Palace coup- it's a capture political power in Russia of the 18th century, the reason for which was the lack of clear rules for the succession to the throne, accompanied by the struggle of court factions and carried out, as a rule, with the assistance of guards regiments.
There is no single scientific definition of a palace coup, and there are no clear time limits for this phenomenon. So, V. O. Klyuchevsky (the author of the term) dates the era of palace coups from 1725 to 1762. However, today there is another point of view - 1725-1801. (The fact is that V. O. Klyuchevsky could not, in a public lecture given in the mid-80s of the XIX century, mention the coup of March 11, 1801 - this was strictly forbidden).
There is an opinion that the Decembrist uprising of 1825 was also, in its own way, a palace coup, but most scientists consider this judgment controversial and unfounded.
Soviet historical science denied the existence of this "special" period in history; and in scientific literature the concept of "the era of palace coups" has always been enclosed in quotation marks. This showed an attitude both to the term and to the phenomenon itself.
Causes of palace coups in Russia
The culprit of the instability of the supreme power in Russia in the 18th century turned out to be Peter I, who in 1722 issued the “Decree on Succession to the Throne”.
This normative legal act became the reason for palace coups in Russia.
Thus, the circle of possible contenders for the throne expanded.
After the death of Peter I, Russia entered a long period of palace coups. The emergence of this peculiar tradition in Russia was due, on the one hand, to the enormous overstrain of the country's forces during the twenty-five-year period of wars and reforms and the need to adjust the government's course in this regard, and on the other hand, to the conditions of the military-police state created by Peter I.
With the maximum nationalization of public life, the absence of legal political activity even in the bud, coups became the only way to resolve contradictions between the main components of the absolutist system - the autocratic power, the ruling elite and the ruling class. By the end of the reign of Peter I, the tension in this triangle reached a critical point, which was caused by the extremely unfavorable for the nobility correlation between the system of benefits and the force of pressure "from above", as well as a sharp increase in autocratic power, which led to its some separation from its own social support. These factors were compounded by the lack of unity within the ruling camp.
Already on the eve of the death of Peter I, on January 25-26, 1725, a split arose among the highest ranks of the empire. One group (President of the College of Justice F. M. Apraksin, President of the College of Commerce D. M. Golitsyn, President of the Military College A. I. Repnin, Senator V. L. Dolgoruky, President of the State Office of the College I. A. Musin -Pushkin and Chancellor G.I. Golovkin) advocated the enthronement of the grandson of Peter I - Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich and the establishment of a regency system - the reign of Peter I's wife Ekaterina Alekseevna together with the Senate.
Another group (His Serene Highness Prince A. D. Menshikov, Prosecutor General of the Senate P. I. Yaguzhinsky, General I. I. Buturlin, diplomat and head of the Secret Chancellery P. A. Tolstoy, Vice President of the Synod Feofan Prokopovich, etc.) defended Catherine's candidacy as an autocratic empress. The dispute went far, but assertiveness, skillful maneuvering and, most importantly, reliance on the Guards (Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky) regiments at a critical moment ensured the enthronement of Ekaterina Alekseevna after the death of Peter the Great on January 28, 1725.
Coup in favor of Ekaterina Alekseevna
After the death of the emperor, Andrei Ivanovich Osterman, a diplomat and associate of Peter I, entered into an alliance with the most influential person of the Peter the Great era, A. D. Menshikov, with the aim of enthroning Empress Catherine. Although, there were other contenders, in particular, the son of Tsarevich Alexei - Peter (the future Peter II).
The Duke of Holstein, the husband of the senior princess Anna Petrovna, also tried to influence the outcome of events, although under the marriage contract of 1724, this couple was deprived of the right to inherit the Russian throne. In contrast to the Menshikov-Osterman alliance, there was another group in Russia that rallied around the Duke of Holstein, Anna Petrovna's husband.
However, even the introduction to the Supreme Privy Council did not help the duke to influence events in any way (he did not speak Russian and generally had a very poor idea of \u200b\u200blife in Russia).
As a result of the coup staged by Menshikov with the support of the Guard, it was Catherine I who came to power.
Catherine's inability to govern was compensated by the creation in February 1726 of the highest government institution - the Supreme Privy Council, staffed by new nobility, Peter's closest associates. Menshikov quickly subjugated the Supreme Privy Council and, using the boundless confidence of the sick Catherine, became the de facto ruler of the country.
Political reshuffles in the era of Peter II
After the death of Catherine I in 1727, the question of power arose again. This time it was the son of Alexei, Peter II, who was declared emperor (according to the will of Catherine I). By the way, it should be noted that in July 1727 (that is, a month and a half after the death of Catherine), the “Charter on the succession to the throne” was withdrawn by the Decree of the Supreme Privy Council.
Anna Petrovna and the "Holstein" group led by her made an unsuccessful attempt at a conspiracy against Menshikov-Osterman, and, ultimately, against the accession of the minor Peter. (By the way, not only the Holstein Germans took part in this conspiracy, but also Count P. A. Tolstoy and General Buturlin). The planned coup failed. AI Osterman, having become an educator and mentor of the young king, tried to do his job in the most conscientious manner. However, despite all his efforts, Osterman did not manage to exert the proper influence on the autocrat boy.
Of course, personal, informal communication with the sovereign gave Osterman truly limitless opportunities - this is how they gradually prepared overthrow of Menshikov. The latter did not want to be content with his already enormous power, which, in the end, turned the entire political and court beau monde against him. It should be noted that AI Osterman again does not play the most important role in the overthrow of the "semi-power ruler": Osterman only assists the Dolgoruky clan. The fact is that it was this family, thanks to the friendship of Ivan Dolgoruky with the infant tsar, that quickly gained strength at court and in politics. Menshikov, who openly pushed around Peter, on the contrary, was losing his former power.
Osterman "bet" on Dolgoruky: a foreigner in Russia (albeit crowned with the glory of a skilled diplomat) can manage his policy only in close alliance with the Russian oligarchs.
However, in 1730 Peter II dies.
Anna Ioannovna and her "conditions"
After the death of Peter II, the question of succession to the throne arose again. Dolgoruky's attempt to enthrone the former tsar's bride, Catherine Dolgoruky, was unsuccessful.
The Golitsyn family, traditionally competing with the Dolgoruky family, nominated Anna Kurlyandskaya, the niece of Peter I, as the heir.
Anna Ioannovna received the crown at the cost of signing the Conditions, limiting her power in favor of the Supreme Privy Council. In Russia, instead of an absolute monarchy, a limited monarchy was established.
However, the majority of aristocrats (and representatives of other segments of the population) did not like this idea of \u200b\u200bthe "supreme leaders". They considered the Conditions an attempt to establish a regime in Russia in which all power would belong to two families - Golitsyn and Dolgoruky. After Anna Ioannovna publicly tore up the Conditions, the Dolgoruky clan was subjected to repression.
The reign of Anna Ioannovna was a time of fierce struggle around the throne. Her all-powerful favorite Biron, Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich, the same Osterman and a new face in court politics, Artemy Petrovich Volynsky, took part in the struggle.
As a result, Volynsky was executed on charges of treason and an attempted palace coup against Anna.
Already in 1730, Anna Ioannovna took care of the issue of an heir. Since she did not have her own children, she placed all her hopes on her niece, Elizabeth Christina of Mecklenburg. Having received the name of Anna Leopoldovna at baptism, she was declared the successor. Rather, the future child of Anna Leopoldovna was declared the heir.
By decree of December 17, 1731, the autocrat restored Peter's "Heritage Charter" of 1722 into force. And then the population of Russia took an oath of allegiance to the unborn son of the royal niece.
In 1732, Prince Anton Ulrich of Braunschweig Bevern Blackenburg of Lüneburg arrived in Russia, the offspring of one of the most ancient royal families in Europe - the Welfs. He came to Russia under the guise of entering the Russian service, but his main mission was to become the husband of Anna Leopoldovna. In 1739, his engagement and marriage to Anna Leopoldovna took place, and in 1740 the long-awaited heir was born.
Thus, the threat from possible applicants - Elizabeth Petrovna and Karl Peter Ulrich of Holstein (the future Peter III) was eliminated.
