Etruscan civilization. Etruscans (Rasen) are Russians - Acta diurna - Learn Etruscan League

The Etruscans are considered the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, the achievements of which, long before the Roman Republic, include big cities with remarkable architecture, fine metalwork, ceramics, painting and sculpture, an extensive drainage and irrigation system, an alphabet, and later coinage. Perhaps the Etruscans were aliens from across the sea; their first settlements in Italy were flourishing communities located in the central part of its western coast, in an area called Etruria (approximately the territory of modern Tuscany and Lazio). The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name of Tyrrhenians (or Tyrsenes), and the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica was called (and is called now) the Tyrrhenian Sea, since Etruscan sailors dominated here for several centuries. The Romans called the Etruscans Tusks (hence the modern Tuscany) or Etruscans, while the Etruscans themselves called themselves Rasna or Rasenna. In the era of their highest power, ca. 7th–5th centuries BC, the Etruscans extended their influence to a significant part of the Apennine Peninsula, up to the foothills of the Alps in the north and the environs of Naples in the south. Rome also submitted to them. Everywhere their dominance brought with it material prosperity, large-scale engineering projects, and achievements in the field of architecture. According to tradition, there was a confederation of twelve main city-states in Etruria, united in a religious and political union. These almost certainly included Caere (modern Cerveteri), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Vetulonia, Veii and Volaterra (modern Volterra) - all directly on the coast or near it, as well as Perusia (modern Perugia), Cortona, Volsinii (modern Orvieto) and Arretius (modern Arezzo) in the interior of the country. Other important cities include Vulci, Clusium (modern Chiusi), Falerii, Populonia, Rusella and Fiesole.

ORIGIN, HISTORY AND CULTURE

Origin.

The earliest mention of the Etruscans we find in Homeric hymns(Hymn to Dionysus, 8), which tells of how this god was once captured by the Tyrrhenian pirates. Hesiod in Theogony(1016) mentions "the glory of the crowned Tyrrhenians", and Pindar (1st Pythian ode, 72) speaks of the war cry of the Tyrrhenes. Who were these famous pirates, obviously widely known to the ancient world? Since the time of Herodotus (5th century BC), the problem of their origin has occupied the minds of historians, archaeologists and amateurs. The first theory defending the Lydian, or eastern, origin of the Etruscans goes back to Herodotus (I 94). He writes that during the reign of Atys, a severe famine broke out in Lydia, and half of the population was forced to leave the country in search of food and a new place of residence. They went to Smyrna, built ships there, and passing through many port cities of the Mediterranean, finally settled among the Ombrics in Italy. There the Lydians changed their name, calling themselves Tyrrhenians in honor of their leader Tyrrhenus, the son of the king. The second theory is also rooted in antiquity. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, an Augustan rhetorician, disputes Herodotus, stating ( Roman antiquities, I 30) that the Etruscans were not settlers, but a local and most ancient people, differing from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in language and in customs. The third theory, formulated by N. Frere in the 18th century, but still having supporters, defends the northern origin of the Etruscans. According to her, the Etruscans, along with other Italic tribes, entered the territory of Italy through the Alpine passes. Archeological data, apparently, speak in favor of the first version of the origin of the Etruscans. However, Herodotus' account must be approached with caution. Of course, the Lydian alien pirates did not settle the Tyrrhenian coast at once, but rather moved here in several waves. Around the middle of the 8th c. BC. the culture of Villanova (whose bearers had been here earlier) underwent changes under a clear oriental influence. However, the local element was strong enough to have a significant impact on the process of formation of a new people. This allows the messages of Herodotus and Dionysius to be reconciled.

Story.

Arriving in Italy, the aliens occupied the lands north of the Tiber River along the western coast of the peninsula and founded stone-walled settlements, each of which became an independent city-state. There were not so many Etruscans themselves, but superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population. Leaving piracy behind, they established a lucrative trade with the Phoenicians, Greeks, and Egyptians and were active in the production of ceramics, terracotta, and metalware. Under their management, thanks to the efficient use of labor and the development of drainage systems, agriculture has significantly improved here.

From the beginning of the 7th c. BC. The Etruscans began to expand their political influence in a southerly direction: the Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and their sphere of influence extended to the Greek colonies of Campania. The coordinated actions of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time in practice significantly impeded Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean. However, after 500 BC. their influence began to wane; OK. 474 BC the Greeks inflicted a major defeat on them, and a little later they began to feel the pressure of the Gauls on their northern borders. At the very beginning of the 4th c. BC. wars with the Romans and a powerful Gallic invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscans. Gradually they were absorbed by the growing Roman state and dissolved in it.

Political and public institutions.

The political and religious center of the traditional confederation of twelve Etruscan cities, each of which was ruled by a lucumon (lucumo), was their common sanctuary of Voltumnae (Fanum Voltumnae) near modern Bolsena. Apparently, the lukumon of each city was elected by the local aristocracy, but it is not known who held power in the federation.

Royal powers and prerogatives were challenged from time to time by the nobility. For example, by the end of the 6th c. BC. The Etruscan monarchy in Rome was overthrown and replaced by a republic. State structures did not undergo radical changes, except for the fact that the institution of annually elected magistrates was created. Even the title of king (lucumo) was preserved, although it lost its former political content and was inherited by a minor official who performed priestly duties (rex sacrificulus).

The main weakness of the Etruscan alliance was, as in the case of the Greek city-states, the lack of cohesion and the inability to resist with a united front both Roman expansion in the south and Gallic invasion in the north.

During the period of the Etruscan political supremacy in Italy, their aristocracy owned many slaves who were used as servants and in agricultural work. The economic core of the state was the middle class of artisans and merchants. Family ties were strong, and each clan was proud of its traditions and jealously guarded them. The Roman custom, according to which all members of the genus received a common (generic) name, most likely dates back to Etruscan society. Even during the decline of the state, the offspring of Etruscan families were proud of their genealogies. Patron, friend and adviser of Augustus, could boast of descent from the Etruscan kings: his royal ancestors were lukomons of the city of Arretia.

In Etruscan society, women were quite independent life. Sometimes even the pedigree was conducted along the female line. In contrast to Greek practice, and in keeping with later Roman customs, Etruscan matrons and young girls from the aristocracy were often seen at social gatherings and public spectacles. The emancipated position of Etruscan women gave rise to Greek moralists of subsequent centuries to condemn the mores of the Tyrrhenes.

Religion.

Livy (V 1) describes the Etruscans as "a people more than all others committed to their religious rites"; Arnobius, Christian apologist of the 4th c. AD, stigmatizes Etruria as the "mother of superstitions" ( Against the pagans, VII 26). The fact that the Etruscans were religious and superstitious is confirmed by literary evidence and monuments. The names of numerous gods, demigods, demons and heroes have been preserved, which are basically analogous to Greek and Roman deities. Thus, the Roman triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva among the Etruscans corresponded to Tin, Uni and Menrva. Evidence has also been preserved (for example, in the paintings of the tomb of Orko), indicating the nature of ideas about the bliss and horror of the afterlife.

In the so-called. Etruscan teaching(Etruscan discipline), several books compiled in the 2nd c. BC, the content of which we can judge only on the basis of fragmentary indications of later writers, information and instructions were collected regarding Etruscan religious beliefs, customs and rituals. Here were: 1) libri haruspicini, books about predictions; 2) libri fulgurales, books about lightning; 3) libri rituales, books about rituals. Libri haruspicini taught the art of ascertaining the will of the gods by examining the viscera (primarily the liver) of certain animals. A soothsayer who specialized in this type of divination was called a haruspex. Libri fulgurales dealt with the interpretation of lightning, their redemption and propitiation. The clergyman responsible for this procedure was called the fulgurator. The libri rituales discussed the norms of political and public life and the conditions of human existence, including in the afterlife. These books were in charge of a whole hierarchy of experts. Ceremonies and superstitions described in Etruscan teaching, continued to influence Roman society after the turn of our era. The last mention of the use of Etruscan rituals in practice, we meet in 408 AD, when the priests who came to Rome offered to avert the danger from the city from the Goths, led by Alaric.

Economy.

When the Roman consul Scipio Africanus was preparing to invade Africa, i.e. to the campaign that was to end the 2nd Punic War, many Etruscan communities offered their help to him. From the message of Livy (XXVIII 45) we learn that the city of Caere promised to provide grain and other provisions for the troops; Populonia undertook to supply iron, Tarquinia - canvas, Volaterra - details of ship equipment. Arretius promised to provide 3,000 shields, 3,000 helmets and 50,000 javelins, short lances and javelins, as well as axes, shovels, sickles, baskets, and 120,000 measures of wheat. Perusia, Clusius and Ruselli promised grain and timber for ships. If such obligations were taken in 205 BC, when Etruria had already lost its independence, then during the years of Etruscan hegemony in Italy, its agriculture, craft and trade should have truly flourished. In addition to the production of grain, olives, wine and timber, the rural population was engaged in cattle breeding, sheep breeding, hunting and fishing. The Etruscans also made household utensils and personal items. The development of production was facilitated by the abundant supply of iron and copper from the island of Elba. One of the main centers of metallurgy was Populonia. Etruscan products penetrated into Greece and Northern Europe.

ART AND ARCHEOLOGY

Excavation history.

The Etruscans were assimilated by the Romans during the last 3 centuries BC, but because their art was highly valued, Etruscan temples, city walls and tombs survived this period. Traces of the Etruscan civilization were partly buried underground along with Roman ruins and in the Middle Ages basically did not attract attention (however, a certain influence of Etruscan painting is found in Giotto); however, during the Renaissance they were again interested and some of them were excavated. Among those who visited the Etruscan tombs were Michelangelo and Giorgio Vasari. Among the famous statues discovered in the 16th century are the famous Chimera (1553), Minerva from Arezzo (1554), and the so-called. Speaker(Arringatore) - a portrait statue of some official, found near Lake Trasimene in 1566. In the 17th century. the number of excavated objects increased, and in the 18th century. the widespread study of Etruscan antiquities generated great enthusiasm (etruscheria, i.e. "Etruscan mania") among Italian scientists, who believed that Etruscan culture was superior to ancient Greek. In the course of more or less systematic excavations, researchers of the 19th century discovered thousands of the richest Etruscan tombs filled with Etruscan metalwork and Greek vases - in Perugia, Tarquinia, Vulci, Cerveteri (1836, tomb of Regolini-Galassi), Veii, Chiusi, Bologna, Vetulonia and many other places. In the 20th century especially significant were the discoveries of temple sculptures at Veii (1916 and 1938) and a rich burial at Comacchio (1922) on the Adriatic coast. Significant progress has been made in the understanding of Etruscan antiquities, especially through the efforts of the Institute of Etruscan and Italian Studies in Florence and its scientific periodical, Etruscan Studies (Studi Etruschi), published since 1927.

