"Golden Age of the Russian nobility"

The second, no less important side of the policy of absolutism in the sphere of administration in the second half of the 18th century was the legal registration of the rights and privileges of the estates, their duties and obligations, the creation of estate organizations.

In order to formalize the estate privileges of the nobility in 1785, Letter of Complaint nobility. “Charter on the rights of liberties and advantages of the noble Russian nobility” was a set of noble privileges, formalized by the legislative act of Catherine II of 21.04. 1785. Under Peter I, the nobility carried out lifelong military and other service to the state, but already under Anna Ioannovna it was possible to limit this service to 25 years. The nobles got the opportunity to start their service not with an ordinary or simple sailor, but with an officer, having passed the noble military school.

Peter III issued a decree on the freedom of the nobility, giving the right to serve or not to serve, but this decree was suspended. Now, the freedom of the nobles from compulsory service was confirmed. Complete release nobility made sense for several reasons:

1) there was a sufficient number of trained people who were knowledgeable in various matters of military and civil administration;
2) the nobles themselves were aware of the need to serve the state and considered it an honor to shed blood for the fatherland;
3) when the nobles were cut off from the lands all their lives, the farms fell into decay, which adversely affected the country's economy.

Now many of them could manage their own peasants. And the attitude towards the peasants on the part of the owner was much better than on the part of an accidental manager. The landowner was interested in ensuring that his peasants were not ruined.

With a letter of grant, the nobility was recognized as the leading class in the state and exempted from paying taxes, they could not be subjected to corporal punishment, only a court of nobility could judge. Only nobles had the right to own land and serfs, they also owned subsoil in their estates, they could engage in trade and set up factories, their houses were free from standing troops, their estates were not subject to confiscation.

The nobility received the right to self-government, constituted a “noble society”, the body of which was a noble assembly, convened every three years in the province and district, which elected provincial and district marshals of the nobility, court assessors and police captains who headed the district administration. With this charter, the nobility was encouraged to participate widely in local government.

Under Catherine II, the nobles held the positions of local executive and judiciary. The charter granted to the nobility was supposed to strengthen the position of the nobility and consolidate its privileges. Contributed to greater consolidation of the ruling class. Its action was also extended to the nobles of the Baltic States, Ukraine, Belarus and the Don. The charter granted to the nobility testified to the desire of Russian absolutism to strengthen its social support in an atmosphere of exacerbation of class contradictions. The nobility turned into the politically dominant class in the state.

Under Catherine II, the nobleman became a member of the privileged provincial noble corporation, which held local self-government in its hands. A charter of 1785 established that a nobleman could not lose his rank without trial. A nobleman transfers his title to his children and wife, is free from taxes and corporal punishment, everything that is in his estate is the inalienable property of a nobleman; he is free from public service, but cannot take part in elections for noble positions if he does not have an officer's rank. These became the most important rights of all nobles under Catherine II. In addition, noble societies had all the rights of legal entities. To such results the nobility came to late XVIII centuries: exclusive personal rights, a broad right to class self-government and a strong influence on local government, therefore the era of Catherine II's reign is called the "golden age of the Russian nobility."

In the reign of Catherine II, the nobility was finally formed as the most privileged class of the state. To strengthen the role of the nobility in the field in 1775, the "Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. The country was divided into 50 provinces of 300-400 thousand male souls. The provinces were divided into counties of 20-30 thousand souls. The provinces were headed by government-appointed governors. Subordinating directly to the empress, the most important provinces were united 2-3 times under the authority of the governor-general. Governor-generals were also appointed to the capitals. Provincial institutions were based on the division of administrative, financial and judicial functions. The general affairs of the province were managed by the provincial government. Finance was handled by the Treasury. The chambers of the criminal and civil courts, the Supreme Zemstvo Court and the Constituent Court, in the districts - the Nizhny Zemsky Court became the judicial instances. The judicial system was estate. The county was ruled by a police captain. The city was ruled by a mayor appointed by the government, and was divided into parts headed by a private bailiff and quarters headed by an overseer. The center of gravity in the management moved to the field. The boards thus ceased to function, with the exception of the Foreign, Military and Admiralty.

The continuation of the reforms of local authorities was the "Letter of Letters to Cities" (1785), which determined the system of government in cities. She fixed the class structure of the city's population, dividing it into 6 categories with different rights. Residents of the city elected a body of self-government - the general city duma, the mayor and judges. The City Duma elected the executive body of the Six-voice Duma. The competence of the Duma was limited to issues of improvement, compliance with the rules of trade, public education, etc. Its activities were under the control of the mayor, appointed by the government.

In 1785, the "Letter of Letters to the Nobility" was published - "The Letter of Liberty and the Advantages of the Noble Russian Nobility." The privileges of the nobility received the status of law. The letter confirmed the right of the nobles not to serve the state. The nobles were exempted from taxes and corporal punishment, had the right to trade and entrepreneurship, could not be deprived of the title of nobility, life and estate without a trial. The nobles had the exclusive right to own land with the peasants. The nobility received its estate-corporate structure - county and provincial noble assemblies, which elected, respectively, county and provincial marshals of the nobility. Nobles were given the title of "noble class".