Anna Ioannovna dies in 1740. In Russia, despite the fact that an heir has been proclaimed - John VI (some authors call him John III), another palace coup is brewing ... Biron is proclaimed regent.
Biron's regency - Minich's coup
Brief period the regency of Ernst-Johann Biron in historical works is illuminated and evaluated quite unambiguously.
The regency of Biron, which became possible with the active support of the same Munnich, Osterman, Cherkassky, lasted no more than three weeks. This speaks solely of the inability of E. I. Biron to independently manage the state, of his inability (or rather, unwillingness) to consolidate with those who could be useful to him.
Even having received the right to regency, Biron continues to fight Minich. This time is also characterized by the confrontation between the regent and Anna Leopoldovna. In addition, Biron finally restores against himself and the wife of the princess - Anton Ulrich.
Dissatisfaction with the regent was ripening in the country. On November 8, 1740, another palace coup took place, only Field Marshal B. Kh. Minich was the “soul” of the conspiracy.
The extremely ambitious Minich counted on one of the first places in the state, but he did not receive any new posts or the expected title of generalissimo from the regent.
Adjutant G. Kh. Manstein describes in detail the arrest of Biron and his family in his Notes on Russia. In other words, the Germans made a coup against the Germans. In addition to the Germans, of course, Russian supporters of the regent also suffered.
For example, A.P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin - later a well-known politician of the Elizabethan reign.
"Patriotic" coup by Elizabeth Petrovna
On November 25, 1741, another (and not the last in the 18th century) palace coup took place, and it was initiated by Elizabeth Petrovna, the youngest daughter of Peter I.
A lot has been written about this coup, and almost all historical (and even more so - fiction) literature interprets this event as "triumph of the Russian spirit", as the end of foreign domination, as the only possible and even completely legal act.
V. O. Klyuchevsky calls Elizabeth as follows: "The most legitimate of all the successors and successors of Peter I."
The name of Tsarina Elizabeth was called at each change of rulers since 1725, but each time the crown went to someone else.
Elizabeth has always been very calm about advice and calls to act for the sake of accession to the throne. It must be said that in 1741, "Petrov's daughter" succumbed to the persuasion of her entourage only under the influence of fear of an unknown future.
In public opinion, by the will of political circumstances, Elizabeth earned a reputation as the head of a certain “Russian” party that opposed the dominance of foreigners at the courts of Anna Ioannovna and Anna Leopoldovna.
In this respect, Elizabeth of 1741 was the exact opposite of Elizabeth of 1725.
After the death of Peter, it was his daughters who, along with Catherine, were considered the main patrons of foreigners. Elizabeth in alliance with Anna Petrovna were symbols of Holstein influence on the Russian court. (Moreover, at that moment, Elizabeth was considered the bride of the Lübeck prince-bishop Karl-August, who later died of a transient illness. According to some sources, it was smallpox).
The patriotic feelings of Elizabeth's supporters were caused not so much by the rejection of foreigners as by their own interests.
The ease with which Minich eliminated Biron also influenced the determination of Elizabeth's supporters. In addition, the guardsmen felt themselves to be a special force, so to speak, a "hegemon". Munnich himself at one time told them so: "Whoever you want to be a sovereign, he can be".
In addition, there are inexorable facts that indicate that Elizabeth collaborated with French and Swedish agents of influence - Chétardie and Nolken.
The night of the coup was included not only in the history books, but also in the legends. The phrase with which the princess led the guards to storm is known: "You know whose daughter I am!" This was quite enough - the authority of Peter was too great in all sectors of society.
The victory of Elizabeth brought to power a new generation of courtiers and prominent politicians - the Shuvalov family, M. I. Vorontsov, the Razumovsky brothers, and exalted A. P. Bestuzhev-Ryumin.
Of course, after the overthrow of Minich, Osterman, Levenwolde, as well as the Braunschweig family, German influence at the Russian court practically disappeared.
However, having established herself on the throne, Elizabeth declared her heir to the Holstein-Gottorp prince Karl-Peter-Ulrich, the son of Anna Petrovna, whose wife Sophia-August-Frederick of Anhalt-Zerbst (Fike) some time later became. The young princess has learned well the lessons that the Russian history of coups has taught her - she will successfully bring them to life.
186 days of Peter III
Coup on June 28, 1762 (July 9, new style) in Russian and Soviet historical literature has always been interpreted unambiguously - smart, decisive, patriotic Catherine overthrows her insignificant spouse (in her opinion, a marginal and a traitor to Russian interests).
Vasily Klyuchevsky spoke of this event in the following way: “To the indignant national feeling was mixed in her (Catherine) a self-satisfied consciousness that she creates and gives her own government to the Fatherland, albeit illegal, but which better than legal understand and respect his interests.
Catherine already in 1756 was planning her future seizure of power. During a serious and prolonged illness of Elizabeth Petrovna, the Grand Duchess made it clear to her "English comrade" H. Williams that one should only wait for the death of the Empress. (England at that moment was very profitable change of political course in Russia).
However, Elizabeth died only in 1761 and her rightful heir Peter III ascended the throne.
During his short reign, Peter brought to life a number of measures that were supposed to strengthen his position and make his figure popular among the people. So, he abolished the Secret Investigative Office and gave the nobles the opportunity to choose between service and a carefree life on his estate. ( "Manifesto on the Granting of Liberty and Liberty Russian nobility» ).
It is believed, however, that the cause of the coup was precisely the extreme unpopularity of Peter III among the people. He was blamed for: disrespect for Russian shrines and imprisonment " shameful world with Prussia.
Peter led Russia out of the war, which was draining the country's human and economic resources, and in which Russia was fulfilling its allied duty to Austria (It should be noted that the thesis of the absence of "Russian interest" in Seven Years' War is controversial: during the hostilities, East Prussia was not only conquered, but also officially annexed to Russia).
However, Peter made an unforgivable mistake by declaring his intention to move to recapture Schleswig from Denmark. The guards were especially worried, which, in fact, supported Catherine in the upcoming coup.
In addition, Peter was in no hurry to be crowned, and in fact, he did not have time to comply with all the formalities that he was obliged to comply with as emperor. Frederick II in his letters persistently advised Peter to put on the crown as soon as possible, but the emperor did not heed the advice of his idol. Thus, in the eyes of the Russian people, he was like a "fake tsar."
As for Catherine, then, as the same Frederick II said: “She was a foreigner, on the eve of a divorce” and the coup was her only chance (Peter emphasized more than once that he was going to divorce his wife and marry Elizaveta Vorontsova).
- Peter III: modern sculptural portrait.
The signal for the beginning of the coup was the arrest of an officer - the Transfiguration Passek. Alexei Orlov (brother of the favorite) brought Ekaterina to St. Petersburg early in the morning, where she turned to the soldiers of the Izmailovsky regiment, and then to the Semyonovites. This was followed by a prayer service in the Kazan Cathedral and the oath of the Senate and the Synod.
On the evening of June 28, a “campaign to Peterhof” was made, where Peter III was supposed to come to celebrate his name day and the name day of the heir Pavel. The emperor's indecisiveness and some kind of childish obedience did their job - no advice and actions of those close to him could bring Peter out of his states of fear and stupor.
He rather quickly abandoned the struggle for power and, in fact, for his life. The deposed autocrat was taken to Ropsha, where, according to most historians, he was killed by his jailers.
Frederick II commented on this event: "He allowed himself to be overthrown like a child sent to sleep."
The overthrow of Paul I
Paul I was strangled in his own bedroom on the night of March 11, 1801 in the Mikhailovsky Castle. The conspiracy was attended by Agramakov, N.P. Panin, Vice-Chancellor, L.L. Benningsen, commander of the Izyuminsky Light Horse Regiment P.A. Zubov (Ekaterina’s favorite), Palen, Governor-General of St. Petersburg, commanders of the guards regiments: Semenovsky - N. I. Depreradovich, Kavalergardsky - F.P. Uvarov, Preobrazhensky - P.A. Talyzin, and according to some sources - the adjutant wing of the emperor, Count Pyotr Vasilyevich Golenishchev-Kutuzov, who immediately after the coup was appointed commander of the Cavalier Guard regiment.