Geographical distribution of monuments.

The archaeological map of the monuments left by the Etruscans reflects their history. The oldest settlements, dating from about 700 BC, were found in the coastal zone between Rome and the island of Elba: Veii, Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Vulci, Statonia, Vetulonia and Populonia. From the end of the 7th and throughout the 6th c. BC. Etruscan culture spread to the mainland from Pisa in the north and along the Apennines. In addition to Umbria, the Etruscans included cities that now bear the names of Fiesole, Arezzo, Cortona, Chiusi and Perugia. Their culture penetrated south to the modern cities of Orvieto, Falerii and Rome, and finally beyond Naples and into Campania. Etruscan artifacts have been found at Velletri, Praeneste, Conca, Capua and Pompeii. Bologna, Marzabotto and Spina became the centers of Etruscan colonization of the regions beyond the Apennine mountain range. Later, in 393 BC, the Gauls invaded these lands. Through trade, Etruscan influence spread to other areas of Italy.

With the weakening of the power of the Etruscans under the blows of the Gauls and Romans, the zone of distribution of their material culture was also reduced. However, in some cities of Tuscany, cultural traditions and language survived until the 1st century. BC. In Clusia, objects of art belonging to the Etruscan tradition were produced until about 100 BC; in Volaterra until about 80 BC, and in Perusia until about 40 BC. Some Etruscan inscriptions date from the time after the disappearance of the Etruscan states and possibly date back to the Augustan era.

Tombs.

The oldest traces of the Etruscans can be traced through their burials, often located on separate hills and, for example, in Caer and Tarquinia, which were real cities of the dead. The simplest type of tombs, which spread from about 700 BC, are depressions carved into the rock. For kings and their relatives, such graves, apparently, were made more extensive. Such are the tombs of Bernardini and Barberini in Praeneste (c. 650 BC) with numerous ornaments of gold and silver, bronze tripods and cauldrons, as well as objects of glass and ivory brought from Phoenicia. Starting from the 7th c. BC. characteristic was the method of connecting several chambers to each other so that whole underground dwellings of various sizes were obtained. They had doors, sometimes windows, and often stone benches on which the dead were laid. In some cities (Caere, Tarquinia, Vetulonia, Populonia and Clusium), such tombs were covered with mounds up to 45 m in diameter, erected over natural hills. In other places (for example, in San Giuliano and Norcia), crypts were cut into sheer cliffs, giving them the appearance of houses and temples with flat or sloping roofs.

The architectural form of the tombs built of hewn stone is interesting. For the ruler of the city of Caere, a long corridor was built, above which huge stone blocks formed a false arched vault. The design and construction technique of this tomb resembles the tombs in Ugarit (Syria) belonging to the era of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture, and the so-called. the tomb of Tantalus in Asia Minor. Some Etruscan tombs have a false dome over a rectangular chamber (Pietrera in Vetulonia and Poggio delle Granate in Populonia) or over a circular room (the tomb from Casale Marittimo, reconstructed in the Archaeological Museum of Florence). Both types of tombs date back to the architectural tradition of the 2nd millennium BC. and resemble the tombs of the previous time in Cyprus and Crete.

The so-called "Grotto of Pythagoras" in Cortona, which is actually an Etruscan tomb of the 5th century BC. BC, testifies to the understanding of the laws of interaction of multidirectional forces, which is necessary for the construction of genuine arches and vaults. Such constructions appear in later tombs (3rd-1st centuries BC) - for example, in the so-called. the tomb of the Grand Duke in Chiusi and the tomb of San Manno near Perugia. The territory of the Etruscan cemeteries is crossed by regularly oriented driveways, on which deep ruts left by funeral carts have been preserved. The paintings and reliefs reproduce the public mourning and solemn processions that accompanied the deceased to his eternal abode, where he will be among the furnishings, personal items, bowls and jugs left for him to eat and drink. The platforms erected over the tomb were intended for funeral feasts, including dances and games, and for a kind of gladiator fights, presented in the paintings of the tomb of the Augurs in Tarquinia. It is the contents of the tombs that give us most of the information about the life and art of the Etruscans.

Cities.

The Etruscans can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to central and northern Italy, but little is known about their cities. Intensive human activity in these areas, which lasted for many centuries, destroyed or hid many Etruscan monuments from view. Nevertheless, quite a few mountain towns in Tuscany are still surrounded by Etruscan walls (Orvieto, Cortona, Chiusi, Fiesole, Perugia and probably Cerveteri). In addition, impressive city walls can be seen at Veii, Falerii, Saturnia and Tarquinia, and later city gates dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC, - in Falerii and Perugia. Aerial photography is increasingly being used to discover Etruscan settlements and burial grounds. In the mid-1990s, systematic excavations began on a number of Etruscan cities, including Cerveteri and Tarquinia, as well as a number of cities in Tuscany.

The Etruscan cities in the mountains do not have a regular layout, as evidenced by the sections of two streets in Vetulonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was the temple or temples built on the most elevated places, as in Orvieto and Tarquinia. As a rule, the city had three gates dedicated to the intercessor gods: one - to Tin (Jupiter), the other - to Uni (Juno), and the third - to Menrva (Minerva). Extremely regular building in rectangular quarters was found only in Marzabotto (near modern Bologna), an Etruscan colony on the Reno River. Its streets were paved and water was drained through terracotta pipes.

Dwellings.

In Veii and Vetulonia, simple dwellings such as log cabins with two rooms, as well as houses of an irregular layout with several rooms, were found. The noble lucumons who ruled the Etruscan cities probably had more extensive urban and suburban residences. They, apparently, are reproduced by stone urns in the form of houses and late Etruscan tombs. The urn, kept in the Museum of Florence, depicts a palace-like two-story stone building with an arched entrance, wide windows on the first floor and galleries on the second floor. The Roman type of house with an atrium probably goes back to the Etruscan prototypes.

Temples.

The Etruscans built their temples of wood and mud brick with terracotta lining. The temple of the simplest type, very similar to the early Greek one, had a square room for a cult statue and a portico supported by two columns. The complex temple described by the Roman architect Vitruvius ( About architecture IV 8, 1), was divided inside into three rooms (celles) for the three main gods - Tin, Uni and Menrva. The portico was the same depth as the interior, and had two rows of columns, four in each row. Since an important role in the religion of the Etruscans was assigned to observations of the sky, temples were erected on high platforms. Temples with three cellae are reminiscent of pre-Greek sanctuaries in Lemnos and Crete. As we now know, large terracotta statues were placed on the ridge of the roof (as, for example, in Veii). In other words, Etruscan temples are a variety of Greek ones. The Etruscans also created a developed road network, bridges, sewers and irrigation canals.

Sculpture.

Early in their history, the Etruscans imported Syrian, Phoenician, and Assyrian ivory and metal products and imitated them in their own production. However, very soon they began to imitate everything Greek. Although their art reflects mainly Greek styles, there is a healthy energy and earthy spirit in it that is not characteristic of the Greek prototype, which is more restrained and intellectual in nature. The best Etruscan sculptures, perhaps, should be considered those made of metal, mainly bronze. Most of these statues were captured by the Romans: according to Pliny the Elder ( Natural history XXXIV 34), in one Volsinii, taken in 256 BC, they got 2000 pieces. Few have survived to our time. Among the most remarkable are the sheet-forged bust of a female from Vulci (c. 600 BC, British Museum), the Monteleone chariot richly decorated with relief mythological scenes (c. 540 BC, Metropolitan Museum of Art); Chimera from Arezzo (c. 500 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence); a statue of a boy from the same time (in Copenhagen); god of war (c. 450 BC, in Kansas City); a statue of a warrior from Tudera (c. 350 BC, now in the Vatican); the expressive head of a priest (c. 180 BC, British Museum); head of a boy (c. 280 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence). Symbol of Rome, famous Capitoline she-wolf(dated approximately after 500 BC, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatori in Rome), already known in the Middle Ages, probably also made by the Etruscans.

A remarkable achievement of world art was the terracotta statues and reliefs of the Etruscans. The best of them are the statues of the archaic era found near the temple of Apollo in Veii, among which there are images of gods and goddesses watching the struggle of Apollo and Hercules because of a dead doe (c. 500 BC). A relief depiction of a lively battle (probably from a pediment) was discovered in 1957-1958 in Pirgi, the port of Cerveteri. In style, it echoes the Greek compositions of the Early Classical era (480-470 BC). A magnificent team of winged horses was found near the temple of the 4th century. BC. in Tarquinia. Interesting from a historical point of view are the live scenes from the pediments of the temple in Civita Alba, where the plundering of Delphi by the Gauls is depicted.

Stone Etruscan sculpture reveals more local originality than metal. The first attempts to create stone sculptures are the pillar-shaped figures of men and women from the tomb of Pietrera in Vetulonia. They imitate the Greek statues of the middle of the 7th century. BC. The archaic tombs at Vulci and Chiusi are decorated with the figure of a centaur and various stone busts. Images of battles, festivities, games, funerals and scenes of women's life were found on tombstones of the 6th century. BC. from Chiusi and Fiesole. There are also scenes from Greek mythology, such as relief images on stone slabs set above the entrance to the tombs in Tarquinia. From the 4th century BC sarcophagi and urns with ashes were usually decorated with reliefs on the themes of Greek legends and scenes of the afterlife. On the covers of many of them there are figures of reclining men and women, whose faces are especially expressive.