During the time of Catherine II, there was an increase in noble land ownership due to the distribution of land from state funds. More than 800 thousand peasants were distributed into private hands. In 1775, the Cossack self-government on the Don was abolished and the Zaporozhian Sich was liquidated. The last strongholds of democracy on the outskirts of the country were destroyed.

The absolute noble state reaches its peak under Catherine II.

In the reign of Catherine II, the nobility was finally formed as the most privileged class of the state. To strengthen the role of the nobility in the field in 1775, the "Institution for the management of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted. The country was divided into 50 provinces of 300-400 thousand male souls. The provinces were divided into counties of 20-30 thousand souls. The provinces were headed by government-appointed governors. Subordinating directly to the empress, the most important provinces were united 2-3 times under the authority of the governor-general. Governor-generals were also appointed to the capitals. Provincial institutions were based on the division of administrative, financial and judicial functions. The general affairs of the province were managed by the provincial government. Finance was handled by the Treasury. The Chambers of the Criminal and Civil Courts, the Supreme Zemsky Court and the Constituent Court became the courts, in the counties - the Nizhny Zemsky Court. The judicial system was estate. The county was ruled by a police captain. The city was ruled by a mayor appointed by the government, and was divided into parts headed by a private bailiff and quarters headed by an overseer. The center of gravity in the management moved to the field. The boards thus ceased to function, with the exception of the Foreign, Military and Admiralty.

In 1785, the "Charter to the Nobility" was published - "The Charter for the right to liberty and the advantages of the noble Russian nobility." The privileges of the nobility received the status of law. The letter confirmed the right of the nobles not to serve the state. The nobles were exempted from taxes and corporal punishment, had the right to trade and entrepreneurship, could not be deprived of the title of nobility, life and estate without a trial. The nobles had the exclusive right to own land with the peasants. The nobility received its estate-corporate structure - county and provincial noble assemblies, which elected, respectively, county and provincial marshals of the nobility. Nobles were given the title of "noble class".

The absolute noble state reaches its peak under Catherine II.

The lecture was added on 09/05/2012 at 12:09:46 pm

Like Peter I, Catherine II went down in history under the name of Catherine the Great. Her reign became new era in the history of Russia.

The beginning of the reign for Catherine II was difficult, especially in moral terms. No matter how unpopular Peter III was in Russia, he was a legitimate (by God's grace) sovereign, besides, the grandson of Peter the Great, albeit insufficient.

Catherine was a purebred German who, in the eyes of society, had usurped the ancient throne of Moscow tsars. The role of Catherine II in the murder of her husband was also unclear.

First of all, Catherine II hurried with the coronation, which was supposed to legitimize her accession to the throne. The solemn ceremony took place on September 22, 1762 in the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin.

Catherine generously rewarded everyone who contributed to her victory. The main participants in the coup (40 people) received ranks, land holdings with serfs and large sums of money.

Wanting to win over the influential Orthodox clergy in Russia, Catherine II canceled the decree Peter III on the seizure of landed property and peasants from the monasteries.

True, having strengthened her position, the empress already in 1764 nevertheless took away 990 thousand peasants from the monasteries in favor of the state. Former monastic peasants (there were about 1 million male souls) began to be called economic, since the College of Economy was created to manage them.

The number of monasteries in Russia decreased from 881 to 385.

Acting cautiously, avoiding dangerous conflicts, Catherine II from the very beginning firmly made it clear that she did not intend to give up autocratic power. She rejected the Count's idea N.I. Panina on the establishment of the Permanent Imperial Council, consisting of four secretaries of state, who were to decide all the most important state affairs. In this case, Catherine would have only the right to approve the decisions being made.

Panin's project is reflected oligarchic hopes of the aristocracy to limit autocratic power, which did not suit Catherine II at all.

At the same time, Panin proposed dividing the ruling Senate into six departments, which led to a weakening of the role of this highest institution in favor of the Permanent Imperial Council.

Catherine II skillfully took advantage of Panin's proposal. In December 1763, the empress carried out Senate reform, dividing it into six departments, two of which were supposed to be in Moscow, and four in St. Petersburg.

So the ruling Senate lost its former political role, turning into a bureaucratic-clerical superstructure over the central institutions of the empire. As a result of the reform, the autocratic power was strengthened. “But Catherine II,” wrote S.M. Solovyov, “it took many years of skillful, firm and happy rule to acquire that authority, that charm that she produced in Russia and in Europe as a whole, in order to force her to recognize the legitimacy of her power.”

"Manifesto on Liberty to the Nobility" (1762) and "Charter to the Nobility"(1785) Catherine II finally secured the privileges of the nobility.

The nobles were exempted from taxes and duties. Noble landownership increased markedly. The landowners were given state and palace peasants, as well as uninhabited lands. The reign of Catherine II in historical science is called the golden age of the Russian nobility.