Initially, the overthrow of Paul and the accession of the English regent were planned. Perhaps the denunciation to the tsar was written by V.P. Meshchersky, in the past the chief of the St. Petersburg regiment, quartered in Smolensk, perhaps by the Prosecutor General P.Kh. Obolyaninov. In any case, the plot was uncovered, Lindener and Arakcheev were called in, but this only accelerated the execution of the plot. According to one version, Pavel was killed by Nikolai Zubov (Suvorov's son-in-law, Platon Zubov's elder brother), who hit him with a golden snuffbox (there was a joke at court later: "The Emperor died with an apoplectic blow to the temple with a snuffbox"). According to another version, Paul was strangled with a scarf or crushed by a group of conspirators who, leaning on the emperor and each other, did not know exactly what was happening. Mistaking one of the killers for the son of Konstantin, he shouted: “Your Highness, are you here? Have mercy! Air, Air!.. What have I done wrong to you?” Those were his last words.
The funeral service and burial took place on March 23, Great Saturday; committed by all members Holy Synod headed by Metropolitan of St. Petersburg Ambrose (Podobedov).
He died on January 28, 1725, without appointing a successor to the throne. A long struggle of various noble groups for power began.
In 1725 A.D. Menshikov - a representative of the new tribal nobility - enthroned the widow of Peter the 1st - Catherine the 1st. To strengthen her power in 1726, the Empress established the Supreme Privy Council. It included associates of Peter the 1st: A.D. Menshikov, Count P.A. Tolstoy, F.M. Apraksin, M.M. Golitsyn. From 1726 to 1730, the council, limiting the power of the senate, actually decided all state affairs.
Supported by the guards, with the help of France and Sweden, she arrested and imprisoned the baby emperor, exiled I. Minich, A.I. Osterman and other foreigners who claimed power. During her reign, there was a return to the Petrine orders and their strengthening.
Elizabeth pursued a policy of strengthening the rights and privileges of the nobility. The landowners were given the right to sell peasants as recruits. Customs fees have been abolished.
The aggressive policy of Prussia forced Russia to conclude an alliance with Austria, France and Sweden. The 100,000th has begun Russian army was sent to the territory of Austria against Prussia.
In the summer of 1757, Russian troops, having entered Prussia, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Prussians near the village of Gross-Egersdorf. In 1758 Koenigsberg was taken. In the same year, the main battle took place with the main forces of King Frederick II near Zorndorf. The Russian army under the command of General P.S. Saltykov, with the support of the allied Austrian troops, as a result of a bloody battle, practically destroyed the Prussian army. The capture of Berlin in 1760 brought Prussia to the brink of disaster. She was saved from this by the death of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, which occurred on December 25, 1761.
After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, her nephew Peter 3rd (1761-1762) ascended the throne, who ended the war and returned all previously conquered lands to the Prussian king Frederick 2nd. He made peace with Prussia and entered into a military alliance with Frederick II. Peter the 3rd did not understand the beliefs and customs of the Russian Orthodox Church and neglected them. The Prussian policy caused dissatisfaction with his reign and led to the growth of the popularity of his wife, Sophia Frederick Augusta of Zerbst. Unlike her husband, she, being a German, converted to Orthodoxy, observed fasts, and attended divine services. According to Orthodox traditions, she became.
On June 29, 1762, with the help of the guardsmen of the Izmailovsky and Semenovsky regiments, Catherine seized power. Peter the 3rd signed the act of renunciation, after which he died at the hands of security officers.
Palace coups
Palace coup- this is the seizure of political power in Russia in the 18th century, which is caused by the lack of clear rules for the succession to the throne, accompanied by a struggle between court factions and carried out, as a rule, with the assistance of guards regiments.
There is no single scientific definition of a palace coup, and there are no clear time limits for this phenomenon. So, V. O. Klyuchevsky (the author of the term) dates the era of palace coups from to years. However, today there is another point of view - -1801. (The fact is that V. O. Klyuchevsky could not, in a public lecture given in the mid-80s of the XIX century, mention the coup on March 1, 1801 - this was strictly forbidden).
Portrait of Field Marshal B. Kh. Munnich
Ernst Johann Biron
As a result, Volynsky was executed on charges of treason and an attempted palace coup against Anna.
A lot has been written about this coup, and almost all historical (and even more so - fiction) literature interprets this event as "triumph of the Russian spirit", as the end of foreign domination, as the only possible and even completely legal act.
After the death of Peter, it was his daughters who, along with Catherine, were considered the main patrons of foreigners. Elizabeth in alliance with Anna Petrovna were symbols of Holstein influence on the Russian court. (Moreover, at that moment Elizabeth was considered the bride of the Lübeck Prince-Bishop Karl-August, who later died of a transient illness).
The patriotic feelings of Elizabeth's supporters were caused not so much by the rejection of foreigners as by their own interests.
The ease with which Minich eliminated Biron also influenced the determination of Elizabeth's supporters. In addition, the guardsmen felt themselves to be a special force, so to speak, a "hegemon". Munnich himself at one time told them so: "Whoever you want to be a sovereign, he can be."
Young Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst 1740
In addition, there are inexorable facts that indicate that Elizabeth collaborated with French and Swedish agents of influence - Chétardie and Nolken.
The night of the coup entered not only the history books, but also the legends. The phrase with which the princess led the guards to storm is known: "Do you know whose daughter I am?" This was quite enough - the authority of Peter was too great in all sectors of society.
The victory of Elizabeth brought to power a new generation of courtiers and prominent politicians - the Shuvalov family, M. I. Vorontsov, the Razumovsky brothers, and exalted A. P. Bestuzhev - Ryumin.
Of course, after the overthrow of Minich, Osterman, Levenwolde, as well as the Braunschweig family, German influence at the Russian court practically disappeared.
However, having established herself on the throne, Elizabeth declared her heir to the Holstein-Gottorp prince Karl - Peter - Ulrich, the son of Anna Petrovna, whose wife Sophia - Augusta - Frederick Anhalt - Zerbstskaya (Fike) some time later became. The young princess has learned well the lessons that the Russian history of coups has taught her - she will successfully bring them to life.
186 days of Peter III
Peter and Catherine: joint portrait
Catherine the Great in her youth.
During his short reign, Peter brought to life a number of measures that were supposed to strengthen his position and make his figure popular among the people. So, he abolished the Secret Investigative Office and gave the nobles the opportunity to choose between service and a carefree life on his estate. ( "Manifesto on granting freedom and liberties to the Russian nobility").
It is believed, however, that the cause of the coup was precisely the extreme unpopularity of Peter III among the people. He was blamed for: disrespect for Russian shrines and the conclusion of a "shameful peace" with Prussia.
Peter led Russia out of the war, which was depleting the country's human and economic resources, and in which Russia was fulfilling its allied duty to Austria (that is, there was no "Russian interest" in the Seven Years' War), but by the time the war was withdrawn, almost all of Prussia had been captured .
However, Peter made an unforgivable mistake by declaring his intention to move to recapture Schleswig from Denmark. The guards were especially worried, which, in fact, supported Catherine in the upcoming coup.
In addition, Peter was in no hurry to be crowned, and, in fact, he did not have time to comply with all the formalities that he was obliged to comply with as emperor. Frederick II in his letters persistently advised Peter to put on the crown as soon as possible, but the emperor did not heed the advice of his idol. Thus, in the eyes of the Russian people, he was like a "fake tsar."
As for Catherine, then, as the same Frederick II said: “She was a foreigner, on the eve of a divorce” and the coup was her only chance (Peter emphasized more than once that he was going to divorce his wife and marry Elizaveta Vorontsova).
Alexey Orlov
The signal for the beginning of the coup was the arrest of an officer - the Transfiguration Passek. Alexei Orlov (brother of the favorite) brought Ekaterina to St. Petersburg early in the morning, where she turned to the soldiers of the Izmailovsky regiment, and then to the Semenovites. This was followed by a prayer service in the Kazan Cathedral and the oath of the Senate and the Synod.
On the evening of June 28, a “campaign to Peterhof” was made, where Peter III was supposed to come to celebrate his name day and the name day of the heir Pavel. The emperor's indecisiveness and some kind of childish obedience did their job - no advice and actions of those close to him could bring Peter out of his states of fear and stupor.
