negative means of exchange (envy, cunning, hostility, anger, insincerity, secrecy), the strength of which depends on the form of rivalry.
Rivalry can take the form of competition and conflict.
Competition is the rivalry of two or more social subjects for something that is outside these subjects (most often the rivalry for recognition by someone else, for example, the competition of applicants for a position, political parties for power in the state). Competition does not necessarily imply knowledge of a specific opponent (competition for admission to a university).
Even if the opponent is known, then the main thing that actions are aimed at in a competitive environment is to achieve recognition by third parties of their efforts, i.e. achieve preference. However, some competitors may disregard the rules of competition and resort to direct influence on a competitor in order to push him away from the object of competition (economic war, civil war, physical elimination of the enemy). In this case, competition develops into conflict.
Conflict is always a direct clash of rivals. Conflict is characterized by:
Knowledge of the opponent
knowledge of the causes of the conflict;
expectation of response actions, confrontation
K. Marx considered conflicts to be the locomotives of history, the "midwife of history", resolutely resolving the contradictions of social life, carrying out fundamental transformations of social ties and thereby opening the way for the rapid development of productive forces and public relations. At the same time, the more resolutely the form of conflict resolution, the product of which is a social revolution, during which the conflict reaches its climax, the more consistently the old traditions are destroyed, the faster society advances.
Other thinkers, summing up the results of a series of French revolutions of the 18th-19th centuries, Russian revolutions of the 20th century, analyzing more recent events - socialist revolutions in countries of Eastern Europe after the second world war, the Islamic revolution in Iran, etc. they see in any revolutions a predominantly destructive beginning, which leads to an incorrect assessment of the conflict in general.
History is said to social evolution testifies that all fundamental and progressive processes are the result of the development of knowledge, solidarity, and not hatred and cruelty, the inevitable attributes of any revolution.
"There is a revolution worst way improvement of the political and spiritual conditions of life of the masses... Revolutions rather... do not increase, but reduce all basic freedoms, not improving, but rather worsening the economic and cultural situation of the working class. Whatever she seeks, it is achieved at a monstrous and disproportionately great price.
(Pitirim Sorokin).
As already noted, any cooperation may eventually not suit one of the parties and develop into a conflict. Consequently, the emergence of a conflict is not evidence of the pathology of a particular system of social interactions, but of its natural development, a source of new qualitative changes. Conflicts inevitably arise, being evidence of the growth of the social organism. It is conflicts that carry the charge of updating the system of social interactions - the credo of the conflictological direction of modern sociological thought (R.Dahrendorf, L.Kozer). Recognizing the inevitability of the conflict, L. Koser compares it with a safety valve, which allows you to make timely necessary reforms, transformations that increase the adaptive capacity of the social organism to environment. Thus, due to certain transformations, integrity is preserved social system. But conflict is a very sharp weapon. In skillful hands, it heals, but in inept hands it rather destroys and disorganizes. The essence of the modern attitude to conflicts was expressed by R. Dahrendorf, pointing out that the conflict is the father of all things, i.e. driving force changes, but the conflict should not be a war. The rational curbing of social conflicts is one of the central tasks of politics.
Historical experience testifies:
1. If both sides of the conflict show tolerance, readiness for reasonable compromises, it is the conflict that becomes a factor, as a rule, of constructive changes, contributes to the establishment of new norms, criteria for relationships that bother both sides, increase the effectiveness of social interactions.
2. if the conflicting parties go to aggravate their relations, considering each other as irreconcilable antagonists, then such conflicts, as a rule, have huge destructive consequences (the family is destroyed, civil wars destroy the resources accumulated by society, entire social strata are washed out, etc.).
True, there are cases in history when the resolution of a conflict that has acquired destructive forms led to the creation of favorable conditions for the rapid development of the entire society (the war between the North and the South in the USA). In this case, the creative potential of the conflict, despite the victims, exceeded its destructive consequences.
But more often civil wars, unrest threw society back.
3. No one can predict what will outweigh - a creative impulse or a destructive beginning of the conflict. This is usually discovered after the fact. It is impossible to rationally calculate all the consequences of the conflict and manage it in accordance with one's own plans.
For a compromise resolution of the conflict, two main groups of conditions are necessary:
1. value conditions (if the conflicting parties consider it the highest value, the priority is to avoid acute forms of conflict resolution, unacceptability civil war, family unity, etc., then no matter how acute the conflict is, it can usually avoid the form that leads to devastating consequences); recognition of the conflict as such so that negotiations can be carried out;
2. work in the field of conflict prevention and resolution. Conflict is a part of social life, conflicts are inevitable. It is necessary to develop procedures that help in their resolution (for example, in some families it is not customary to interfere with children in the conflict of parents, the parliamentary form of struggle, the institutionalization of conflicts between workers and entrepreneurs - the creation of sectoral trade unions).