By the time of her accession to the throne, Catherine II was well acquainted with the liberal ideas of European philosophical, political and economic thought.

Even in her youth, she read the works of the French enlighteners - Voltaire, Rousseau, Diderot, D'Alembert- and considered myself their student. In 1763, Catherine began a correspondence with Voltaire, which continued until 1777, that is, almost until the death of the famous French enlightener. In letters to Voltaire, Catherine told the “teacher” about activities for the benefit of her subjects and about military events, and Voltaire showered the “student” with flattery and compliments.

Catherine II emphasized that the book of the French educator Montesquieu became her guide in politics. In the countries of Western Europe, they started talking about the "great Semiramis of the North."

Based on the ideas of European enlighteners, Catherine had a certain idea of what needs to be done for the prosperity of the state. In conjunction with the knowledge of Russian reality, these ideas influenced the formation of the political program of the empress.

How Catherine imagined the tasks of an enlightened monarch, which she sincerely considered herself, can be seen from her draft note: “1. It is necessary to educate the nation, which must govern. 2. It is necessary to introduce good order in the state, to support society and force it to comply with the laws. 3. It is necessary to establish a good and accurate police in the state. 4. It is necessary to promote the flowering of the state and make it abundant.

5. It is necessary to make the state formidable in itself and inspire respect for its neighbors ”(“ Notes ”).

Since ideologically this program, and consequently Catherine’s internal policy, was based on the principles of the Enlightenment, this period of Russian history itself was called “enlightened absolutism” in the literature (E.V.

Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky).

This policy was typical for countries with a relatively slow development of capitalist relations, where the nobility retained their political rights and economic privileges.

by time enlightened absolutism usually called several decades European history before the French Revolution of 1789

In the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary we read the following definition: “ Enlightened absolutism- the policy of absolutism in a number of European countries in the 2nd half of the 18th century, was expressed in the destruction "from above" and in the transformation of the most obsolete feudal institutions (the abolition of some estate privileges, the subordination of the church to the state, reforms - peasant, judicial, schooling, softening censorship, etc.).

Representatives of enlightened absolutism - Joseph II in Austria, Frederick II in Prussia, Catherine II in Russia (until the early 70s.

XVIII century) and others, using the popularity of the ideas of the French Enlightenment, portrayed their activities as a "union of philosophers and sovereigns." Enlightened absolutism was aimed at asserting the dominance of the nobility, although some reforms contributed to the development of the capitalist way of life.

So, enlightened absolutism is characterized by such events in which the nobles and the state itself were interested, but which at the same time contributed to the development of a new capitalist order.

An important feature of the policy of enlightened absolutism was the desire of the monarchs to ease the sharpness of social contradictions by improving the political superstructure.

The largest event of enlightened absolutism was the convocation in 1767 of commission on the drafting of a new code (Laid Commission). It should be noted that the convening of the Legislative Commission was preceded by study trips of Catherine II across Russia. “After Peter the Great, Catherine was the first empress who undertook travels in Russia for government purposes” (S.M.

Solovyov).

Catherine II decided to give Russia a legislative code based on the principles of the new philosophy and science discovered by the modern Age of Enlightenment.

As the guiding document of the commission, the empress prepared the "Instruction", which consisted of 22 chapters and was divided into 655 articles. Almost a quarter of the text of the "Instruction" were quotations from the writings of the Enlightenment (Beccaria, Bielfeld, Montesquieu, Justi). These quotations were carefully selected, and the "Order", thus, was an integral work, which proved the need for a strong autocratic power in Russia and the estate structure of Russian society.

Catherine's commission failed to draw up a new code of laws, since it was difficult to bring the old legislation into agreement, on the one hand, with the liberal "Order" of Catherine (built on book theories, without taking into account real facts Russian life), and on the other hand, with conflicting needs, wishes and many separate orders from different groups of the population.

Yet the work of the Commission has not been in vain.

Those historians who see the convocation of the Legislative Commission as a demagogic farce played out by Catherine II are hardly right. One cannot call the Legislative Commission the beginning of Russian parliamentarism.

In the specific conditions of Russia in the second half of the XVIII century. Catherine II made an attempt to modernize the country, create a legitimate autocratic monarchy (A.S. Orlov, V.A. Georgiev, I.G. Georgieva).

Two events of the 18th century influenced the curtailment of the policy of enlightened absolutism: peasant war under the leadership of E. Pugachev in Russia and the Great French Revolution in Europe. In Russia, the last attempt to implement the ideas of the European Enlightenment was the activity of Alexander I (I.G.

Kislitsyn).

Assessing the reign of Catherine II, it must be borne in mind that the empress had to act not according to a pre-planned and planned reform program, but to consistently take on the solution of the tasks that life put forward.

Hence the impression of a certain chaotic nature of her reign. Even if this is true, it is not the whims of frequently changing favorites that are the reason.