He rather quickly abandoned the struggle for power and, in essence, for his life. The deposed autocrat was taken to Ropsha, where, according to most historians, he was killed by his jailers.
Frederick II commented on this event: "He allowed himself to be overthrown like a child sent to sleep."
1. general characteristics era of palace coups
The overstrain of the country's forces during the years of Peter the Great's reforms, the destruction of traditions, and the violent methods of reform caused an ambiguous attitude of various circles of Russian society towards the Peter's heritage and created the conditions for political instability.
From 1725, after the death of Peter I and until Catherine II came to power in 1762, six monarchs and many political forces behind them were replaced on the throne. This change did not always take place in a peaceful and legal way, which is why this period of V.O. Klyuchevsky is not entirely accurate, but figuratively and aptly called " era of palace coups".
2. Background of palace coups
The main reason that formed the basis of the palace coups was the contradictions between various noble groups in relation to the Peter's heritage. It would be a simplification to consider that the split occurred along the lines of acceptance and rejection of reforms. Both the so-called "new nobility", which had come to the fore in the years of Peter the Great thanks to their service zeal, and the aristocratic party tried to soften the course of reforms, hoping in one form or another to give a respite to society, and first of all, to themselves. But each of these groups defended its narrow class interests and privileges, which created a fertile ground for internal political struggle.
Palace coups were generated by a sharp struggle of various factions for power. As a rule, it came down most often to the nomination and support of one or another candidate for the throne.
an active role in political life At that time, the guards began to play the country, which Peter brought up as a privileged "support" of the autocracy, who, moreover, assumed the right to control the conformity of the personality and policy of the monarch to the legacy that her "beloved emperor" left.
The alienation of the masses from politics and their passivity served as fertile ground for palace intrigues and coups.
To a large extent palace coups were provoked by the unresolved problem of succession to the throne in connection with the adoption of the Decree of 1722, which broke the traditional mechanism for the transfer of power,
3. The struggle for power after the death of Peter I
Dying, Peter did not leave an heir, having only time to write with a weakening hand: "Give everything ...". The opinion of the leaders about his successor was divided. "Chicks of Petrov's nest" (A.D. Menshikov, P.A. Tolstoy , I.I. Buturlin , P.I. Yaguzhinsky etc.) advocated for his second wife Catherine, and representatives of the noble nobility (D.M. Golitsyn , V.V. Dolgoruky and others) defended the candidacy of their grandson - Peter Alekseevich. The outcome of the dispute was decided by the guards, who supported the empress.
accession Catherine 1 (1725-1727) led to a sharp strengthening of the position of Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the country. Attempts to somewhat curb his lust for power and greed with the help of the Supreme Privy Council (VTS) created under the Empress, to which the first three colleges, as well as the Senate, were subordinate, did not lead to anything. Furthermore, temporary worker decided to strengthen his position through the marriage of his daughter with the young grandson of Peter. P. Tolstoy, who opposed this plan, ended up in prison.
In May 1727, Catherine 1 died and, according to her will, 12-year-old Peter II (1727-1730) became emperor under the regency of the military-technical cooperation. Menshikov's influence at court increased, and he even received the coveted rank of generalissimo. But, pushing away old allies and not acquiring new ones among the well-born nobility, he soon lost influence on the young emperor and in September 1727 was arrested and exiled with his whole family to Berezovoe, where he soon died.
A significant role in discrediting the personality of Menshikov in the eyes of the young emperor was played by the Dolgoruky, as well as a member of the military-technical cooperation, the tutor of the tsar, nominated to this position by Menshikov himself - A.I. Osterman - A clever diplomat who, depending on the alignment of forces and the political situation, was able to change his views, allies and patrons.
The overthrow of Menshikov was, in essence, an actual palace coup, because the composition of the military-technical cooperation changed, in which aristocratic families (Dolgoruky and Golitsyn) began to predominate, and A.I. began to play a key role. Osterman; the regency of the MTC was put an end to, Peter II declared himself a full-fledged ruler, who was surrounded by new favorites; a course was outlined aimed at revising the reforms of Peter I.
Soon the court left St. Petersburg and moved to Moscow, which attracted the emperor by the presence of richer hunting grounds. The sister of the tsar's favorite, Ekaterina Dolgorukaya, was betrothed to Peter II, but while preparing for the wedding, he died of smallpox. And again the question of the heir to the throne arose, because. with the death of Peter II, the male line of the Romanovs ended, and he did not have time to appoint a successor.
4. Supreme Privy Council (STC)
In the conditions of a political crisis and timelessness, the military-technical cooperation, which by that time consisted of 8 people (5 seats belonged to the Dolgoruky and Golitsyns), decided to invite the niece of Peter I, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, to the throne, since back in 1710 she was married off by Peter to the Duke of Courland , early widowed, lived in cramped material conditions, largely at the expense of the Russian government.
It was also extremely important that she had no supporters and no connections in Russia. As a result, this made it possible, beckoning with an invitation to the brilliant St. Petersburg throne, to impose their own conditions and get her consent to limit the power of the monarch.
D.M. Golitsyn came up with the initiative to draw up really limiting autocracy " conditions ", according to which:
1) Anna undertook to rule together with the military-technical cooperation, which actually turned into the highest governing body of the country.
2) Without the approval of the military-technical cooperation, it could not legislate, impose taxes, dispose of the treasury, declare war or make peace.
3) The empress did not have the right to grant estates and ranks above the rank of colonel, to deprive her of estates without trial.
4) The Guard was subordinate to the military-technical cooperation.
5) Anna undertook not to marry and not to appoint an heir, but in case of non-fulfillment of any of these conditions, she was deprived of the "crown of Russia".
There is no consensus among scientists in assessing the nature and significance of the "invention of the leaders." Some see in the "conditions" a desire to establish, instead of autocracy, an "oligarchic" form of government that would meet the interests of a narrow layer of noble nobility and lead Russia back to the era of "boyar self-will." Others believe that it was the first constitutional draft to limit the arbitrary rule of the despotic state created by Peter, from which all segments of the population, including the aristocracy, suffered.
Anna Ioannovna after meeting in Mitava with V.L. Dolgoruky, sent by the military-technical cooperation for negotiations, accepted these conditions without any hesitation. However, despite the desire of members of the military-technical cooperation to hide their plans, their contents became known to the guards and the general masses " nobility ".
From this environment, new projects for the political reorganization of Russia began to emerge (the most mature one belonged to the V.N. Tatishchev ), which gave the nobility the right to elect representatives of the highest authorities and expanded the composition of the military-technical cooperation. Specific requirements were also put forward aimed at facilitating the conditions of service of the nobles. D.M. Golitsyn, realizing the danger of isolating the military-technical cooperation, met these wishes and developed a new project, which suggested limiting the autocracy by a system of elected bodies. The highest of them remained the military-technical cooperation of 12 members. Previously, all issues were discussed in the Senate of 30 people, the Chamber of Nobility of 200 ordinary nobles and the Chamber of Citizens, two representatives from each city. In addition, the nobility was exempted from compulsory service.
The supporters of the inviolability of the principle of autocracy, led by A. Osterman and F. Prokopovich, who attracted the guards, managed to take advantage of the disagreements between the adherents of the constitutional restriction of the monarchy. As a result, having found support, Anna Ioannovna broke the "conditions" and restored the autocracy in full.
The reasons for the failure of the "supreme leaders" were the short-sightedness and selfishness of the majority of the MTC members, who sought to limit the monarchy not for the sake of the interests of the whole country, or even the nobility, but for the sake of preserving and expanding their own privileges. The inconsistency of actions, political inexperience and mutual suspicion of individual noble groups, who were supporters of the constitutional order, but feared by their actions to strengthen the military-technical cooperation, also contributed to the restoration of autocracy. The bulk of the nobility was not ready for radical political change.
The decisive word belonged to the Guard, which, after some hesitation, finally supported the idea of an unlimited monarchy.
Finally, the far-sightedness and unscrupulousness of Osterman and Prokopovich, the leaders of the party of supporters of the preservation of autocracy, played an important role.