Stages of conflict:
1. pre-conflict - accumulation and aggravation of contradictions, social tension (frustration), dissatisfaction, growing threats;
2. conflict - sharp disagreements, open confrontation (strikes, hunger strikes, sabotage);
3. post-conflict - a tendency towards normalization, compromise, negotiations, complete resolution of the conflict.
In relation to the conflict, you can take positions:
ignoring;
force solution (pressure);
a productive compromise
Methods for resolving social conflict:
1. resolution - the final stage of the conflict process, is carried out through a change in the objective situation, or by psychological restructuring of the subjective image of the situation that has developed among the warring parties. Permission is possible:
complete - the cessation of the conflict at the level of external confrontation, the image of the enemy is replaced by the image of a partner, the attitude to fight is replaced by the attitude to cooperation;
Partial - open conflict behavior disappears, but the internal impulse to continue antagonism remains, restrained either by the will or fear of third party sanctions;
2. compromise - realization of interests mutual concessions;
3. negotiations - a mechanism for regulating relations between social subjects, based on the fact that at the same time there is a relationship and a divergence of interests;
4. direct dialogue;
5. use of force - power, law, tradition (when the parties are sure that they are able to impose their decision on the opponent);
6. retreat - the ability to retreat in a timely manner is a sign of a high culture of conflict behavior.
Relationships of influence and power.
M. Weber defined power as the ability of a subject to impose his will on others even if they resist. Power is recognized as a universal means of exchange: a person endowed with it is able to receive many values.
Influence implies that one person takes into account the opinion of another when developing his own decisions based on respect, recognition of merits, intelligence, talent, and therefore, recognition of the opinion of this person, this profession as significant for himself. Influence is a form of interaction that is transitional to power.
Power is such an interaction in which one subject is able in one way or another to cause changes (concessions) in the behavior of others that are desirable for him, even in cases where this is not desired by those who must change their behavior. Power is a form of social interactions and at the same time a tool that ensures the orderly nature of these interactions. Power guarantees compliance with the accepted rules of the game, norms, orderliness of actions of individuals. Power is a tool that prevents arbitrariness and anarchy. For these purposes, it is endowed with the right to restrict the freedom of action of individual individuals, it has the power of coercion. Sociologists are interested in the problem of the legitimacy of power (recognition of its legitimacy), the motives that make some people obey others.
The main thing is not why people fight for power, revel in it, but why people obey. Power is always two-sided, with the dominance of the will of the ruler, the interaction of its subject and object. It is impossible without subjection of the object. If there is no such subordination, there is no power. Obedience is also natural human society like the guide. Willingness to obey depends on the fact that the expected positive effect of the service provided by the ruler will exceed the costs that he incurs by obeying the orders of the ruler.
What is the basis of the trust of subordinates to the ruler, to what extent is it permissible to interfere in personal life? Submission motivation is quite complex. There may also be a fear of sanctions, a long-term habit of obedience.
M. Weber identified three types of "legitimate grounds for domination":
1. charismatic domination - submission (emotional worship
a person with a special gift for influencing people.
Prophets, military heroes, leaders have charisma);
2. traditional domination - submission based on the belief that power
sacred. But rulers must also take care of their subordinates.
(traditional is the power of monarchs in the state, transmitted by
inheritance, the power of the eldest male in a patriarchal family).
Traditional legitimacy is enduring. Therefore, for s
stability of democracy, M. Weber considered it useful to preserve
centuries-old traditions of respect for authority.
3. rational-legal domination - subordination based on recognition
legitimacy, validity of power functions, their necessity. This type of power is common in modern society: it underlies the state, enterprises and organizations. The rights and obligations of the ruler and the subordinate are stipulated and protected by laws. In such a state, it is not the personality of the leader that is subject, but the laws. This legitimacy is characteristic of democratic states. The main sign of legal legitimacy is the recognition of government orders as reasonable, justified, since they comply with the laws, established rules.
Thus, the essence of society is predetermined by those realized in various forms(cooperation and rivalry, domination and subordination) social interactions that are the building material of human activity.
1. What influence did natural and geographical factors have on the origin and development of social relations?
2. Which of biological features man played the most important role in his social formation?
3. What is a need? What are the similarities and differences between the needs of animals
and a person?