The lists of official favorites compiled by various historians include from 12 to 15 people. Some of them, primarily G.A. Potemkin, became outstanding statesmen, others were in her chambers in the position of beloved dogs. Undoubtedly, such people influenced the policy of the state, but only to the extent that the empress herself allowed it, who never gave up even a particle of her autocratic power.

The results of the reign of Catherine II.

Imperial measures in foreign and domestic policy.
Strengthening absolutism through the reform of government institutions and the new administrative structure state, the protection of the monarchy from any encroachment.
Socio-economic measures for the further "Europeanization" of the country and the final design and strengthening of the nobility.
Liberal educational initiatives, care of education, literature and arts.
unpreparedness Russian society not only to the abolition of serfdom, but even to more moderate reforms.

According to S.V. Bushuev, in the reign of Catherine II there was "... a discrepancy between the "external forms and internal conditions" introduced from above," the "soul" and "body" of Russia, and hence all the contradictions of the 18th century: the split of the nation, the split of the people and power, power and the intelligentsia created by it , the split of culture into folk and "official", Pushkin's insoluble dilemma about "enlightenment" and "slavery".

All this is relevant to Catherine, because it explains the underlying causes of her impressive successes when she acted like a Petrine “from above”, and her amazing impotence, as soon as she tried to get support “from below” in a European way (Laid Commission).

If Peter did not think about all these contradictions or, rather, simply did not notice them, then Catherine was already beginning to understand, but unable to resolve them, she was forced to pretend and hypocrite: an enlightened empress - and the first landowner, Voltaire's correspondent - and an unlimited sovereign, a supporter of humanity - and a restorer of the death penalty ... In a word, according to Pushkin's definition, "Tartuffe in a skirt and a crown."

But the lie here is most likely not for deception as such, but for self-defense, not so much for others, but for herself, who wants to combine "enlightenment" and "slavery".

Previous11121314151617181920212223242526Next

The reign of Catherine II. "Golden Age" of Russia

The reign of Catherine II is considered to be the "golden age of the nobility" Russian state. It was she who managed to make a huge breakthrough both in the foreign policy arena and in the public and state structure. The reign of Catherine II is comparable only to the reign of Peter I - both monarchs were awarded the title (unofficial) "Great".

The German princess Sophia Frederica of Anhalt-Tserbskaya, who became Ekaterina Alekseevna in Orthodoxy, in every possible way demonstrated her desire to become Russian and considered Russia her second homeland.

She ascended the Russian throne in 1762, having neither family ties with the Romanov dynasty, nor rights to the throne.

However, until the end of her days, Catherine the Great firmly held the reins of government in her hands, not allowing even a hint of the possibility of freethinking and interference of dissidents in state affairs. Catherine died at the age of 67, her reign lasted 34 years, but became a whole era for the history of Russia.

The history of Catherine's reign is an amazing combination of reason and arbitrariness, statesmanship and selfishness.

In one of her first manifestos, the empress promised to preserve the integrity of the empire, following the principles of an autocratic but enlightened monarchy based on the natural law of the people. Catherine defiantly flaunted views borrowed from French thinkers.

She corresponded with such luminaries of European social thought as Voltaire, Diderot, d'Alembert, which made her famous in Europe as a representative of enlightened absolutism. Catherine II herself tried to develop a system of views on the state and society in relation to Russia, its past and present.

There are three main directions in the activities carried out by the Empress: an active foreign policy leading to the expansion of the country's territory and the strengthening of its international prestige; liberalization of government methods; administrative reform involving the nobility in the management of local authorities.

Enlightened absolutism.

To begin with, Catherine decided to put in order the codification of laws. The commission to draw up a new "Code" met in 1767. For the deputies, the empress personally prepared the "Instruction", in which she proclaimed the basic principles of legislation. It was after listening to the "Instruction" that the admiring deputies decided to assign the title "Great" to the Empress. However, the Commission could not solve the set tasks and was dissolved.

Catherine came to the conclusion that it was more convenient to use the "minds of Russia" only as advisers, and leave the final decisions to herself.

The support and hope of the Russian autocracy - the nobility - felt themselves at the height of the position in the Catherine era.

The first major legislative act of Catherine II - "Institution for the management of the provinces" (1775) was intended to strengthen the administrative apparatus in the field.

Instead of the previous three degrees of regional division (province, province, county), two remained - province and county. The 50 new provinces, as well as counties, were based on a certain population.

The provinces received a uniform structure based on a strict separation of administrative, financial and judicial affairs.

The supreme power appointed the governor and his assistant or deputy - the vice-governor, who were subordinate to the representative of the supreme power in the field - the governor or the governor-general.

The executive body - the provincial government - supervised the activities of the lower zemstvo courts. The latter were headed by the guardians of the administrative order - the police captain, elected for three years from the county nobles.

Police supervision in the city was carried out by the mayor, appointed by the government. Financial affairs were under the jurisdiction of state chambers (in provincial cities) and provincial and county treasuries.