5. Board of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)
From the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna tried to erase even the memory of "conditions" from the consciousness of her subjects. She liquidated the military-technical cooperation, creating instead the Cabinet of Ministers headed by Osterman. Since 1735, the signature of the 3rd cabinet of ministers, according to her decree, was equated with the signature of the empress. Dolgoruky, and later Golitsyn were repressed.
Gradually, Anna went to meet the most urgent requirements of the Russian nobility: their service life was limited to 25 years; that part of the Decree on Uniform Succession, which limited the right of the nobles to dispose of the estate when it was inherited, was canceled; easier to get an officer's rank. For these purposes, a cadet noble corps was created, at the end of which an officer rank was awarded; it was allowed to enlist the nobles for service from infancy, which made it possible for them, upon reaching the age of majority, to receive an officer's rank "by length of service."
An accurate description of the personality of the new empress was given by V.O. Klyuchevsky: "Tall and obese, with a face more masculine than feminine, callous by nature and even more hardened by early widowhood ... among court adventures in Courland, where she was pushed around like a Russian-Prussian-Polish toy, she, having already 37 years , brought to Moscow an evil and poorly educated mind with a fierce thirst for belated pleasures and gross entertainment".
Amusements of Anna Ioannovna cost the treasury very dearly, and although she, unlike Peter, could not stand alcohol, the maintenance of her court cost 5-6 times more. Most of all, she loved to watch jesters, among whom were representatives of the most noble families - Prince M.A. Golitsyn, Count A.P. Apraksin, Prince N.F. Volkonsky. It is possible that in this way Anna continued to take revenge on the aristocracy for her humiliation with "conditions", especially since the military-technical cooperation at one time did not allow entry into Russia to her Courland favorite - E. Biron.
Not trusting the Russian nobility and not having the desire, and even the ability to delve into state affairs herself, Anna Ioannovna surrounded herself with people from the Baltic states. The key role at court passed into the hands of her favorite E. Biron.
Some historians call the period of the reign of Anna Ioannovna "Bironism", believing that his main feature was the dominance of the Germans, who neglected the interests of the country, demonstrated contempt for everything Russian and pursued a policy of arbitrariness in relation to the Russian nobility.
However, the government course was determined by Biron's enemy, A. Osterman, and arbitrariness was rather repaired by representatives of the domestic nobility, headed by the head of the Secret Chancellery, A.I. Ushakov. Yes, and the damage to the treasury of the Russian nobles inflicted no less than foreigners.
Favorite, hoping to weaken the vice-chancellor's influence A. Osterman , managed to introduce his protege into the Cabinet of Ministers - A. Volynsky . But the new minister began to pursue an independent political course, developed the "Project for the Correction of Internal State Affairs", in which he advocated the further expansion of the privileges of the nobility and raised the issue of the dominance of foreigners. By this he aroused the discontent of Biron, who, having teamed up with Osterman, managed to get Volynsky accused of "insulting her imperial majesty" and lead him to the chopping block in 1740.
Soon Anna Ioannovna died, appointing her niece's son as his successor. Anna Leopoldovna , Duchess of Brunswick, baby Ivan Antonovich under Biron's regency.
In the context of general dissatisfaction of the nobility and especially the guard, which the regent tried to disband, the head of the military collegium, field marshal Minich staged another coup d'état. But Minich himself, famous for the words: "Russian state has the advantage over others that it is controlled by God himself, otherwise it is impossible to explain how it exists", soon did not calculate own forces and was retired, missing Osterman in first place.
6. The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741-1761)
On November 25, 1741, the "daughter" of Peter the Great, relying on the support of the guards, carried out another coup d'état and seized power. The peculiarities of this coup were that Elizaveta Petrovna had broad support ordinary people of the city and the lower guards (only 17.5% of the 308 guards participants were nobles), who saw in her the daughter of Peter, all the hardships of whose reign had already been forgotten, and her personality and deeds began to be idealized. The coup of 1741, unlike the others, had a patriotic overtone, because. was directed against the dominance of foreigners.
Foreign diplomacy tried to take part in the preparation of the coup, seeking political and even territorial dividends through its assistance to Elizabeth. But all the hopes of the French ambassador Chétardie and the Swedish ambassador Nolken, in the end, were in vain. The implementation of the coup was accelerated by the fact that the ruler Anna Leopoldovna became aware of Elizabeth's meetings with foreign ambassadors, and the threat of forcible tonsure as a nun loomed over the lover of balls and entertainment.
Having seized power, Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed a return to her father's politics, but it was hardly possible for her to rise to such a level. She managed to repeat the era of the reign of the great emperor rather in form than in spirit. Elizabeth began with the restoration of the institutions created by Peter 1 and their status. Having abolished the Cabinet of Ministers, she returned the Senate to the importance of the highest state body, restored Berg - and the Manufactory Collegium.
Under Elizabeth, the German favorites were replaced by Russian and Ukrainian nobles, who were more interested in the affairs of the country. So, with the active assistance of her young favorite I.I. Shuvalova was opened in 1755 Moscow University. At the initiative of his cousin, from the late 1740s. de facto head of government P.I. Shuvalova , in 1753 a decree was issued "on the abolition of internal customs and petty fees", which gave impetus to the development of trade and the formation of an internal all-Russian market. By decree of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1744, the death penalty was actually abolished in Russia.
At the same time her social politics was directed to the transformation of the nobility from the service to the privileged class and fortification. She instilled luxury in every possible way, which led to a sharp increase in the expenses of the nobles for themselves and the maintenance of their court.
These expenses fell on the shoulders of the peasants, who in the era of Elizabeth finally turned into "baptized property", which, without the slightest remorse, could be sold, exchanged for a thoroughbred dog, etc. The attitude of the nobles towards the peasants as "talking cattle" was caused and ended by that time cultural divide Russian society, as a result of which the Russian nobles, who spoke French, no longer understood their peasants. The strengthening of serfdom was expressed in the landlords obtaining the right to sell their peasants as recruits (1747), and also to exile them without trial to Siberia (1760).
In its inner and foreign policy Elizaveta Petrovna took into account national interests to a greater extent. In 1756, Russia, on the side of a coalition of Austria, France, Sweden and Saxony, entered the war with Prussia, supported by England. Russia's participation in " Seven Years' War "1756-1763 put the army of Frederick II on the brink of disaster.
In August 1757, in the battle of Gross-Egersdorf, the Russian army of S.F. Apraksin as a result of the successful actions of the detachment of General P.A. Rumyantseva achieved the first victory. In August 1758, General Fermor at Zorndorf, having suffered significant losses, managed to achieve a "draw" with the army of Friedrich, and in August 1759, at Kunersdorf, the troops of P.S. Saltykov defeated her.
In the autumn of 1760, Russian-Austrian troops captured Berlin, and only the death of Elizaveta Petrovna on December 25, 1761 saved Prussia from complete catastrophe. her heir Peter III, who idolized Frederick II, left the coalition and concluded a peace treaty with him, returning to Prussia everything lost in the war.
Despite the fact that Elizaveta Petrovna, unlike her father, used her unlimited power not so much in the interests of the state, but to satisfy her own needs and whims (after her death, 15 thousand dresses remained), she voluntarily or unwittingly prepared the country and society for next era of change. During the 20 years of her reign, the country managed to "rest" and accumulate strength for a new breakthrough, which came in the era of Catherine II.
7. The reign of Peter III
Elizabeth Petrovna's nephew, Peter III (the son of Anna's elder sister and the Duke of Holstein) was born in Holstein and from childhood was brought up in hostility to everything Russian and reverence for German. By 1742 he was an orphan. The childless Elizabeth invited him to Russia and soon appointed him her heir. In 1745 he was married to an unfamiliar and unloved Anhalt-Zerbst Princess Sophia Frederica Augusta (in Orthodoxy named Ekaterina Alekseevna).
The heir has not outlived his childhood, continuing to play tin soldiers, while Catherine was actively engaged in self-education and longed for love and power.
After the death of Elizabeth, Peter turned against himself the nobility and the guards with his pro-German sympathies, unbalanced behavior, the signing of peace with Frederick II, the introduction of Prussian uniforms, and his plans to send the guards to fight for the interests of the Prussian king in Denmark. These measures showed that he did not know, and most importantly, did not want to know the country he headed.