Painting.

Etruscan painting is especially valuable, since it makes it possible to judge Greek paintings and frescoes that have not come down to us. With the exception of a few fragments of the picturesque decoration of the temples (Cerveteri and Falerii), Etruscan frescoes have survived only in the tombs - in Cerveteri, Veii, Orvieto and Tarquinia. In the oldest (c. 600 BC) tomb of Lions in Cerveteri there is an image of a deity between two lions; in the tomb of Campana at Veii, the deceased is represented as riding out to hunt. From the middle of the 6th c. BC. scenes of dancing, libations, as well as athletic and gladiatorial competitions (Tarquinia) predominate, although there are also images of hunting and fishing (the tomb of Hunting and fishing in Tarquinia). The best monuments of Etruscan painting are the dance scenes from the tomb of Francesca Giustiniani and the tomb of Triclinius. The drawing here is very confident, the color scheme is not rich (yellow, red, brown, green and blue colors) and discreet, but harmonious. The frescoes of these two tombs imitate the work of Greek masters of the 5th century. BC. Among the few painted tombs of the late period, the large tomb of François at Vulci (4th century BC) is rightfully distinguished. One of the scenes discovered here - the attack of the Roman Gnaeus Tarquinius on the Etruscan Caelius Vibenna, who is helped by his brother Elius and another Etruscan Mastarna - is probably an Etruscan interpretation of a Roman legend on the same topic; other scenes are taken from Homer. The Etruscan afterlife, with an admixture of individual Greek elements, is presented in the tomb of Orc, the tomb of Typhon and the tomb of the Cardinal in Tarquinia, where various frightening demons (Haru, Tukhulka) are depicted. These Etruscan demons were apparently known to the Roman poet Virgil.

Ceramics.

Etruscan pottery is technologically good, but mostly imitative. Black vases of the bucchero type more or less successfully imitate bronze vessels (7th-5th centuries BC); they are often decorated with figures in relief, usually reproducing Greek designs. The evolution of painted pottery, with some delay in time, follows the development of Greek vases. The most peculiar vases depict objects of non-Greek origin, such as ships of the Tyrrhenian pirates or following the manner of folk art. In other words, the value of Etruscan ceramics lies in the fact that through it we trace the growth of Greek influence, especially in the field of mythology. The Etruscans themselves preferred Greek vases, which have been found by the thousands in Etruscan tombs (approx. 80% of the Greek vases known today come from Etruria and southern Italy. Thus, the François vase (in the Archaeological Museum of Florence), a magnificent creation of the master of the Attic black-figure style Clytius (first half of 6 century BC), was found in an Etruscan tomb near Chiusi.

Metalworking.

According to Greek authors, Etruscan bronze items were highly valued in Greece. Probably of Etruscan origin is an ancient bowl with human faces discovered in the necropolis of Athens, approximately dated to the beginning of the 7th century BC. BC. Part of an Etruscan tripod found on the Acropolis of Athens. At the end of the 7th, in the 6th and 5th centuries. BC. a large number of Etruscan cauldrons, buckets and jugs for wine were exported to Central Europe, some of them even reached Scandinavia. Bronze Etruscan figurine found in England.

In Tuscany, reliable, large and very spectacular coasters, tripods, cauldrons, lamps and even thrones were made of bronze. These items also formed part of the furnishings of the tombs, and many were decorated with relief or three-dimensional images of people and animals. Bronze chariots with scenes of heroic battles or figures of legendary heroes were also made here. The engraved pattern was widely used to decorate bronze toilet boxes and bronze mirrors, many of which were made in the Latin city of Praeneste. Both scenes from Greek myths and major and minor Etruscan gods were used as motifs. The most famous of the engraved vessels is the Ficoroni cyst in Rome's Villa Giulia Museum, which depicts the exploits of the Argonauts.

Jewelry.

The Etruscans also excelled in jewelry. A remarkable set of bracelets, plates, necklaces and brooches adorned a woman buried in the tomb of Regolini-Galassi in Caere: apparently, she was literally covered with gold. The granulation technique, when figures of gods and animals were depicted with tiny balls of gold soldered onto a hot surface, was nowhere used as skillfully as in decorating the bows of some Etruscan brooches. Later, the Etruscans made earrings of various shapes with amazing ingenuity and care.

Coins.

The Etruscans mastered the minting of coins in the 5th century. BC. Gold, silver and bronze were used for this. The coins, decorated according to Greek patterns, depicted seahorses, gorgons, wheels, vases, double axes, and profiles of various patron gods of cities. They also made inscriptions with the names of Etruscan cities: Veltzna (Wolsinia), Vetluna (Vetulonia), Hamars (Chiusi), Pupluna (Populonia). The last Etruscan coins were minted in the 2nd century BC. BC.

contribution of archeology.

Archaeological discoveries made in Etruria since the middle of the 16th century. to the present day, recreated a vivid picture of the Etruscan civilization. This picture was greatly enriched by the use of such new methods as photographing tombs that have not yet been excavated (a method invented by C. Lerici) using a special periscope. Archaeological finds reflect not only the power and wealth of the early Etruscans based on piracy and barter, but also their gradual decline, due, according to ancient authors, to the relaxing influence of luxury. These finds illustrate the Etruscan warfare, their beliefs, entertainment and, to a lesser extent, their labor activity. Vases, reliefs, sculpture, painting, and small-form works of art show a surprisingly complete assimilation of Greek customs and beliefs, as well as striking evidence of the influence of the pre-Greek era.

Archeology has also confirmed the literary tradition that spoke of Etruscan influence on Rome. The terracotta decoration of the early Roman temples is in the Etruscan style; many vases and bronze objects from the early Republican period of Roman history are made by the Etruscans or in their manner. The double ax as a symbol of power, according to the Romans, was of Etruscan origin; double axes are also represented in Etruscan funerary sculpture - for example, on the stele of Aulus Veluscus, located in Florence. Moreover, such double hatchets were placed in the tombs of the leaders, as was the case in Populonia. At least until the 4th c. BC. the material culture of Rome was entirely dependent on the culture of the Etruscans


Konstantin Milyaev

As a boy, reading a children's encyclopedia, I drew attention to the history of the mysterious people - the Etruscans. And when I read that the Etruscan language still cannot be translated, despite the numerous examples of writing that have survived, I already thought: “Etruscans ... The root of the word is Russian ... This is very similar to the word“ Russians ”. Why not try to decipher Etruscan language Old Russian language?And already as an adult, having become acquainted with the works of the writer Vladimir Shcherbakov and a number of other Etruscan researchers, I returned to this topic again.

Descendants of the sons of the leopard

The Roman historian Titus of Livy wrote about the Etruscans of the first millennium BC as follows: “The Etruscan Empire before the Roman Empire covered significant areas by land and sea ... They dominated the upper and lower seas that wash Italy ... One of them is called Tussky by the Italian peoples , by the name of the people, the other - by the Adriatic, from Adria, the colony of the Etruscans ... ".
Fifty-oared Etruscan ships 25 meters long plowed the Mediterranean expanses both near Etruria and very far from it. The Etruscan warships were equipped with an underwater metal ram, which the Romans called the rostrum (the word is undoubtedly the Etruscan "sprout").
On the coins of Vetulonia and other Etruscan city-states, you can see the image of an improved anchor with two metal paws. It is not difficult to understand the advantages of such an anchor: before its invention, anchor stones, baskets with stones were used.
The most famous of the Etruscan cities - Chatal-Gyuyuk and Chayenu-Telezi - were found by archaeologists in Asia Minor. The inhabitants of Chatal-Gyuyuk built houses from raw bricks in the 7th millennium BC. They knew 14 species of cultivated plants. Scraps of fabrics of that period cause amazement even among modern weavers. The technique of polishing obsidian mirrors was unique. Holes in beads from the floor precious stones drilled thinner than the eye of a needle. The craftsmanship and artistic taste of the ancient Etruscans far surpass anything known to other regions of our planet. Judging by some signs, this ancient human civilizations could in many ways compete with the legendary Atlantis.
Sanctuaries and temples were found in Chatal-Gyuyuk, and a whole priestly area of ​​\u200b\u200bthis ancient settlement. The mother goddess, who gives life to a child (one of the main deities of Chatal-Gyuyuk), sits on a throne, the handles of which are decorated in the form of two leopards. Eastern Atlantis, as Etruria was called, is millennia older than the pyramids and other ancient monuments, including the Sumerian ones.
One of the oldest Etruscan frescoes depicts a leopard motif. Two lead the horse by the bridle. On a horse is a boy, behind him is a leopard or a cheetah. The beast trustingly put its paw on the boy's shoulder. The fresco was found on the territory of modern Italy, but the homeland of the Etruscans is still Asia Minor. In the language of the Khatgs, who inhabited Asia Minor five or six thousand years ago, one can find the root "ras" in the name of the leopard. The Etruscans called themselves races.
In ancient times, a single proto-language developed in the Eastern Mediterranean. Its bearers are the most ancient tribes who worshiped the leopard - the race: races, russes, rusits. It was they who at one time withstood the blow of the great Atlanteans, who intended to enslave the entire Mediterranean.

The mystery of Etruscan letters

Unfortunately, there are still many difficulties with the decipherment of Etruscan letters. One of the reasons for this is the use of Latin transcription to "sound" Etruscan inscriptions. But the Latin alphabet cannot convey the features of the Etruscan language, and therefore cannot lead to a correct understanding of Etruscan words. This was and is the main obstacle that did not allow Western specialists to approach the goal. Most translations from Etruscan are incorrect, only a small part of them conveys the approximate meaning of individual texts. And even the found parallel texts in the Etruscan and Phoenician languages ​​​​do not help the cause.
If we proceed from the fact that the Russian language retains an organic relationship with the language of the Rasen-Etruscans, we finally get the key to deciphering the ancient inscriptions.
The Etruscans, figuratively speaking, are a large branch of the Hitto-Slavic tree. In this regard, we can recall the Ruthenians who lived in the south of France. And in "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" it is not Venetians, as the translators interpret, but "Veneditsi" - Venedichi, Wends. Evidence of this can also be found in the Book of Veles, which speaks of the Wends who went west. The Etruscan verb "vende" - to lead, to lead away - confirms this. Lamentation for "take away the princes to Rostislav" is also an Etruscan trace. The name of one of the goddesses of Etruria is Una, "young". Then they said "unosha", not "young man". This root has left a deep mark in the modern Russian language. The suffixes "onok", "yonok" owe their origin to him. The little lynx is literally "young lynx".