The provincial reform had a significant impact on the central state apparatus, in particular on collegiums: their functions were transferred to the provincial chambers.

In 1785, the “Letter of Letters to the Nobility” and the “Letter of Rights and Benefits to the Cities of the Russian Empire” were published. The first defined the personal rights of the ruling class and established the provincial noble corporation.

The province finally came under the rule of local nobles. The nobleman was exempted from taxes and from corporal punishment, he could be deprived of honor, title, property and life only by a court of equals. The monarchy also encouraged the developing urban bourgeoisie.

"Letter to the cities" for the first time secured a common organization for the entire urban population. According to the new law, all the inhabitants of the empire were divided into 6 categories: 1st - "real city dwellers", who had a house or land, belonging to different class groups; 2nd - merchants of three guilds; 3rd - guild artisans; 4th - non-residents and foreign guests who permanently lived in the city; 5th - "eminent citizens" (scientists, artists, bankers, etc.); 6th - "townsmen", not included in other categories.

People belonging to the 3rd-6th categories began to be called "petty bourgeois".

Relations with Europe. Main directions foreign policy Russia during the reign of Catherine II were the Polish question, Russian-Turkish relations and the struggle against revolutionary France.

Russian empire followed closely political life in the Commonwealth, contributed to the strengthening of their proteges on the Polish throne, preventing the strengthening of the influence of states hostile to Russia. When a conflict broke out in Catholic Poland over the attitude towards the Orthodox population, the struggle took on an armed character and resulted in the introduction of foreign troops into Poland.

As a result, in 177B, 1793 and 1795. three sections of the Commonwealth between Russia, Prussia and Austria took place. The Polish state was destroyed, Lithuania and Courland went to Russia. Catherine II was an ardent admirer of the French enlighteners, but gradually became disillusioned with their ideas. French Revolution of the 18th century the empress, like most of the Russian nobility, took it hostilely. The French ambassador Segur was forced to leave Russia. An anti-French coalition was formed consisting of Russia, Prussia, England and Austria.

Only death prevented Catherine from carrying out an armed intervention in the affairs of France.

The history of the foreign policy of Empress Catherine II is unthinkable without her famous military leaders - G. A. Potemkin, A. V. Suvorov and F. F. Ushakov, P. A. Rumyantsev. Their names were especially famous in connection with the struggle for access to the Black Sea.

Russian-Turkish wars.

The assertion of the Russian state on the Black Sea coast would provide an opportunity to actively engage in trade with the countries of the East.

However, these aspirations of Russia did not suit France, England and Turkey.

The contradictions eventually resulted in two long and bloody wars with Turkey (1768-1774, 1787-1791), from which Russia emerged victorious.

The reason for the first Russian-Turkish war was the rejection of the Turkish ultimatum by Russia on the withdrawal of Russian troops from Poland. After that, Turkey declared war, but its troops immediately began to suffer defeat. The Russian army captured the fortress of Khotyn, won victories in battles on the rivers Prut, Larga, Cahul.

A major victory for the Russian fleet was the battle in the Chesme Bay, which destroyed the main forces Turkish fleet and allowed the Russians to block the Dardanelles. The war ended with the signing of a peace treaty in the summer of 1774 in the village of Kyuchuk-Kainardzhi on the Danube.

In 1787, the Turkish government again presented an ultimatum to Russia, demanding the return of the Crimea, the recognition of Georgia as a vassal possession Turkish Sultan and consent to the inspection of Russian merchant ships passing through the straits.

The ultimatum was rejected, Turkey again declared war on Russia. Under the leadership of A. V. Suvorov, the Russians won victories in the battles near Focsani, on the Rymnik River, and the fortress of Izmail was taken by storm.

The Black Sea Fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakov defeated the Turks in the battle of Kerch and at Kaliakria. Russian troops seized the crossings across the Danube and created a threat to Constantinople. The Turkish government asked for peace, an agreement was signed in Iasi in 1791.

Thanks to the victorious wars with Turkey, the Russian Empire annexed the entire Northern Black Sea region. The Crimean Khanate, which received in 1774

official independence from Turkey, in 1783 became part of Russia. In the countries under the rule of Istanbul, Russian consulates were opened. Turkey guaranteed the freedom of Christianity in its territories. But the main thing is that Russia got access to the Black Sea and got rid of the constant threat of attack. Crimean Tatars, behind which were Turkey and England.

It was necessary to develop the fertile black earth steppes.

Russian enlightenment.

The public nature of the reforms and the introduction of Western European cultural achievements contributed to a powerful impetus in the development of education and culture, giving them a secular character. Empress Catherine saw in enlightenment not just the development of education, but above all the education of a “new breed of people”, real citizens of their country.

Much attention was paid to the opening of schools for people from all classes.

Public schools were opened in county and provincial towns. Special military schools (naval, artillery), founded under Peter I, acquired the status of nobility. Russia owes the foundation of Moscow University in 1755 to M. V. Lomonosov and I.