At the same time, on February 18, 1762, he signed a manifesto "On the granting of liberty and freedom to all Russian nobility", freeing the nobles from compulsory service, abolishing corporal punishment for them and turning them into a truly privileged class. Then the terrifying Secret Investigative Office was abolished. He stopped the persecution of schismatics and decided to secularize church and monastic land ownership, prepared a decree on the equalization of all religions. All these measures met the objective needs of Russia's development and reflected the interests of the nobility. But his personal behavior, indifference and even dislike for Russia, mistakes in foreign policy and an insulting attitude towards his wife, who managed to gain respect from the nobility and guards, created the prerequisites for his overthrow. Preparing the coup, Catherine was guided not only by political pride, a thirst for power and the instinct of self-preservation, but also by the desire to serve her new homeland.
8. The results of the era of palace coups
Palace coups did not entail changes in the political, and even more so social system society and were reduced to the struggle for power of various noble groups pursuing their own, most often selfish interests. At the same time, the specific policy of each of the six monarchs had its own characteristics, sometimes important for the country. In general, socio-economic stabilization and foreign policy successes achieved during the reign of Elizabeth created the conditions for more accelerated development and new breakthroughs in foreign policy that would occur under Catherine II.
The Romanovs are a female dynasty
The royal dynasty of the Romanovs in the 17th century was predominantly a female dynasty. The number of children was large: the first Romanov, Mikhail Fedorovich, had 10 children, his son Alexei Mikhailovich had 16. At the same time, infant mortality occupied a significant percentage of the number of births, although it decreased over time. But most importantly, more girls were born than boys (by the way, an interesting pattern existed in the Romanov family - the birth of four girls in a row in one family).
Equestrian portrait of Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich.1650-1699 years Google Cultural Institute
For men, life expectancy was lower than for women. So, of the Romanov tsars in the 17th century, no one overcame the 50-year milestone: Mikhail Fedorovich lived for 49 years, Alexei Mikhailovich - 46, Fedor Alekseevich did not live up to 21 years, Ivan Alekseevich lived for 29 years. By today's standards, all the tsars of the Romanov dynasty in the 17th century were relatively young or mature, but by no means old people. The life expectancy of the princesses fluctuates between 42 (Princess Natalya Alekseevna) and 70 (Princess Tatyana Mikhailovna) years. However, only two princesses did not live to be 50 years old - Natalya Alekseevna and Sofya Alekseevna (she lived 46 years), most of them crossed the 50-year mark. Physically, the women of the Romanov family were, apparently, much stronger than men.
Despite the presence a large number young women, the Romanov dynasty was in absolute international genealogical isolation. An insurmountable obstacle stood in the way of dynastic marriages with foreign ruling families. The Russian tsar (or tsarevich) could marry a person of lower status (a “simple” noblewoman), thereby elevating her. The princess, on the other hand, could not marry a person below her in status - therefore, only an equal marriage was possible. In this case, the groom had to be Orthodox (and there were almost no other Orthodox kingdoms except Russia) or convert to Orthodoxy before marriage and stay in Russia.
Mikhail Fedorovich made an attempt to marry his eldest daughter Irina to the natural son of the Danish king, Duke Voldemar, but the question of the groom's conversion to Orthodoxy turned out to be the stumbling block against which all plans were shattered. This unsuccessful attempt, apparently, discouraged the Romanovs from looking for other suitors for their princesses - be that as it may, until 1710 not a single princess from the Romanov family ever married, and most of them lived to death in the royal palace unmarried virgins (the opinion that they massively took monastic vows is not true, in fact, such cases were isolated).
Tree of the State of Moscow (Praise of Our Lady of Vladimir). Icon of Simon Ushakov. 1668 Google Cultural Institute Safe marriages to noblewomen
Only once, the very first, the Romanovs tried to intermarry with the Russian aristocracy - the princes Dolgorukov, but this first marriage of Mikhail Fedorovich was very short-lived. Subsequently, the Romanovs became related to the "ordinary", not very noble nobility, which existed far from palace intrigues.
The choice of a bride from, as they say, "broad strata of the noble masses" probably symbolized the connection of the royal family with their subjects, with the then "society", from where the Russian queens came from. In the 17th century, the Romanovs became related to the nobles Streshnevs, Miloslavskys, Naryshkins, Grushetskys, Apraksins, Saltykovs and Lopukhins. Subsequently, many relatives of the queens, even very distant ones, such as, for example, Pyotr Andreevich Tolstoy Petr Andreevich Tolstoy(1645-1729) - associate of Peter the Great, statesman and a diplomat, virtual privy councillor. or Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev(1686-1750) - Russian historian, geographer, economist and statesman; author of "History of Russia". Founder of Yekaterinburg, Perm and other cities. occupied important places in the public life of the country. In other words, matrimonial policy royal dynasty remained deeply idiosyncratic.
How Peter I inherited the throne
Tsaritsa Natalya Kirillovna. Painting by Pyotr Nikitin. Late XVII century Wikimedia Commons After the death of Tsar Fyodor Alekseevich, the struggle of two branches of the Romanov family for the throne was clearly revealed. The older branch was the descendants of Alexei Mikhailovich from his first marriage, with Tsarina Maria Ilyinichnaya (Miloslavskaya), the youngest - the descendants from his second marriage, with Tsarina Natalya Kirillovna (Naryshkina). Since the only man in the senior branch, Tsarevich Ivan Alekseevich, was of little ability, and the only man in the younger branch, Tsarevich Pyotr Alekseevich, reached only ten years of age, relatively young women of the royal family - the princess Sofya Alekseevna, who at that time was 24 years old, and her stepmother, Tsaritsa Natalya Kirillovna, at the age of 30 years.
As you know, the victory in the events of 1682 remained with Tsarevna Sophia, who actually became the real ruler under two tsars - Ivan and Peter. The dual kingdom situation was unique in Muscovite Russia, although it had some basis in the earlier tradition of the Rurikids and the more distant dynastic tradition of Byzantium. In 1689, young Peter Alekseevich was able to remove Princess Sophia from power, and after the death of his brother Ivan in 1696, he remained the sovereign sovereign of Russia. This is how it started new era in the history of the country and in the history of the Romanov dynasty.
Princess Sofia Alekseevna. 1680s Bridgeman Images/Fotodom In the 18th century, the royal dynasty met in the following composition: two men (Tsar Peter Alekseevich and his ten-year-old son and heir Alexei Petrovich) and fourteen (!) Women - three queens, two of them widowed (Marfa Matveevna, widow of Fyodor Alekseevich, and Praskovya Feodorovna, widow of Ivan Alekseevich) and one who was “out of work” and tonsured a nun (Peter’s first wife, Evdokia Fedorovna) and eleven princesses - the seven sisters of the king (six consanguineous, including Sofya Alekseevna imprisoned in a monastery, and one relative; almost all of them left from the normal childbearing age for that time), one aunt of the tsar (Tatiana Mikhailovna, the last of the children of Mikhail Fedorovich) and three nieces of the tsar (daughters of Ivan Alekseevich and Praskovia Fedorovna). Accordingly, only in relation to the last three women could one hope for marriages and the continuation of offspring. Due to this situation, the royal family was under a certain threat. Peter I carried out fundamental changes in dynastic politics and changed the dynastic situation itself.
An extraordinary phenomenon was the actual divorce of the tsar and his second marriage to a rootless native of Livonia, Marta Skavronskaya, who in Orthodoxy received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. The marriage was concluded in 1712, while the spouses had by that time two premarital daughters (who survived among others who died in infancy) - Anna (born in 1708) and Elizabeth (born in 1709). They became "married", which, however, did not remove the question of the legality of their origin. Subsequently, Peter and Catherine had several more children, but they all died in infancy or childhood. By the end of the reign of Peter I, there were no hopes for continuation of the family in the male line from the second marriage of the tsar (emperor).
Peter I
Three dynastic marriages, breakthrough to the West
Portrait of the family of Peter I. Enamel miniature by Gregory of Musikiy. 1716-1717 years Wikimedia Commons A breakthrough phenomenon was the conclusion of marriages with representatives of foreign sovereign dynasties. This turned out to be possible thanks to a tolerant attitude towards the issue of religion - at first it was not even required that one of the spouses convert to the faith of another. A breakthrough into Europe also meant the recognition of the royal dynasty as a European dynasty, and this could not happen without appropriate matrimonial unions.