"Mini muluvanetse avile vipena" - this is how one of the Etruscan inscriptions looks like. The inscriptions on the products of ancient masters often begin with the pronouns "I", "me". In the given example, the translation into Russian should be as follows: "The artist Avil (performed) me." Muluvanets (muluvanets) is an artist, something like the corresponding verb sounds in modern Ukrainian. However, in special works one can find a different translation: "I was initiated by Aulus Vibenna." But this translation contradicts the already established norms of the Etruscan language itself, in which the verb always completes the phrase. So "muluvanetse" can't be a verb.
Here are a few Etruscan words (some of which are known to Etruscologists): una - young; tour - a gift; turutse - gave; turan - giver; spur - collection; tes - tes; avil - year - oval; date, goodbye - date; glory - glory; torna - road; venev - a wreath; tum - thought, thought; lepo - beautiful; rosh - rye, wheat, bread; ade, yade - poison; strength - strength; zhinace - reap, chest; tel - do; zhisi - life; tablecloths - bedspread, tablecloth; zusle - must; rastoropevi - quickness; apex - vigilance; ais, yais - the beginning, god, egg; puya, poya - wife; puin, puinel - intoxicated, violent; karchaz, karchazhe - wild boar (cf. "uproot" from the habit of wild boars to pull out roots from the ground); titmouse - titmouse; arel - eagle; ali - or; ita—this; an, en - he; mi - I; mini me; ti - you; eni - they.
There is a difficult word "lautni" in the Etruscan language. Its translation means a dependent group of people, slaves for example. There are other interpretations of this term: a household member, a freedman, a family member, etc. Let's pay attention to the sound of the word. Lautni - laudni - people - people. Much later, this word, as it were, returned in the expressions "people of the count such and such", "human", etc. Zilak in Etruria is an official. The chain helps to understand its sound: "zilak - strongman - strongman". The meaning of the word itself is: "powerful", "strongest", "leader".

However, another analogy is also possible. "Sun" in Etruscan sounds like "strength". One of the most ancient roots, preserved in the word "shine", must be hidden in it. “Strength”, “asserted”, as it were, bring together strength and radiance.
In the complex term "zilak mehl rasenal" one can catch already familiar consonances. The translation, apparently, should sound like this: "leader of the Rasen force."

Tin - the main god of the Etruscans, the god of day, light. It sounds the same Russian word"day".
The sons of the leopard were once a force capable of overturning the Atlanteans.
The catastrophe, which the Earth did not yet know, destroyed all the cities of Eastern Atlantis - the birthplace of the universal proto-language. Only after a millennium did the first settlements begin to rise - mainly on the continent, away from the coast. This is how Chatal-Gyuyuk (modern name), Jericho, arose.
But even four thousand years later, the coastal areas have not reached their former prosperity. The most ancient tribes only partially recovered from the terrible losses. They preserved the language and the cult of the leopard. Later they were called Pelasgians. In the ancient Phoenician, Cretan, Asia Minor, Aegean settlements, they spoke the same parent language. At the turn of the second or third millennium BC, the Achaean Greeks came from the continental regions, whose tribes in ancient times suffered less from the catastrophe, since their habitats were not connected with the sea and were not devastated by the elements.

Genuine barbarian Greeks seized the territory of present-day Greece, destroyed the cities of the Pelasgians, their fortresses, razed the Pelasgikon fortress to the ground, on the site of which the Parthenon was built only one and a half thousand years later. Many of the Pelasgians crossed over to Crete to escape the invasion. Before that, the cities of the Pelasgians-Minoans flourished in Crete. Their writing has been read, but still not understood. Their language is unknown to linguists, although this is the parent language spoken by the Lydians, Libyans, Canaanites, Cimmerians, Trypillians, Etruscans, the inhabitants of Troy and many, many others.
In the middle of the second millennium BC, the Greeks reached Crete. The full-blooded art of the Minoans-Pelasgians gives way to a dry and lifeless stylization. The motifs traditional for Minoan painting - flowers, starfish, octopuses on palace-style vases - disappear or are reborn into abstract graphic schemes.

And yet the Achaean culture of the Greeks was able to borrow a lot from the Minoans. Including linear syllabics, religious rites along with the gods themselves, plumbing, fresco painting, clothing styles and much more.
Approximately seven hundred years later, the Achaean Mycenaean culture flourished. But a new invasion of the Greek barbarians, known as the Dorians, fell upon the lands of Greece and the surrounding regions. After him, a new period of Greek history began - Homeric, as it is customary to call it. The Dorian conquest set Greece back several centuries. Palaces, citadels and entire cities lay in ruins.

The Philistines were also Pelasgians (from their name comes the very word "Palestine"). The Philistines arrived on the Palestinian coast at about the same time as the first nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes from the East. The Pelasgians and the Philistines are the closest relatives of the Etruscan Rasenians.
Much of their culture became the property of other peoples, including the Greeks, nomads who came to Palestine, etc. Both the Pelasgians, and many tribes of the so-called peoples of the sea, and the Trypillians - the creators of the Trypillian culture on the Dnieper - were ultimately the sons leopard, that is, the Russians, the Russians of Asia Minor.

Etruscan "qi" means "three". "Tsipoli" literally means "three pains". That's what they called the onion. After all, his throat hurts, his nose hurts, his eyes hurt.

The Ukrainian "cibulya" and the Italian "cipollo", "cipollino" testify to the Etruscan roots. And the Russian word for "chicken" is literally "three-fingered".
There is evidence that at the turn of our era, Etruscan was still spoken in the Alpine valleys. Later, the rutens made the transition to the Dnieper, "to their homeland." Perhaps the descendants of the Etruscans from the northern regions participated in this campaign.
What did Etruria give Rome? Here is a short list: musical instruments, anchor, theatre, mining, ceramics and metalworking, herbalism, land reclamation, cities in Italy, the art of divination, the Capitoline she-wolf. The first kings of Rome were the Etruscans. The eternal city of Rome itself was founded by the Etruscans. Almost everything that the Etruscans built in the eternal city, the Romans later identified with the epithet "greatest." The Etruscan canal system is still part of the urban economy of Rome today.

In the city of Nikonia (Dniester region) a figurative vessel was found, on which one can read the Russian inscription in Greek letters: "Keep your wife with agodos." Translation: "Keep yourself a wife with his daughter (dosh - daughter)." The figurine vessel depicts a man and a woman. The woman's face is wrapped in a scarf, under the scarf is a child. It matches the inscription. It turns out that Russian texts are a common phenomenon on the Black Sea coast of the first millennium BC. e. and first centuries AD. e. The inscriptions from Nikonia are more than two thousand years old, Al-Khwarizmi once named the Black Sea cities in his book: Rastiyanis, Arsas, Arusinia. Now we can say with confidence: these are the cities of the Rus, the descendants of the legendary sons of the leopard.

Italy in Modern Times (1559-1814)

Modern history

Military history of Italy

Economic history of Italy

Electoral history

History of fashion in Italy

History of money in Italy

History of music in Italy

Portal "Italy"

Up to the middle of the 20th century. The "Lydian version" was subjected to serious criticism, especially after the decipherment of the Lydian inscriptions - their language had nothing to do with Etruscan. However, according to modern ideas, the Etruscans should not be identified with the Lydians, but with the more ancient, pre-Indo-European population of the west of Asia Minor, known as the "protoluvians" or "peoples of the sea".

Story

The formation, development and collapse of the Etruscan state took place against the background of three periods Ancient Greece- orientalizing, or geometric, classical, Hellenistic, as well as the rise of the Roman Republic. The earlier stages are given in accordance with the autochthonous theory of the origin of the Etruscans.

Protovillanovian period

Burial urn in the form of a hut. 9th century BC e.

The most important of the Etruscan sources that marked the beginning of Etruscan civilization is the Etruscan chronology of saecula (centuries). According to her, the first century of the ancient state, saeculum, began around the 11th or 10th century BC. e. This time refers to the so-called protovillanovian period (XII-X centuries BC). There is extremely little data on protovillanovians. The only important evidence of the beginning of a new civilization is a change in the funeral rite, which began to be performed by cremating the body on a funeral pyre, followed by burial of ashes in the fields of urns.

Periods of Villanova I and Villanova II

After the loss of independence, Etruria retained its originality for some time. In II-I centuries BC e. local art continued to exist; this period is also called the Etruscan-Roman period. But gradually the Etruscans adopted the way of life of the Romans. In 89 BC. e. The Etruscans were granted Roman citizenship. By this time, the process of assimilation of the Etruscan cities was almost completed. Yet in the 2nd century A.D. e. some Etruscans spoke their own language. Haruspices, Etruscan soothsayers, lasted much longer. However, Etruscan history was completed.

Art

The first monuments of Etruscan culture date back to the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC e. The cycle of development of the Etruscan civilization ends by the 2nd century BC. BC e. Rome was under its influence until the 1st century. BC e.

The Etruscans for a long time preserved the archaic cults of the first Italic settlers and showed a special interest in death and the afterlife. Therefore, Etruscan art was significantly associated with the decoration of tombs, and based on the concept that the objects in them should retain a connection with real life. The most remarkable of the surviving monuments are sculpture and sarcophagi.

The science

We know very little about Etruscan science, with the exception of medicine, which was admired by the Romans. Etruscan doctors knew anatomy well, and it was no coincidence that the ancient historian wrote about "Etruria, famous for the discovery of medicines." They achieved some success in dentistry: in some burials, for example, dentures were even found.

Very little information has also come down to us about the literature, scientific and historical works created by the Etruscans.

Cities and necropolises

Each of the Etruscan cities had an influence on the territory that they controlled. The exact number of inhabitants of the Etruscan city-states is unknown, according to rough estimates, the population of Cerveteri during its heyday was 25 thousand people.