I. Shuvalov. A printing house, a bookstore were established at the university, and the newspaper Moskovskie Vedomosti was published. It was Catherine II who laid the foundation for women's school education in Russia, having established in 1764

an educational institution for the "education of noble maidens."

The Age of Enlightenment meant some expansion of liberalism. At the same time, the empress firmly suppressed any attempts of dissent within the country. In 1790, A. N. Radishchev’s work “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow” was published. Showing the real hardships and injustices of the life of the common people, "Journey" aroused "great curiosity of the public."

Catherine stated that Radishchev's essay was directed against the tsarist government and called him "a rebel worse than Pugachev." A. N. Radishchev was arrested and sentenced to death, replaced by a 10-year exile in Siberia.

A major government has also been persecuted public figure, writer, publisher N. I. Novikov. He was arrested and sentenced to 15 years in the Shlisselburg Fortress. A ban was imposed on a number of Western European publications, which, in the opinion of the Empress, could have a bad effect on the minds of young people. After the revolution in France, the issuance of foreign passports and the entry of foreigners into Russia were limited.

VIEW MORE:

Domestic policy of Catherine 2

Russia in the era of Catherine II (1762-1796). The era of "enlightened absolutism".

The domestic policy of Catherine II had a number of important features.

On the one hand, by the time of Catherine's accession, the country was experiencing an economic decline, which required a weakening of state control over the economy. On the other hand, the growth of popular discontent (the uprising of Emelyan Pugachev), the revolutionary explosion in France, the liberal ideas of the Russian educators Novikov and Radishchev, demanded gradualness and caution in implementing reforms. All this did internal politics controversial empress.

On the one hand, measures in the spirit of enlightened absolutism, and on the other, the intensification of repressive measures.

Based on the ideas of the French educator Montesquieu, Catherine II developed the "Instruction" of the Legislative Commission, in which she outlined her vision of the policy of enlightened absolutism.

She rejected the idea of natural law and social contract, believed that in Russia there can only be the power of an unlimited monarch, but not a simple one, as it was before, but an enlightened philosopher on the throne.

Enlightened absolutism is a special kind of absolutism, which assumed the mitigation of royal arbitrariness by introducing progressive political institutions (elements of separation of powers, increasing the importance of an independent court and laws), supporting the spread of education, public opinion and self-government.

It was inspired by the ideas of free-thinking French philosophers, but in practice it often came down to declarativeness.

Reforms of Catherine II

Reform government controlled and legislation. The reform of central institutions has been carried out. In 1763, the Senate was divided into 6 departments, deprived of legislative functions, turned into a judicial appellate institution. In 1763-1764, the secularization of church lands was carried out, i.e. land transferred to the state treasury.

In 1764, the hetmanship in Ukraine was abolished. In 1775, the Zaporozhye army was abolished. The Cossacks were deprived of autonomy in order to centralize the country and unify the system of government.

In 1767, the Legislative Commission was convened from elected deputies from different places and estates (except for the serfs, whose interests were allegedly represented by the landowners). Catherine gave the commission the right to draft a new legislative code to replace the outdated conciliar code of 1649. Many deputies unequivocally proved the unpreparedness of the Russian society for the perception of enlightenment ideas. It was not possible to create laws eliminating social contradictions. Soon the commission in 1768 under the pretext of estate policy.

Reform local government. By the second half of the 18th century, a class division into the nobility, the clergy, the merchants, the bourgeoisie and the peasantry was established in Russia. The charter granted to the nobility in 1785 secured the class rights and privileges of the nobles: exemption from compulsory service, from corporal punishment, the exclusive right to own land and peasants, the right to inherit them, sell and buy villages, jurisdiction only to the noble court, monopoly on distillation.

The charter granted to the cities in 1785 had a favorable effect on the merchants, freeing its top from the poll tax and recruitment duty. The city estate received limited rights of self-government (it was divided into 6 categories, the city head and members of the city duma were elected).

The charter granted to the state peasants, promised by the empress, never saw the light of day. In 1725, a decree "Institution for the management of the province" was issued. According to it, a uniform system of provincial government was established: the governor, the provincial government (executive power), the state chamber (taxes), and the order of public charity.

Courts were created strictly according to the class principle. Administrative, financial and judicial functions were strictly separated. The nobility received the right to create provincial and district noble assemblies, to elect their leaders. The provinces were abolished. The country was divided into 50 provinces, in turn divided into 10-12 counties. The administrative-territorial provincial division introduced by Catherine was preserved until 1917, and the system of local government until 1864.

Reforms in the economy.

In the economic sphere, Catherine II pursues a policy of "economic liberalism". It was based on minimal state intervention in the economy, encouraging free competition.

In 1775, the Manifesto of Free Enterprise was adopted, according to which government permission was not required to open a business.

In 1765 Volnoye was created Economic Society to disseminate scientific knowledge. Bottom line economic policy became:

- the outbreak of war with Turkey was dissolved.