The first foreign marriage among the Romanovs was the marriage of Princess Anna Ioannovna (niece of Peter I and future Russian Empress) with Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Courland, concluded in 1710. It was of great geopolitical importance, since Courland was a prominent Baltic state that played a significant role in this region. The borders of Russia came into direct contact with the borders of Courland after the annexation of Livonia as a result of Northern war. Despite the fact that the duke died two and a half months after the wedding, Anna, remaining the Dowager Duchess of Courland, at the behest of Peter went to her new homeland, where she lived for almost twenty years (note that she remained Orthodox).
Ceremonial portrait of Princess Sophia Charlotte of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. 1710-1715 years Wikimedia Commons The second marriage, concluded under Peter, was of even greater dynastic significance. In 1711, Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, who was the heir to the throne, married in Europe Charlotte Christina Sophia, Duchess of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (neither the bridegroom nor the bride changed their religion). The most significant aspect of this marriage was that the bride's sister, Elizabeth Christina, was the wife of the Austrian prince Charles, who in the same 1711 became emperor of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation under the name of Charles VI (it was to his brother-in-law that Alexei Petrovich later fled) .
The Holy Roman Empire was the leading and most status state of the then European world. Parenting with its rulers (albeit through property) put Russia in the rank of leading European countries and strengthened its status in the international arena. The heir to the Russian throne became the brother-in-law of the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, and the future sovereigns found themselves in direct kinship (this was actually the case - Peter II was the cousin of the future Empress Maria Theresa; however, they ruled in different time and Peter left no offspring). So, thanks to the marriage of Tsarevich Alexei, the Russian dynasty intermarried with the Habsburgs.
The third dynastic marriage was concluded in 1716: Peter's niece Ekaterina Ivanovna married Karl Leopold, Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. The territory of this state occupied the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, and this union further strengthened Russia's position in the Baltic region. Finally, after the death of Peter, the previously prepared marriage of the eldest daughter of the Tsar Anna Petrovna and the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp Karl Friedrich was concluded. Holstein was the northernmost Germanic duchy, bordering the Kingdom of Denmark and also overlooking the Baltic Sea. However, the important point was that Karl Friedrich was the mother's nephew of the Swedish king Charles XII, which means that his descendants could claim the Swedish throne. And so it happened: Anna Petrovna's son, Karl Peter, named after Charles XII and Peter the Great, was for some time considered the heir to the Swedish throne. Thus, under favorable circumstances, the descendants of Peter I, that is, representatives of the Romanov dynasty, could take the Swedish throne.
So Peter the Great covered almost the entire Baltic region with dynastic marriages. Southwest of the territory Russian Empire there was the duchy of Courland, where his niece ruled. Further west, the southern coast of the Baltic Sea was occupied by the duchy of Mecklenburg, which was ruled by the husband of another niece and where her offspring might subsequently rule. Further, the southern part of the Baltic was closed by Holstein, where the son-in-law of Peter ruled, whose descendants had rights not only to the Holstein throne, but also to the Swedish one - and the long-time enemy of the Great Northern War could become in the future not only an ally, but also a relative of the Romanovs. And the territory of Sweden (in its Finnish part), as you know, adjoined the lands of the Russian Empire from the north-west. In other words, by entering the Baltic and gaining a territorial foothold there, Peter I simultaneously consolidated Russia dynastically in almost the entire Baltic region. But this did not help solve the main problem - the problem of succession to the throne in Russia itself.
Problems of succession. Tsarevich Alexei. Catherine I
Portrait of Tsarevich Peter Alekseevich and Tsarevna Natalya Alekseevna in childhood in the form of Apollo and Diana. Painting by Louis Caravaque. Probably 1722 Wikimedia Commons A dramatic collision of Peter's reign was the infamous case of Tsarevich Alexei. Accused of treason, the king's son and heir was imprisoned, where he was interrogated and tortured, as a result of which he died in 1718 (his wife had died even earlier). At that time, in the male generation, the offspring of Peter consisted of two three-year-old children - the grandson (son of Alexei), Grand Duke Peter Alekseevich, and the son from Catherine, Tsarevich Peter Petrovich.
It was Peter Petrovich who was declared the next heir to the throne. However, he died before he was four years old, in April 1719. Peter had no more sons from Catherine. From that moment on, the dynastic situation in the royal family became threatening. In addition to Peter and Catherine, the royal family consisted of the grandson and granddaughter of Peter through the son of Alexei - Peter and Natalia, two daughters from Catherine (the third, Natalia, who lived to a relatively adult age, died a little over a month after the death of Peter himself) and three nieces - Catherine , Anna and Praskovya (their mother, Tsaritsa Praskovya Fedorovna, died in 1723). (We do not take into account Peter's first wife, Evdokia Fedorovna, in monasticism Elena, who, of course, played no role.) Anna was in Courland, and Ekaterina Ivanovna left her husband in 1722 and returned to Russia with her daughter Elizabeth Ekaterina Khristina, a Lutheran religion (the future Anna Leopoldovna).
In a situation where the circle of potential heirs is extremely narrow, and the heir himself theoretically may not justify the trust of the monarch (as happened, according to Peter, in the case of Tsarevich Alexei), Peter I made a cardinal decision by issuing the Charter on the succession to the throne in 1722. According to this document, the sovereign had the right, at his own discretion, to appoint an heir from any of his relatives by means of a will. One might think that in that situation it was the only way to continue the succession of power in the fading Romanov dynasty. The former order of succession to the throne from father to eldest son was abolished, and the new one became, contrary to the wishes of its establisher, one of the factors in the frequent change of power on the Russian throne, which in historiography was called the “epoch of palace coups”.
Peter I on his deathbed. Painting by Louis Caravaque. 1725 Wikimedia Commons But Peter I did not have time to use his right of will. The famous legend that he allegedly wrote before his death: “Give everything back,” and to whom, he did not have time to finish, is a fiction. At the time of his death in 1725, the only heir in the male line was his grandson Peter Alekseevich, nine years old. In addition to him, the widow of Peter Ekaterina Alekseevna made up the Romanov dynasty; their daughters are Anna, who was at that time the bride, and Elizabeth; three nieces, one of whom was in Courland, and two in Russia (one with her daughter), as well as Peter's granddaughter, Natalya Alekseevna (she would die in 1728 during the reign of her younger brother Peter II). Perhaps, anticipating the difficulties in the event of his death, back in 1724, Peter crowned his wife Catherine as empress, giving her the absolutely legal status of empress consort. However, by the beginning of 1725, Ekaterina Alekseevna had lost Peter's confidence.
There were two possible contenders for the throne - Peter's widow, Ekaterina Alekseevna, and his grandson, Peter Alekseevich. Catherine was supported mainly by Peter's associates, primarily Menshikov; Petra - representatives of the old boyar families from the royal environment, such as the princes Golitsyn, Dolgorukov, Repnin. The intervention of the guards decided the outcome of the confrontation, and Catherine I was proclaimed empress.
The era of palace coups
Catherine I (1725-1727)
Catherine I. Painting supposedly by Heinrich Buchholz. 18th century Wikimedia Commons Catherine's family directly consisted of two daughters - Anna, who married the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and unmarried Elizabeth. There remained the direct heir of Peter I in the male line - Grand Duke Petr Alekseevich. In addition to him, the royal family included: his older sister Natalya Alekseevna and three nieces of Peter I - the daughters of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich, one of whom was outside Russia. The potential heir was Peter Alekseevich (there was even a plan to "reconcile" the two lines of descendants of Peter I - the marriage of Peter Alekseevich to Elizaveta Petrovna).
At the insistence of Menshikov, who planned the marriage of Peter to his daughter Maria, on behalf of Catherine I, shortly before her death, a testament was signed - a will, according to which Peter Alekseevich became the heir to the throne. In the event of his childless death, Anna Petrovna and her descendants followed, then Elizaveta Petrovna and her possible descendants, then Pyotr Alekseevich's older sister Natalya Alekseevna and her possible descendants. Thus, this document for the first time, due to actual circumstances, assumed the transfer of rights to the throne through the female line.