Cerveteri was the southernmost city of Etruria, he controlled the deposits of metal-bearing ore, which ensured the prosperity of the city. The settlement was located near the coast on a steep ledge. The necropolis was traditionally located outside the city. A road led to it, along which funeral carts were transported. There were tombs on both sides of the road. The bodies rested on benches, in niches or terracotta sarcophagi. Along with them were placed the personal belongings of the deceased.

Foundations of houses in the Etruscan city of Marzabotto

From the name of this city (Ettr. - Caere), the Roman word "ceremony" subsequently came - this is how the Romans called some funeral rites.

The nearby town of Veii was well protected. The city and its acropolis were surrounded by moats, making Veii almost impregnable. Here they found an altar, the foundation of the temple and water tanks. Vulka, the only Etruscan sculptor whose name we know, was a native of Vei. The area around the city is notable for the passages carved into the rock that served to drain water.

The recognized center of Etruria was the city of Tarquinia. The name of the city comes from the son or brother of Tyrrhenus Tarkon, who founded twelve Etruscan policies. The necropolises of Tarquinia centered around the hills of Colle de Civita and Monterozzi. The tombs carved into the rock were protected by mounds, the chambers were painted for two hundred years. It was here that magnificent sarcophagi were found, decorated with bas-reliefs with images of the deceased on the lid.

When laying the city, the Etruscans observed rituals similar to those of the Romans. An ideal place was chosen, a hole was dug into which sacrifices were thrown. From this place, the founder of the city, with a plow harnessed by a cow and an ox, made a furrow that determined the position of the city walls. Wherever possible, the Etruscans used the lattice layout of the streets, orienting them to the cardinal points.

Life

The houses and tombs described above belonged to people who could afford to purchase luxury goods. Therefore, most of the household items found during the excavations tell about the life of the upper strata of Etruscan society.

Ceramics

The Etruscans created their ceramic products, inspired by the work of Greek masters. The shapes of the vessels have changed over the centuries, as have the technique and style. The Villanovians made pottery from a material often referred to as impasto, although this is not quite the correct term to describe Italic clay vessels with an admixture fired to brown or black.

Around the middle of the 7th century BC. e. in Etruria, real buccero vessels appeared - black ceramics characteristic of the Etruscans. Early bucchero vessels were thin-walled, decorated with notches and ornaments. Later, the procession of animals and people became a favorite motif. Gradually, the buccero vessels became pretentious, overloaded with decorations. This type of pottery disappeared by the 5th century BC. e.

In the 6th century, black-figure ceramics became widespread. The Etruscans basically copied products from Corinth and Ionia, adding something of their own. The Etruscans continued to make black-figure vessels when the Greeks switched to the red-figure technique. Real red-figure pottery appeared in Etruria in the second half of the 5th century BC. e. Favorite subjects were mythological episodes, scenes of farewell to the dead. The center of production was the Vulci. Painted pottery continued to be produced into the 3rd and even the 2nd century BC. e. But gradually the style leaned towards black ceramics - the vessel was covered with paint, which imitated metal. There were silver-plated vessels, of exquisite form, decorated with high reliefs. The ceramics from Arezzo, used on the tables of the Romans in the following centuries, became truly famous.

bronze products

The Etruscans had no equal in working with bronze. Even the Greeks recognized this. They collected some items of Etruscan bronze. Bronze vessels, especially for wine, often repeated Greek forms. Ladles and sieves were made of bronze. Some products were decorated with bas-reliefs, the handles were shaped like bird or animal heads. Candelabra for candles were made of bronze. A large number of incense braziers have also been preserved. Among other bronze utensils, there are meat hooks, basins and jugs, tripods for boilers, libation bowls, coasters for playing cottabos.

Women's toilet articles constituted a special category. One of the most famous products of the Etruscan craftsmen were bronze hand mirrors. Some are equipped with folding drawers, decorated with high reliefs. One surface was carefully polished, the reverse was decorated with engraving or high relief. Bronze was used to make strigils - spatulas for cleaning off oil and dirt, cysts, nail files, chests.

Other household items

The best items in the Etruscan home were made of bronze. Others were lost because they were made of wood, leather, vines, fabric. We know about these objects thanks to various images. For several centuries, the Etruscans used chairs with a high rounded back, the prototype of which was a wicker chair. Products from Chiusi - chairs with backs and tables with four legs - indicate that in the 7th century BC. e. The Etruscans sat at the table while eating. In Etruria, it was common for spouses to eat together; they reclined together on a Greek wedge bed, which was covered with mattresses and pillows folded in half. Low tables were placed in front of the bed. In the VI century BC. e. there are a lot of folding chairs. The Etruscans also borrowed high-backed chairs and high tables from the Greeks - craters and oinochoes were placed on these.

By modern standards, Etruscan houses are rather sparsely furnished. As a rule, the Etruscans did not use shelves and cabinets, they kept things and provisions in caskets, baskets or hung on hooks.

Luxury goods and jewelry

For centuries, Etruscan aristocrats wore jewelry and acquired luxury goods made of glass, faience, amber, ivory, precious stones, gold, and silver. Villanovians in the 7th century BC e. wore glass beads, jewelry made of precious metals and faience pendants from the Eastern Mediterranean. The most important local items were fibulae, made of bronze, gold, silver and iron. The latter were considered rare. The exceptional prosperity of Etruria in the 7th century BC. e. caused the rapid development of jewelry and the influx of imported products. Silver bowls were imported from Phoenicia, the images on them were copied by Etruscan masters. Caskets and goblets were made from ivory imported from the East. Most of the jewelry was made in Etruria. Goldsmiths used engraving, filigree and graining. In addition to brooches, pins, buckles, hair bands, earrings, rings, necklaces, bracelets, plates for clothes were widespread. During the archaic, decorations became more elaborate. Earrings in the form of tiny pouches and disc-shaped earrings came into fashion. Semi-precious stones and colored glass were used. During this period, beautiful gems appeared. Hollow pendants often played the role of amulets, they were worn by children and adults. Etruscan women of the Hellenistic period preferred Greek-type jewelry. In the II century BC. e. they wore a tiara on their heads, small earrings with pendants in their ears, clasps in the form of discs on their shoulders, bracelets and rings adorned their hands.

Clothes and hairstyles

Clothing consisted mainly of capes and shirts. The head was covered with a high hat with a round top and curved brim. Women loosened their hair over their shoulders or braided it into braids and covered their heads with a hat. Shoes for men and women were sandals. The Etruscans all wore short hair, with the exception of the priests - haruspices. The priests did not cut their hair, but removed it from their foreheads with a narrow headband, a gold or silver hoop. In the more ancient period, the Etruscans cut their beards short, but later they began to shave them clean.

Military organization and economy

military organization

Trade

Crafts and agriculture

Religion

The Etruscans deified the forces of nature and worshiped many gods and goddesses. The main deities of this people were Tin (Tiniya) - the supreme god of the sky, Uni and Menrva. There were many other gods besides them. The sky was divided into 16 regions, each of which had its own deity. In the worldview of the Etruscans, there were also gods of the sea and the underworld, natural elements, rivers and streams, gods of plants, gates and doors; and deified ancestors; and just various demons (for example, the Demon Tukhulka with a hawk beak and a ball of snakes on his head instead of hair, who was the executor of the will of the gods of the underworld).

The Etruscans believed that the gods could punish people for mistakes and lack of attention to their persons, and therefore, to propitiate them, sacrifices must be made. The greatest sacrifice was human life. As a rule, these were criminals or captives who were forced to fight to the death during the funeral of noble people. However, at critical moments, the Etruscans sacrificed their own lives to the gods.

Power and social structure of society

Leisure

The Etruscans loved to participate in combat competitions and, possibly, in helping other people with the housework. The Etruscans also had a theater, but it did not become as widespread as, for example, the Attic theater, and the found manuscripts of plays are not enough for a final analysis.

Toponymy

A number of geographical names are associated with the Etruscans. The Tyrrhenian Sea was so named by the ancient Greeks, as it was controlled by the "Tyrrhenians" (the Greek name for the Etruscans). The Adriatic Sea was named after the Etruscan port city of Adria, which controlled the northern part of this sea. In Rome, the Etruscans were called "Tusci", which was later reflected in the name of the administrative region of Italy Tuscany.

Etruscan language and literature

The family ties of the Etruscan language are debatable. The compilation of a dictionary of the Etruscan language and the deciphering of the texts are progressing slowly and to this day are far from complete.

Sources

  • Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities: In 3 vols. M.: Frontiers XXI, 2005. Series "Historical Library".
  • Titus Livy. History of Rome from the founding of the city. In 3 vols. Moscow: Nauka 1989-1994. Series "Monuments of historical thought".
  • Plutarch. Comparative biographies: In 3 vols. M.: Nauka, 1961, 1963, 1964. Series "Literary Monuments".
  • Pavel Orozy. History against the pagans. Books I-VII: In In 3 vols. St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2001-2003. Series "Byzantine Library".