Increasing the use of civilian labor of otkhodnik peasants,

An increase in the number of manufactories,

The growth of small-scale production,

An increase in the number of fairs

Development of the All-Russian market

Russia's foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century

The central issues of foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century were:

Territorial: strengthening on the shores of the Black Sea and eliminating the military danger from the Ottoman Empire;

National: reunification with the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands that still remained under the rule of the Commonwealth.

The first issue was successfully resolved during the Russian-Turkish wars of 1768-1774 and 1787-1791.

Russia received new lands of the Black Sea region and part of the Azov lands. In 1783, Crimea was annexed to Russia, where Sevastopol, the base of the Black Sea Fleet, was founded.

The reunification of the Ukrainian and Belarusian lands with Russia, which once constituted a single whole with Russia, occurred as a result of 3 partitions of Poland between Russia, Prussia and Austria in 1772, 1773 and 1792.

Not only Ukrainian (except Galicia) and Belorussian lands, but also Lithuania and Courland went to Russia.

Sweden tried to take advantage of the employment of Russian troops in the war with Turkey. In 1790, the Revel Peace was concluded between Sweden and Russia without changing the borders. In 1783, the Georgievsky treaty was concluded, according to which Eastern Georgia gave itself under the protection of Russia.

Evaluation of the activities of Catherine II

Despite the contradictory events and processes in the reign of Catherine II, it was a time when the imperial government was trying to implement one of the most consistent, thoughtful and successful reform programs in the history of Russia. The foundations of civil society in Russia have been laid.

During her reign, the population of the country increased from 12 to 16 million people, the number of manufactories increased from 600 to 1200. Russia has turned from a European into a world power.

Pugachev rebellion

Emelyan Pugachev was supposedly born in 1742 in the village of Zimoveyskaya.

He began his military service in 1769. Pugachev had a chance to participate in the Seven Years and Russian-Turkish wars. In 1768 he received the title of cornet. After that, he decided to retire due to illness, but was refused.

It was this event that became the first in the chain that made the uprising of Yemelyan Pugachev possible.

He voluntarily left the troops and for a long time pretended to be a merchant, hiding. But, in Mozdok, in 1772 he was arrested as a result of a denunciation and sentenced to exile to hard labor in Siberia.

A year later, in 1773, he managed to escape to the Yaik Cossacks, where he called himself Peter 3 and began preparing a Cossack uprising. The first detachment of Pugachev was very small, it included only 80 people.

The rebel Cossacks did not storm a small town on the Yaik River, because they did not have artillery and moved towards Orenburg.

During the campaign, peasants, working people, Tatars, Kalmyks and many others who were dissatisfied with the current situation joined Pugachev. The significantly increased detachment was able to block Orenburg on October 5 (16), 1773. At that time, Pugachev had 2.5 thousand people and 20 guns.

Soon rumors of the Pugachev uprising provoked unrest among the peasants in the Orenburg province. The rebel camp was constantly replenished with new people, fodder, and weapons. Bibikov's corps inflicted a significant defeat on Pugachev.

As a result, the rebels lost their guns and were forced to retreat, leaving Orenburg, in the Ural Mountains. After that, the formation of a new rebel army began.

In 1774, Pugachev began a campaign against Moscow.

12 (23) July, he led the army to Kazan. But, he was defeated, unable to take the city. Having lost artillery, the army crossed to the right bank of the Volga. This again provoked mass peasant unrest, which only helped to strengthen the forces of the rebels.

Now Pugachev and his army posed a serious threat to Moscow. He published a manifesto on the emancipation of the peasants.

Until the end of 1774, the Pugachevites captured: July 31 - Kurmysh; August 3 - Alatyr; August 7 - Saransk; August 13 - Penza; August 15 - Petrovsk; August 17 - Saratov. Only an attempt to storm Tsaritsyn stopped a series of victories. Kalmyks and Don Cossacks separated from Pugachev's army.

Pugachev, pursued by Michelson's corps, began a retreat to Cherny Yar. Pugachev, after the defeat of his army, was forced to flee to the steppes of the Volga region.

The last significant battle took place at the Solenikova gang on August 25 (September 1). Betrayed by his centurions, Pugachev was captured and taken to a small town on Yaik on September 15 (26).

Catherine 2 approved the verdict of the Senate. Pugachev was executed on January 10 (21) on Bolotnaya Square. The execution of Yemelyan Pugachev could not erase his deeds from the people's memory. Takova short biography Pugachev Emelyan Ivanovich.

April 21, 1785, on the day of her birth, Catherine II signs the "Charter on the nobility" ("A letter on the rights, liberties and advantages of a noble Russian nobility»).

The letter confirmed the main provisions of the Manifesto on the Liberty of the Nobility of 1762. The estate was exempted from compulsory service, payment of taxes, and corporal punishment. A special noble court was established. It was possible to deprive the nobility only in court for serious criminal offenses - robbery, theft, treason, etc.