It is significant that the throne was assigned only to the descendants of Peter I, and the offspring of Tsar Ivan Alekseevich were excluded from the line of succession to the throne. In addition, it provided for the exclusion from the order of succession of persons of a non-Orthodox religion, as well as those who occupied other thrones. In connection with the infancy of the heir, his reign was originally to be held under the tutelage of the Supreme Privy Council - the highest state body in the empire, created in 1726. After the death of Catherine I in May 1727, Peter II was proclaimed emperor in accordance with her will.
Peter II (1727-1730)
Peter II. Painting by Johann Paul Ludden. 1728 Wikimedia Commons Shortly after the accession to the throne of Peter II, the eldest daughter of Peter I and Catherine I, Anna Petrovna, together with her husband, the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, left Russia. She died in 1728, having given birth to a son, Karl Peter (the future Peter III). In 1728, the elder sister of Peter II, Natalya Alekseevna, also died childless. There was an acute question about the possible marriage of the emperor. Menshikov's plans to marry Peter to his daughter collapsed as a result of court intrigues. Representatives of the family of princes Dolgorukov had a great influence on the young emperor, at the insistence of which Peter was betrothed to Alexei Dolgorukov's daughter Ekaterina. The young emperor died suddenly of smallpox in January 1730, on the eve of the announced wedding, and did not leave a will. An attempt by the princes Dolgorukov to present a false testament of the emperor in favor of his bride as a genuine one failed. With the death of Peter II, the Romanov family came to an end in the direct male line.
By the time of the death of Peter II, the line of descendants of Peter I was represented only by the grandson of Peter I - the Holstein prince Karl Peter (two years old), who was in the capital of Holstein, Kiel, and the daughter of Peter I, unmarried Elizaveta Petrovna. The line of descendants of Ivan Alekseevich was represented by three daughters of Tsar Ivan and one granddaughter of the Lutheran faith. The circle of potential heirs narrowed to five people.
The issue of succession to the throne was decided at a meeting of the Supreme Privy Council headed by Prince Golitsyn. The testament of Catherine I, according to which, in the event of the childless death of Peter II, the throne should have passed to the offspring of Anna Petrovna (however, the Lutheran religion of Karl Peter could probably serve as an obstacle in this), and then to Elizabeth Petrovna, was ignored. The offspring of Peter I and Catherine I were perceived by members of the Council as premarital, and therefore not entirely legal.
At the suggestion of Prince Golitsyn, the Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna, the middle of the three sisters - the daughters of Tsar Ivan (which again contradicted the testament of Catherine I - also because Anna was the regent of the foreign throne) was to become the empress. The main factor in choosing her candidacy was the opportunity to realize the plan of the members of the Supreme Privy Council to limit autocracy in Russia. Under certain conditions (conditions), Anna Ioannovna was invited to take the Russian throne.
Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740)
Empress Anna Ioannovna. 1730s State Historical Museum / facebook.com/historyRF At the very beginning of her reign, Anna Ioannovna, as you know, rejected plans to limit autocratic power. In 1731 and 1733, her sisters, Praskovya and Ekaterina, died. The only relative of the Empress along the line of Ivan Alekseevich was her niece, the daughter of Catherine's sister, who in the same 1733, shortly before her mother's death, converted to Orthodoxy with the name Anna (Anna Leopoldovna).
The offspring of Peter the Great still consisted of two people - the grandson, Karl Peter, who in 1739 became the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, and his daughter, Elizabeth Petrovna. In order to secure the succession to the throne for her line, Anna Ioannovna already in December 1731 signed a manifesto “On taking an oath of allegiance to the Heir to the All-Russian Throne, which from Her Imperial Majesty will be assigned." Thus, the principle of the Petrine Charter on the succession to the throne was fully restored - the exclusively testamentary nature of the Russian succession to the throne.
The future son of Anna Leopoldovna (Anna Ioannovna's niece) was supposed to be the heir. Only in 1739, Anna Leopoldovna was married to Anton Ulrich, Prince of Braunschweig-Lüneburg-Wolfenbüttel, who had been in the Russian service since 1733. His candidacy as the wife of the Empress' niece was lobbied by Austria. Through his mother, Antoinette Amalia, the prince was the nephew of Elizabeth Christine, wife of Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, and Charlotte Christine Sophia, wife of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich. Consequently, he was a cousin of both Empress Maria Theresa and Peter II. In addition, the prince's younger sister, Elisabeth Christina, had been the wife of the Prussian heir to the throne, Frederick (later the Prussian King Frederick II the Great) since 1733. In August 1740, the first-born was born to Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich, who was named the dynastic name of this line of the Romanov family - Ivan (John).
A few days before her death, Anna Ioannovna signed a will in favor of Ivan Antonovich, and then appointed the Duke of Courland Biron as regent until he came of age. In the event of the premature death of Ivan Antonovich, who left no offspring, the next potential son of Anna Leopoldovna and Anton Ulrich became the heir.
John VI (1740-1741)
Ivan VI Antonovich. 1740s Wikimedia Commons The short reign of Emperor John VI (officially he was called John III, since at that time the account was kept from the first Russian tsar, Ivan the Terrible; later it began to be kept from Ivan Kalita) was marked by the quick elimination and arrest of Biron as a result of a conspiracy organized by Field Marshal Munnich. Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed ruler under the young emperor. In July 1741, Ivan Antonovich's sister Ekaterina was born. On November 25, 1741, Ivan Antonovich was overthrown from the throne as a result of a coup led by the daughter of Peter the Great, Elizabeth Petrovna.
Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761)
Portrait of a young Elizabeth. Painting by Louis Caravaque. 1720s Wikimedia Commons During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, the "Brunswick family" - Anna Leopoldovna, Anton Ulrich, John Antonovich and their other children (Catherine and later born Elizabeth, Peter and Alexei) were imprisoned and exiled (Anna Leopoldovna died in 1746). The only heir to the unmarried Empress was her nephew, Duke Karl Peter of Holstein. In 1742, he arrived in St. Petersburg, where in November of the same year he converted to Orthodoxy with the name Pyotr Fedorovich and was officially declared heir to the throne. In 1745, Peter Fedorovich married Ekaterina Alekseevna (before the adoption of Orthodoxy, Sophia Frederick Augustus), the daughter of Prince Anhalt-Zerbst. By mother, Catherine also came from the family of the Dukes of Holstein-Gottorp and was brought to her husband by a second cousin. Catherine's maternal uncle in 1743 became the heir to the Swedish throne, and then the Swedish king, and his son, the Swedish king Gustav III, was Catherine's cousin. Another uncle was once the groom of Elizabeth Petrovna, but died of smallpox on the eve of the wedding. From the marriage of Peter Fedorovich and Ekaterina Alekseevna in 1754, a son was born - Pavel Petrovich. After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna, the last representative of the Romanov family proper, in December 1761, Peter Fedorovich became emperor under the name of Peter III.
Peter III (1761-1762) and Catherine II (1762-1796)
Portrait of Grand Duke Pyotr Fedorovich and Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna. Painting supposedly by Georg Christopher Grotto. Approximately 1745 Russian Museum: virtual branch The unpopular Emperor Peter III was overthrown on June 28, 1762 as a result of a coup led by his wife, who became Russian empress Catherine II.
At the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, while trying to free (in accordance with a certain order), the former emperor John Antonovich, who was imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, was killed. Anton Ulrich died in exile in 1776, and four of his children were sent by Catherine to their aunt, the Danish queen, in 1780 (the last of them, Ekaterina Antonovna, died in Denmark in 1807).
Ekaterina's heir, Pavel Petrovich, was married twice. From the second marriage, with Maria Feodorovna (nee Princess of Württemberg), during the life of Catherine, three sons and six daughters were born (another son was born after Paul I came to the throne). The future of the dynasty was secured. After the death of his mother in 1796, who became the Russian emperor, Paul I accepted new law on the succession to the throne, which established a clear order of succession to the throne in order of seniority in a direct male descending line. With its adoption, the Petrine Charter of 1722 finally lost its force.