Literature

  • Reimon block. Etruscans. predictors of the future. Moscow: Tsentrpoligraf, 2004.
  • Bor Matej, Tomajic Ivan. Veneti and Etruscans: at the origins of European civilization: Sat. Art. M.; St. Petersburg: Dr. Franz Preshern, Aletheia, 2008.
  • Burian Yan, Moukhova Bogumila. Mysterious Etruscans / Resp. ed. A. A. Neihardt; per. from the Czech P. N. Antonov. - M .: Science (GRVL, 1970. - 228 p. - (In the footsteps of the disappeared cultures of the East). - 60,000 copies.(reg.)
  • Vasilenko R.P. The Etruscans and the Christian Religion // Ancient World and Archeology. Saratov, 1983. Issue. 5. S. 15-26.
  • Vaughan A. Etruscans. M.: KRON-Press, 1998.
  • Gottenrot F. Kingdom of people. 1994. S. 35-36.
  • Elnitsky L. A. From the latest literature on the Etruscans // Bulletin ancient history. 1940. No. 3-4. pp. 215-221.
  • Zalessky N. N. Etruscans in Northern Italy. L .: Publishing house of Leningrad State University, 1959.
  • Zalessky N. N. On the history of the Etruscan colonization of Italy in the 7th-4th centuries. BC e. L .: Publishing house of Leningrad State University 1965.
  • Kondratov A. A. Etruscans - the number one mystery. Moscow: Knowledge, 1977.
  • Mavleev E.V. Lukumons // Science and Religion.
  • Mavleev E.V. Master of the Judgment of Paris from Oberlin College in the Hermitage // Communications of the State Hermitage. 1982. Issue. 47. S. 44-46.
  • Mayani Zachary. The Etruscans begin to speak. M .: Nauka, 1966. (Reprint: Mayani Z. In the footsteps of the Etruscans. M .: Veche, 2003).
  • Ellen McNamara. Etruscans: Life, religion, culture. M.: Tsentrpoligraf, 2006. Series "Life, religion, culture".
  • Lighthouse I. L. Rome of the first kings (Genesis of the Roman policy). M.: Publishing House of Moscow State University, 1983.
  • Nagovitsyn A.E. Etruscans: Mythology and Religion. M.: Refl-Book, 2000.
  • Nemirovsky A.I. Archaeological museums of Tuscany // Bulletin of ancient history. 1992. No. 1. S. 237-244.
  • Nemirovsky A.I., Harsekin A.I. Etruscans. Introduction to Etruscology. Voronezh: Publishing House of the Voronezh University, 1969.
  • Nemirovsky A. I. Etruscans. From myth to history. Moscow: Nauka, 1983.
  • Penny J. Languages ​​of Italy // . Vol. IV: Persia, Greece and Western Mediterranean OK. 525–479 BC e. Ed. J. Boardman and others. Trans. from English. A. V. Zaikova. M., 2011. S. 852-874. – ISBN 978-5-86218-496-9
  • Ridgway D. Etruscan // The Cambridge History of the Ancient World. Vol. IV: Persia, Greece and the Western Mediterranean c. 525–479 BC e. M., 2011. S. 754-808.
  • Robert Jean Noel. Etruscans. M.: Veche, 2007. (Series "Guides of Civilizations").
  • Sokolov G.I. Art of the Etruscans. M.: Art, 1990.
  • Thuillet J.-P. Etruscan civilization / Per. from fr. M.: AST, Astrel, 2012. - 254 p. - Historical Library Series, 2,000 copies, ISBN 978-5-271-37795-2, ISBN 978-5-17-075620-3
  • Ergon Jack. Etruscan daily life. M .: Young Guard, 2009. Series " living history. Daily life of mankind.
  • Etruscans: Italian love of life. M.: TERRA, 1998. Encyclopedia series "Disappeared Civilizations".
  • Macnamara E. Everyday life of the etruscans. M., 2006.

see also

Links

Etruscans(ital. etruschi, lat. tusci, other Greek τυρσηνοί, τυρρηνοί-Tyrrenes, self-named Rasenna, Rasna or Raśna ) - the ancient Aryan tribes of the Hittite-Proto-Slavic tree, inhabited in the first millennium BC. e. northwest of the Apennine Peninsula (region - ancient Etruria, modern Tuscany) and created an advanced civilization that preceded the Roman one and shaped it. Often what is attributed to the Romans is the remains of the Etruscans. The Roman triumphal arch is nothing more than the city arch of the Etruscans. The Capitoline she-wolf was created in Etruria.

Who and where were the Slavs before they were called that? Archaeological discoveries of the last century on the Apennine Peninsula and the Balkans became revolutionary for the historiography of Europe: they led to the emergence of a new field of historiography - Etruscologists, affecting not only ancient and early Roman times. The information obtained provided exhaustive material that made it possible to fully identify the culture of the Etruscans, including language, religion, traditions, rituals, and way of life. These signs of culture made it possible to trace the history of the development of the Etruscan-Roman civilization up to our time. They shed light on many "blank spots" of history and "dark times" of historical literature. They provided answers to fundamental questions concerning the prehistory of the Slavs. The general conclusion is that the Etruscans are Proto-Slavs: a large number of material data demonstrate the identity of the cultures of the Etruscans and the ancient Slavs, and there is not a single fact that contradicts this. All the fundamental features of the cultures of the Etruscans and the ancient Slavs coincide. In addition, all the fundamental features that unite the cultures of the Etruscans and Slavs are unique and different from other cultures. There is no other nation that would have at least one of these characteristics. In other words, the culture of the Etruscans is not like anyone other than the Slavs, and vice versa, the Slavs are not like anyone in the past, except the Etruscans, i.e. the Etruscans have no other descendants than the Slavs. This is the main reason why the Etruscans are persistently trying to "bury".
Reliable data show that the south of Europe is the homeland of the peoples who are now called Slavs. There are two fundamental authentically confirmed facts of the history of Byzantium: firstly, the population of the European part of Byzantium from the 5th century gradually began to be called Slavs as well; on the other hand, before the formation of the Slavic principalities of the territory of the Roman and Byzantine empires: from the Black Sea to the Alps and the Apennines, the Adriatic coast is the only reliably established territory of the permanent presence of the culture of the ancient Slavs. The name "Slavs" was neither the original name of the people, nor their self-name. This name, going back to the word "glorious", developed in the Middle Ages as a common name for a part of the Byzantine and former Byzantine population, who steadfastly professed the pagan monotheism of the god Perun, and in whose names the ending "glory" was common (Miroslav, Rostislav, etc. ). We are talking about a developed sedentary people with a state social culture, a people whose language structure, pre-Christian religion and traditions date back to the ancient times of Rome. How did this people arise with such a high state culture, culture, which has been developed over many centuries, is not easy to develop, and has not been achieved by all the peoples of the past? Where are the origins high level development of the Slavic principalities in the X-XII centuries? What is the prehistory of the Slavs, or, in other words, the pre-Slavic history of the people named by this name (the term "Slavs" appeared only in the 10th century AD). Who really and where were the ancestors of the Slavs? What are myths, hypotheses, and what is reality?
Unfortunately, the historiography of the Slavs cannot be based on reliable written sources. The problem of non-survivability and unreliability of surviving historical written sources is common, but in the case of the prehistory of the Slavs, it is critical - the prehistory of the Slavs on the basis of information alone from the few surviving and repeatedly rewritten monuments of historical literature that managed to survive cannot be reliably reconstructed. The surviving literature of the Middle Ages about the Slavs is scarce and reflects only the confrontation between emerging Christianity and the monotheistic paganism of the god Perun, who was preached by the ancient Slavs (the commitment of the emperors of Byzantium to Christ-Radimir and Perun also fluctuated, some of the emperors were pagans, some were Christians).
But the absence of truthful written information is not the end of historiography. After all, the people are identified not by what the author or later scribe of the monument of historical literature said about those who are now commonly called the ancient Slavs. There are objective signs of the people and criteria for its identification.
The people are identified by their culture (all its parts), that is, by what has been developed over many centuries. The three fundamental features of culture that are self-sufficient for identifying a people are: language, its structure, pre-Christian religion, traditions, rituals and customs. In other words, if these fundamental signs of culture coincide in two peoples of the present and the past, then this is one and the same people in different time. Culture is incomparably more than just the name of a people. The names of many peoples of Europe were different, changed over time, and this was a source of confusion in written and sources and the subject of speculation at a later time. Only self-name has objective value. For the historical identification of the people, the fourth fundamental feature is also important - the level of social culture: sedentary state, semi-nomadic, nomadic.
In the first millennium BC. Etruscans occupied most of the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, the southern part of the Alps and the Adriatic coast. They determined the development of this region in the last millennium BC. and in the first half of the 1st millennium AD. During the period of the emergence of Rome, the territory of the Etruscan cities stretched from the Alps, from the Veneto-Istrian region to Pompeii. It was one of the most advanced ancient civilizations. The unique features of the Etruscan culture - the presence of writing in a modern alphabetic form, the presence of a full-fledged developed religion, as well as the unique social and federal organization of society - determined the development of this region and all of Europe for many centuries.
Archeology testifies to a high degree of commonality of the culture of the population of the Apennine Peninsula, the Alps and the Adriatic. The degree of this community was, in a number of ways (at least in socio-political development), higher than the community of scattered Greek cities of that time. This is not surprising, since the population lived much more compactly due to the uniqueness of the peninsula and its geographical location and had closer ties than the population of Greek cities scattered over thousands of kilometers along the coasts of various seas.
Rome, as a real stable settlement, arose as one of the cities of the Etruscan federation - the league of cities and, like all other Etruscan cities, was originally ruled by kings. During the reign of Servius Tullius and Superbus Tarquinius, Rome becomes a self-governing, although still economically dependent city. Etruscan religion, writing, numbers, calendar, holidays operated in Rome. After the change in the political structure of Rome - the transition to republican rule, which gave some rights to the plebeians ("latum pedes") - the city became more independent, but this had economic consequences. Not having its own area, Rome experienced difficulties with food. Bread and other products were imported from the sea, through Ostia (Ustia) at the mouth of the Tiber. Rome needed its own agricultural area. As a result of negotiations with the Etruscan kings and military campaigns, mainly with the Samnites, a small area southeast of Rome was annexed to it. The annexed region included some Etruscan cities (Tusculum, Praeneste, Rutula), as well as part of the adjacent lands of the Sabines, Mars, Samnites, Volsci. This "international" region began to be called "Latium" - it is translated from Latin as "extension, environment". In ancient, pre-Roman times, the population of this area were Etruscans, Sabines, Mars, Samnites, Oscans, Umbrians. Of the tribes, only the tribes of Pomptinii, Ufentinii, Guerniki are known. Among the ancient peoples living here, the Latins were not listed. Archaeological evidence shows that Latia was also dominated by Etruscan culture. On one of the picturesque White Hills of this area near the Etruscan city of Tusculum, in which such famous Etruscans as Cato Priscus and Cicero were born, one of the statues of the main ancient god of the Etruscans, Jeova (Jupiter), was installed. Rome proposed a new political system - a republic, which, after several centuries, established itself in the entire Etruscan federation. Wearing an Etruscan tunic (toga) was a sign of Roman citizenship.
It has been established that the basis of the written language of Rome is the Etruscan alphabet and writing. No one, except the Etruscans, had alphabetic writing during the period of the emergence of Rome. The Etruscans were in intense contact with the Phoenicians (Carthage), who are known to have transmitted their alphabet to the Greeks. The earliest known alphabetic text in history - an inscription on the "cup of Nestor", was found in the territory of the Etruscans. The Roman alphabet (Latin alphabet) is the (Roman) variant of the Etruscan alphabet. Just as, say, Ionic, Athenian, Corinthian and others are variants of the Greek alphabet. In Rome, the font of ornate Etruscan letters was changed to simpler and easier to type. The Etruscan script continued to be used by priests on special occasions as well. The language of Rome has the structure of the Etruscan language. The vocabulary of the Latin language was formed on the basis of the Etruscan language and the language of other ethnic groups that arrived in Rome, mainly the Sabines. The pantheon of the ancient gods of Rome was made up of the ancient gods of the Etruscans. Service in the temples of Rome was held according to ancient Etruscan books. Not only kings, but also some of the future Roman emperors and many prominent figures were Etruscans by origin.
In modern historiography, there is an insoluble problem, which consists in the fact that there is no reliable historical data, either written or archaeological, confirming the reality of the ancient tribes of the "Latins"; they were not known before the rise of Rome, nor for three or five centuries after the founding of the city. It is necessary to distinguish between the terms "ancient Latins" and "Latins" (late). In early Roman times, the ancient population of the territory of the future Latia consisted of various peoples, among which the ancient tribe of "Latins" was not known. They were not known either to the very first ancient authors - contemporaries of the emergence of Rome and the authors of Greek mythology, Hesiod, Homer, or to the later historians Thucydides and Herodotus, who wrote already 300 years after the founding of the city. There are no words with the basis "latin", "latin" and in the first published code of laws of Rome "XII tables", written two centuries after the city was founded. The first literary use of the term "Latin society" appeared only more than five centuries after the rise of Rome and denoted usually incomplete citizens of the republic. There is also no archaeological data confirming the existence of the ancient tribe of the "Latins", there is nothing that could be somehow connected with them. Broad and massive attempts to find any real evidence of the existence of the tribe of "Latins" in the territory of Latia were undertaken again in the second half of the last century. But they again did not give the desired result: several more Etruscan cities were discovered in Latia.
Thus, history does not have any data, either written or archaeological, confirming the reality of the existence of the ancient tribes of the "Latins". The terms "Latin", "Latius", "Latins" arose 3-5 centuries after the rise of Rome. These terms are not directly related to each other, but have a common linguistic root - the Latin word "latum", meaning "broad, general". The word "Latin" can be translated from the "Latin" language as "broad, general", and does not require anything additional to explain its meaning and origin. Such a neutral name for the language is not unique in history - the same name arose for the first common Greek language; it was called "koine dialectos", which in Greek has the same meaning as "Latin" in Latin - that is, "common language". The Koine people also never existed. Subsequently, this first name of the Greek language ceased to be widely used, and the question of the possible existence of the "Koine" tribes disappeared by itself. But this did not happen with the name of the language of Rome, it was preserved and gave rise to the hypothesis of the ancient Latins. Something similar is observed today in the process of assimilation of English language backward population of the Pacific islands. The resulting hybrid received the contemptuous name "Pidgin English", or simply "Pidgin", i.e. literally: "pig English". And it is possible that in two thousand years historians will insist on the existence of a separate "pidgin" people.
The language called "Latin" was formed in the Roman Republic several centuries after the rise of Rome as a result of the mixing of several languages. A similar "Latin" name was given to the small agricultural region of Latium, which is translated from Latin as "extension surrounding". The social-legal term "Latins" was not ethnic and referred to any inhabitant of the Roman Republic who did not have full Roman citizenship and did not possess all "Roman" rights. A Roman, for example, could not be in bondage to another Roman; at the same time, a Roman could have a Latin slave.
Two centuries after the transition to the republic, the official language of Rome and the language of the army began to be called "Latin", but the republic itself, its citizens, law, then the empire, emperors, all power structures remained "Roman". The terms "Roman" and "Latin" are not equivalent, they have different origins and different content.
The terms "Latin", "Latium", "Latins" are not the only terms whose etymology goes back to the common root "latum". The supreme god of the ancient pantheon of the Etruscan gods Jeova (Jupiter) in the Roman Republic was also called "Latiar" (another altar to Jeova was at the same time in Macedonia); "latus fundus" meant "large economy, latifundia", "lati-clavus" means "broad band" and is famous for the fact that senators wore it on their togas, "latum pedes" - plebeians and the bulk of the Roman army, etc. In other words, all Latin words with the stem lati (n) come from one common root - the adjective "wide, general". And history does not have any data that speaks in favor of any ethnic content of these words.
The main linguistic fact of the history of Europe is that Latin and Slavic languages have a common genetic root. The origin of a language cannot be established simply on the basis of the coincidence of certain words, since many words as a result of the development of contacts moved from one language to another. In all modern languages There are a large number of words borrowed from Latin.
The genetic root of a language is the structure of its grammar. Words can easily change, borrow and move from one language to another, but the grammatical structure, structure of the language, its morphology, syntax do not change. The structure of the language, unlike the vocabulary and phonetics, is conservative and does not change, as history shows, for millennia. Everyone demonstrates the stability of grammar known languages with a long history. Examples are Greek and Latin. The grammar of the Greek language has not changed in 2800 years. All the principles of grammar, categories have been preserved, only some endings in several types of declensions and phonetics have changed. (Phonetics may differ at the same time in different places of residence.) At the same time vocabulary The Greek language has changed almost completely, and it has changed more than once.
The grammar of the Latin language demonstrates the same stability: the structure of the grammar, all its categories, principles, forms, constructions have been preserved. Only a few endings have changed. At the same time, the vocabulary of the Latin language was changing. In general, any living language is an example of how much its vocabulary has changed in a relatively short period of time. Every European language currently has a so-called. " old language"- its predecessor, which was used only 7-8 centuries ago. But what unites each language with its "old language" is the structure of the language and grammar.
(to be continued)