The property rights of the class were clarified. The estates were declared to be the full property of the landlords: the nobles could sell them, donate, divide and transfer them by inheritance. Only the nobles had the right to buy land from the peasants. By a special article, they were allowed to "have factories and plants in the villages", that is, to engage in entrepreneurship. Landowner houses in the countryside were freed from standing troops.

The letter of commendation introduced noble self-government in Russia. In addition to the already existing county assemblies, provincial noble assemblies were created. Once every three years, the nobles gathered at county and provincial meetings, elected county and provincial leaders, local administration, and judges. material from the site

Thus, the Letter of Complaint brought together all the privileges of the nobility granted to him up to that time, and legally consolidated his dominant position in politics and economy.

Pictures (photos, drawings)

On this page, material on the topics:

In 1785 it was published "Charter to the nobility", according to which the privileges of the nobles received a legal status. Now the nobility was exempted from the poll tax, compulsory service and corporal punishment. The "noble estate" was officially assigned the rights of ownership of land with peasants, trade and entrepreneurship. Thus, during the reign of Catherine II Russian nobility finally established itself as the main privileged class, and the period of the reign of the empress itself was called the "golden age" of the Russian nobility.

Education

Education for a Russian nobleman during the reign of Catherine II was mandatory. The most popular way was home education, and most often only nobles from large cities had the opportunity to study in special educational institutions. One of the most prestigious institutions were considered Saint Petersburg cadet corps and Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens in St. Petersburg. Especially the wealthy were educated abroad - in France, England or Germany. The children were taken out of the house at the age of six for the duration of their education, which was 15 years.
Education began at about the age of five, and the first teachers for the child were rural priests, literate serfs and deacons. This stage home education introduced children to religion, traditions and Christian norms. Thanks to him, the student should have formed moral foundations, relating primarily to religion.

Alexei Bobrinsky in the 1800s

At the age of 6-7 years, noble children began new stage education. Mentors changed: they were foreign teachers and tutors, most often French, sometimes Germans and British. Now the child's education program has expanded significantly. First of all, foreign languages were studied: French - as the main one of the Russian nobleman - and Latin, and English and German - if possible. Such subjects as geography, arithmetic, Russian language and many others were added. Great attention was paid to the physical preparation of the child. Children were taught horseback riding, fencing and hunting.

Sofia Alexandrovna Bobrinskaya

It was a little easier for girls of the nobility to study, although their education did not differ too much from what was given to boys, but on the whole it was superficial. The girl was taught all kinds of needlework, dancing and singing, drawing and playing a musical instrument. The girl didn't have to know a few foreign languages, most often they were limited to German and French. Particular attention was paid to the development of "good manners" and etiquette.

Fashion of the Russian nobility

The Russian nobleman always dressed in strict accordance with fashion. The reign of Catherine II is famous for its return to the "Russian traditions" in costume. The empress herself wore Russian dresses, thereby setting an example for those close to her. The nobles were allowed to follow all the canons of European fashion, but Russian elements were considered the main condition for the attire.

Portrait of Catherine II in Russian attire by an unknown artist

Catherine II ordered the nobles to observe “simplicity” in their outfits, forbidding them to decorate dresses with gold and silver embroidery over 9 cm. Each province was assigned its own color, and now the nobles had to appear in the capital exclusively in dresses of the color of their province.
In men's clothing, the tailcoat is experiencing a special peak of its popularity. It was a kind of altered caftan, the length and shape of which changed under the influence of fashion. Ties and canes were an integral part of the wardrobe of a Russian nobleman.
Women's dresses of this period are distinguished by their modest decoration. The lower dress was predominantly white, it lacked lace and frills. Worn on top robe- a swing dress, which was decorated with gold embroidery, ribbons and diamonds.

Elizaveta Grigoryevna Tyomkina

Under Catherine II, the fashion for “unnatural” skin color still remained. The nobles plentifully powdered, smeared their hands, neck and face with white, and their cheeks were very blushed. To kill the smell of a dirty body, it was necessary to rub with aromatic oils, which were later replaced by perfume.

Alexander Dmitrievich Lanskoy. Portrait by D. G. Levitsky (1782)

Ball

Vladimir Pervuninsky. To the sound of a waltz

Balls were an integral part of the life of the capital's nobleman during the time of Catherine II. Here the secular life of a nobleman was carried out, where a person found himself in a relaxed atmosphere with his class, and gentlemen could “legally” pay attention to the ladies of the heart.
Dancing - the main attribute of the ballroom evening - set the right tone and even the topic of conversation during the reception. We have been dancing since the age of five. The program necessarily included polonaise, quadrille, polka, mazurka, cotillion and waltz.

Over time, the balls acquired their own etiquette. For example, girls were not supposed to dance with the same gentleman more than three times in the evening, but it was obligatory to accept an invitation from each gentleman (the name of the dancing partner was recorded in a special book - "agenda"). The gentleman was obliged to entertain his partner during the dance, as well as to monitor the train of her dress and her well-being.