4. What are the principles of A. Maslow's pyramid of needs? What
her shortcomings?
5. Why social action considered one of the most important categories
sociology?
6. How do you understand T. Parsons' scheme of individual action?
7. What role does motive play in social action?
8. What is characteristic of cooperation and rivalry?
9. How do competition and conflict differ from each other?
10. What are the social consequences of the conflict?
11. Why is power considered the universal medium of exchange?
12. What does the concept of "legitimate power" mean, and what are its types?
Literature:
1. Dobrenkov V.I., Kravchenko A.I. Sociology in 3 vols. M., INFRA-M, 2000.
2. Kravchenko A.I. Sociology: A textbook for universities. - M .: Academic Project, 2002.
3. General sociology: Textbook / Under the general. ed. prof.A. G. Efendieva.-M.: INFRA-M, 2002.
4. Osipov G.V. Sociology. Moscow: Thought, 1996.
5. Smelser N.J. Sociology. M.: "Phoenix", 1994.
6. Sorokin P.A. Man. Civilization. Society. M., 1992.
7. Sociology: Fundamentals general theory. Under. ed. Osipova G.V.M.: "Thought", 1998.
8. Frolov S.S. Fundamentals of sociology. M., Gardariki, 1999.
9. Encyclopedic Sociological Dictionary / Under the general. ed. Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences G.V. Osipova.- M.: ISPI RAN, 1995.
Key concepts:
a. social action
b. social interaction
c. social connection
d. social contact
f. legitimacy
g. legality
h. cooperation
i. rivalry
j. social conflict
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The present tutorial is the first publication built on the principle of conformity of customs clearance and determination of customs value to the methods of the WTO and the rules and regulations of the GATT. The concepts of the cost of goods and the price of a foreign trade transaction, customs value, its structure, and technology of formation are considered in detail. For the first time in educational literature, special attention is paid to the organizational and economic aspects of preparing a foreign trade transaction, the principles of setting prices for goods in foreign manufacturing firms. Are given practical advice on the calculation of the price of goods participating in a foreign trade transaction, and on the preparation of the necessary documents. At the end of the manual, a didactic workshop is given on determining the customs value and customs clearance of goods. Intended for students, graduate students and university professors; heads and specialists of enterprises of foreign economic activity participants, heads and employees of customs authorities.
This manual provides information about the pricing system and estimated rationing in construction. The issues of drawing up budget documentation, determining the cost of construction as part of pre-project studies are highlighted. The main provisions of the work were used in the performance of research work under an agreement with the Gosstroy of Russia, which resulted in MDS 81-35.2004 "Methods for determining the estimated cost of construction products in the territory Russian Federation". Designed for students of construction and economic specialties, as well as administrative and managerial personnel and engineering and technical workers of construction organizations.
This book is the first comprehensive study in the domestic literature on the issues of structuring and pricing the placements of Russian companies on the international equity market. What is the optimal placement structure? At what level should the price range and placement price be set? What dynamics of quotes after the placement is the norm? This book provides the reader with a unique opportunity to receive unbiased answers to the above, as well as many other important questions. Its author, a representative of the investment banking industry, conducted a critical analysis of a huge amount of information (including classified information), the results of which are now available to a wide range of readers. For owners and executives of companies, financial and legal advisors, anyone interested in placements on the equity capital market.
Step by step tutorial on simple examples will help you learn the techniques and methods of working with the program "1C: Trade Management 8.2", learn how to solve pricing and marketing issues, keep records of wholesale and retail trade, warehouse accounting, plan and account for the company's finances, as well as generate reports. The publication will be extremely useful to owners and specialists of trade enterprises (managers, accountants), implementing and mastering latest version programs 1C 8.2.
Non-traditional ways of managing consumer preferences (outrageous, intrigue, event-driven campaigns, etc.) are analyzed in the aspect of "physiological" mechanisms; a lot of non-standard creative solutions in the field of creating excitement are given. For students, teachers economic universities, as well as all those who are interested in marketing problems.
Traditional project management focuses on its own problems and cannot respond to the constant rapid changes in today's business. The book is future oriented. All stakeholders are equally involved in project management from start to finish. The author describes a flexible continuous management process, covering the development of the project, and its support. Rob Thomsett, one of the world's largest project management consultants, offers step-by-step project management methods: In the book you will find: - Project management priorities: people, relationships, overhead; - 11 completely new rules that guarantee the survival of the project manager; - The latest extreme project management tools; - "Open planning" and the prevailing role of partners - the key to successful project management; - New metrics for extreme project management and control methods; - Monstrous technical details are no longer needed...