From the very beginning of its existence, the Etruscan people appear in the eyes of ancient worldrich and powerful nation. The self-name of the Etruscans is "rasena", their name inspired great fear, constantly appeared in "Annalach" which notes: "Even the Alpine tribes, especially the Rhaetians, are of the same origin as the Etruscans”; and Virgil, in his epic about the rise of Rome, recounts ancient Etruria in detail.

The Etruscan civilization was predominantly an urban civilization, in antiquity, which played an important role in the fate of Rome and the entire Western civilization. Etruria fell under the onslaught of the Roman legions by the middle of the 3rd century BC. e., but it has not lost its cultural role. Etruscan priests spoke the Etruscan language both in Tuscany and in Rome until the fall of the Roman Empire, that is, until the end of the 5th century AD. e. Beginning Greek sailors began to settle on the southern coasts of Italy and Sicily and traded with the inhabitants of the Etruscan cities.

The inhabitants of Etruria were known to the Greeks as "Tyrrenians" or "Tyrsenians", and the Romans called them Tusks, hence the current name of Tuscany. According to Tacitus("Annals", IV, 55), during the time of the Roman Empire, retained the memory of his distant Etruscan origin; the Lydians even then considered themselves brothers of the Etruscans.

"Tyrrenians" is an adjective, most likely derived from the word "tirrha" or "tirrah"in Lydia there is a place called Tirra - turris - "tower", that is, "Tyrrhenians" are "people of the citadel." Root very common in the Etruscan language. The king of Tarhon, brother or son of Tyrrhenus, founded Tarquinia and the dodecapolis -. Names with the root tarch were given to the gods or, the Black Sea and Asia Minor.

The Etruscans are one of the peoples ancient civilization, survived the Indo-European invasion from the north in the period from 2000 to 1000 BC. e., and the catastrophe of the destruction of almost all tribes. The relationship of the Etruscan language with some pre-Hellenic idioms of Asia Minor and the islands of the Aegean was discovered - proves connection Etruscans and the Middle Eastern world. The whole history of the Etruscans unfolded in the Aegean Sea, it is from here that the Etruscans originate. religious submissions and rituals, their unique art and crafts that were not previously known on Tuscan soil.

On the island Lemnos in the 7th century BC e. spoke a language similar to Etruscan. The Etruscans, apparently, came from a mixture of ethnic elements of various origins. No doubt the diversity of the roots of the Etruscan people, born through the fusion of various ethnic elements.

Etruscans have Indo-European roots and appeared on the land of the Apennine Peninsula in the early years of the 7th century BC. e. Etruscan haplogroup G2a3a and G2a3b found in Europe; haplogroup G2a3b went to Europe through Starchevo and further through the archeological culture of Linear Band Pottery, was discovered by archaeologists in the center of Germany.

The Etruscan culture had a significant impact on the culture of the Romans. : the inhabitants of Rome adopted from the Etruscans their writing and the so-called Roman numerals that were originally Etruscan .The Romans adopted the skills of Etruscan urban planning, ancient Etruscan customs and religious beliefs and the entire pantheon of Etruscan gods was adopted by the Romans.

Under the Etruscan king Tarquinius the Ancient (VI century BC) in Rome began draining the swampy areas of the city through irrigation canals, a sewage system was arranged in Rome sewerage system and built Cloaca maxima, cloaca in Rome operates to this day.

stood on a high foundation – podium and had only one entrance facing south. The podium and foundations of the temples of the Etruscans were built of stone, and the buildings themselves, arches, vaults ceilings, complex rafter system they built from wood. This speaks of the ancient tradition of the Etruscan masters of wooden architecture a. The Romans are still surprised that The Etruscans built their houses out of wood. (log cabins), and did not build houses of marble.

Rome borrowed from the Etruscans the foundations of their, The monumental character of Roman architecture was inherited from the Etruscans and embodied in marble and stone. Architectural layout of the interior , atriums - the central premises in the houses of the Etruscans, borrowed by the Romans from the Etruscans. "Signor Piranesi claims that,when the Romans first wanted to build massive buildings, the solidity of which astonishes us, they were forced to turn to their neighbors for help.- Etruscan architects. The Romans in all the occupied lands built the Capitoline Temple with a southern entrance - a copy of the legendary building Etruscan architects Tarquinii and observed the rituals of all Etruscan religious holidays.

The Etruscans understood geodesy and measuring technique, and Roman surveyors learned from them. The division of Italian lands and the territory of all provinces into squares with a side 710 meters - this is the merit of the Etruscans.

In fact, the Etruscan civilization settled on the seven hills in Rome. By the end of the 4th century BC. e. Etruscan letters. Initially, the Etruscan cities had a monarchy.

Etruscan kings Tarquinii in Rome wore a golden crown, a golden ring and a scepter. Their ceremonial red toga-palmata served as clothing, and the royal procession was led lictors carrying on the shoulders fascia is a sign of the unlimited power of the ruler. Fasces consisted of a rod and an ax- a ceremonial weapon and a symbol of the political and religious power of the Tarquins.

In the VI century BC. e. the monarchy in Rome was replaced by a republic; the king was replaced, regularly re-elected, officials. The new state was essentially oligarchic with constant and strong Senate and annually changing magistrates. All power was in the hands oligarchy, consisting of principes - leading citizens. aristocratic class- ordo principum - controlled the interests of the community.

Etruscan families differed in names - nomen gentilicum, Etruscan "gens" - "gens" - a family group and cognomen- family branches, and each Etruscan had a personal name. The onomastic system of the Etruscans was exactly adopted by the Romans. Onomastics(from other Greek ὀνομαστική) - the art of giving names, was adopted by the Romans from the Etruscans.

The Etruscans influenced the history of Rome and the fate of the entire West. Latin peoples were part of the Etruscan confederation created by religious grounds.

In the VI century BC. e. the Etruscan League arose, which was a religious association of the Etruscan lands. political assembly Etruscan League was held during the general Etruscan annual religious holidays, a large fair was held, elected paramount chief Etruscan League, wearing title rex (king), later sacerdos (high priest), and in Rome - elected praetor or aedile of the fifteen peoples of Etruria.

The symbol of supreme power was preserved in Rome after the exile Etruscan dynasty Tarquinius from Rome to 510 BC e., when the Roman Republic arose, which existed for 500 years.

The loss of Rome was a serious blow to Etruria, and there were heavy battles on land and at sea with the Roman Republic and in the period 450-350. BC e.

Throughout Roman history, the Romans repeated all religious rituals performed by the Etruscan kings. During the celebration of triumph, victory over the enemy, solemn procession went to the Capitol, for sacrifice to Jupiter, and the commander stood in his war chariot, at the head of a cortege of captives and soldiers, and temporarily likened to the supreme deity.

The city of Rome was founded according to the plan and rite of the Etruscans. The bookmark of the city was accompanied by the Etruscans sacred rituals. The place of the future city was outlined in a circle by the city limits, and along it plowed the ritual furrow, protecting the future city from the external hostile world. The plowed circle around the territory of the city corresponded to the ideas of the Etruscans about the Heavenly world - Templum (lat. templum) - "Temple". The sacred walls of the city were called in Etruscan TULAR Spular (lat. tular spular) became known to the Romans as pomerium.

In the Etruscan city, three main streets, three gates, three temples were necessarily built - dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The rituals of building Etruscan cities - Etrusco ritu - were adopted by the Romans.

Mundus - a pit in the ground where the souls of ancestors lived, in Rome was located on the Palatine Hill. Throwing a handful of earth brought from the homeland into a common pit (Mundus) is the most important rite when laying a city, since the Etruscans and Italics believed that in native land the souls of the ancestors are imprisoned. That's why, city ​​founded according to this rite became their true the homeland where the souls of the ancestors moved.

Other Etruscan cities were founded and built in Etruria (on the Apennine Peninsula) in compliance with all Etruscan urban planning rules and in accordance with religious canons. So the Etruscan city was built Volterra, in Etruscan - Velatri, Lucumonius and others were surrounded by high city walls, and the city gates of Velatri Porta del Arco, decorated with sculptures - the heads of deities have survived to this day. In southern Italy, the Etruscans founded the cities of Nola, Acerra, Nocerra and the city - the fortress of Capua (Italian Capua), the Etruscan city of Manthua, later Mantua.

The famous ancient Roman roads that still exist today, for example, the Via Appia, were built not without the participation of the Etruscans.

The Etruscans built the largest hippodrome ancient rome- Circus Maximus, or the Big Circus. According to legend, the first chariot races were held at the hippodrome in the 6th century BC. Etruscan king of Rome Tarquinius Priscus, who was originally from the Etruscan city of Tarquinia.

The ancient tradition of gladiator fights originates from the Etruscan culture of sacrifice, when captive warriors began to be given a chance to survive, and if the prisoner happened to survive, they believed that the gods wanted it so.

In Etruria, tombs located outside the city walls Etruscan rule was invariably observed throughout the ancient Mediterranean: the settlements of the dead must be separated from the settlements of the living.

The Romans took as a model the arrangement of Etruscan tombs, the interior decoration of tombs, sarcophagi, urns with ashes, as well as the funeral rituals of the Etruscans, who believed in an afterlife similar to earthly life.

The Romans believed in the power of ancient Etruscan oaths that had magical powers, if they are addressed to the Etruscan deities of the Earth. The Etruscans built their houses from wood, a short-lived material, but the Etruscans built their tombs for centuries for eternal life, stone tombs were carved into the rocks, hidden in mounds, decorated with wall with images of feasts, dances and games, and filling the tombs with jewels, weapons, vases and other valuable items. "Life is a moment, death is forever"

Roman temples were built of stone and marble, but decorated according to the Etruscan type. wooden temples that existed in ancient Goat, Veii, Tarquinia, Volsinia, capital of the Etruscan confederation.

Found in the Etruscan city of Veii temple (of Apollo), with many life-size terracotta statues of gods, executed with amazing skill, the work of an Etruscan sculptor Vulka.

The Romans introduced almost all the Etruscan gods into their pantheon. Etruscan gods became Hades, (Aritimi) - Artemis, - Earth, (Etruscan Cel) - Geo (earth). in Etruscan Cels clan - Celsclan - "son of the Earth", "tribe of the Earth". (Satre) - Saturn; (Turnu), Turan, Turanshna (Etruscan Turansna) - an epithet of the goddess Turan - Swan, Swan; — Menerva. Etruscan god of vegetation and fertility, death and rebirth (Etruscan. Pupluna or Fufluna) originated in the city of Populonia. Etruscan Fufluns reigns at symposiums and memorial meals - corresponds to the Roman Bacchus, or Bacchus, the Greek Dionysus.

The supreme gods of the Etruscans were a trinity which was worshiped in the triple temples is . Greek goddess Hecate became the visible embodiment of the triune Etruscan deity. trinity cult, which was worshiped in Etruscan sanctuaries with three walls - each dedicated to one of the three gods - is also present in Crete-Mycenaean civilization.

Just like the Etruscans, the Romans showed great interest in divination, fortunetellers, haruspices. Etruscan tombs often surround egg-shaped Etruscan columns cippi - low stone pillars (like the stone women of the Scythians) with decorations that are a symbol of the divine presence.

In Etruria, games and dances had a ritual origin and character. Etruscan warriors since ancient times studied military dances in gymnasiums, dances were not just a variety military training, but also to conquer location of the gods of war.

On the frescoes of Etruria we see armed men in helmets, dancing and banging spears on shields in time with the rhythm - , dedicated god Pyrrhus

Roman salii - warrior priests - performed a pyrrhic dance in honor of Mars, cruel gladiator fights (lat. munera gladiatoria) the Romans too borrow from Etruscan Tuscany in 264 BC. e.

The Etruscans were great lovers of music - to the sounds of a double flute, they fought, and went hunting, and cooked, and even punished slaves, which the Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle writes about with some indignation.

Rome called to its celebrations Etruscan dancers and mimes, whom the Romans called "histriones" - "histriones" - this term the Romans too taken from the Etruscans. According to Titus Livius, Etruscan dancers and mimes appeased the evil gods with the rhythm of their movements, who sent a terrible scourge on the city of Rome - the plague in 364 BC. e.

The Etruscans owned specific methods of processing gold and silver. Found in 1836 in the mound of Cerveteri gold jewelry and the finest engraving of silver and bronze mirrors are the pinnacle of craftsmanship in the 7th century BC. - at that time, Roman jewelry did not exist!

Treasures from the tomb of Regolini-Galassi amaze with the perfection and technical ingenuity of amber and bronze jewelry, products chryselephantine, cosmetic boxes, brooches, combs, necklaces, tiaras, rings, bracelets and archaic earrings testify to the high skill of Etruscan jewelers.


D achievements lead the Etruscans to 7th century BC to a leading position among the artists of the Western Mediterranean. In fine arts there is a connection with the Phoenician, Cretan-Mycenaean and , the same fantastic beasts- chimeras, sphinxes and winged horses. Fantastic Etruscan Chimera actually represents animal image of the triune deity - commanding Birth is the image of the Goat-nurse, commanding Life - the image of the Lion, commanding Death - the image of the Snake.

In the middle of the III century BC. e. Rome subjugated Etruria (Tascana), the military and political role of Etruria was eliminated, but Etruria has not lost its originality. Religious traditions and crafts flourished in Etruria until the start of the Christian era, and Romanization was very slow. The Romans sent delegates to universal annual religious meeting twelve tribes Etruscans of 12 Etruscan cities in the main Shrine of Voltumnae - Fanum Voltumnae; it was called "concilium Etruriae".

The cities of southern Etruria near Rome soon fell into decay, and northern Etruria was a mining region- Chiusi, Perugia, Cortona, preserved the famous production workshops that produced items forged steel and bronze, Volterra and Arezzo - a large industrial center, Populonia - a metallurgical center ore mining and metal smelting, even under the rule of Rome, retained its industrial and commercial power.

Read also