The method of science is its characteristic way of penetrating into the content of its subject. The scientific basis of the method of all sciences about nature and society is the dialectical method of research, which involves: the study of the real world in its formation and development; revealing the dialectical contradictions of this development, the struggle between the new and the dying, the universal interconnection and interdependence of individual phenomena; definition driving forces and objective laws of development. Scientific knowledge is achieved through observation, sensory perception, comparison, abstraction, measurement of relationships, modeling and experimentation, a combination of analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, a historical and logical approach to the study of reality.
The dialectical method of research is used in the study of their subject by all the natural and social sciences. At the same time, each of them develops a special approach to the study of its subject, which makes it possible to implement the general provisions of this method in relation to the specifics of its subject.
The economic analysis of the activities of economic entities has also developed its own method based on dialectics and being a way of its application to the study of its subject.
From a philosophical point of view, analysis is a way of studying a subject by breaking it into parts. Analysis in translation from Greek means decomposition, division into parts.
Through analysis, an ever more detailed decomposition of the parts of an object, which at first seem indecomposable, and an ever greater approximation to the knowledge of its essence, is achieved. At the same time, internal inconsistency and interconnection of all parts of the subject are revealed, which determines their merging into a single whole. However, it is impossible to cognize the object, the complex and contradictory processes taking place inside it with the help of only decomposition. Any part cannot be properly understood apart from its connection with other parts and with the whole. The correct perception of the subject is achieved by generalizing the knowledge obtained as a result of the analytical study of its parts, i.e. analysis is combined with synthesis. The fact that the term "analysis" is included in the name of science is a reflection of the sequence of studying economic activity: first, analysis is carried out, and then - synthesis.
The analysis uses the deductive method of research, when it begins with generalizing indicators of all activities, which is characteristic of the financial-economic and financial-investment type, or inductive, when at first the study of activities is carried out within individual divisions of economic entities (teams, workshops, production units or certain types products), and then the materials are summarized throughout the economic system, which is typical for technical, economic and functional cost analysis. In the process of analytical study of the activities of economic entities, all types of analysis are combined, so deduction and induction are used in unity.
In the method of analysis, all the provisions of dialectics are fully realized. The contradictory influence on the analyzed activity and its results of individual groups of factors - objective and subjective, depending on external circumstances or on the object of analysis itself is revealed and studied. An abrupt transition of quantity into quality is revealed. For example, on industrial enterprise the number of deviations from the approved production technology leads to an irreparable (final) defective product or, conversely, the improvement of individual parameters of use value so improves the quality of the product that it receives a new consumer purpose. At the same time, the improvement or deterioration in quality affects the quantity, since the volume of sales in terms of its value depends not only on the quantity of goods sold, but also on their prices, which reflect premiums and discounts for quality. The requirement to study the phenomena of the real world in their formation and development is also implemented in the analysis, for example, when studying performance indicators in dynamics, considering them separately for new and obsolete products, when comparing the efficiency of organizing work on a team contract and on previously used forms of labor organization.
Consequently, the method of analysis is based, as mentioned above, on the dialectical theory of knowledge.
The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis are: the use of a system of indicators that comprehensively characterize economic activity, studying the causes of changes in these indicators, identifying and measuring the relationship between them in order to improve socio-economic efficiency.
The dialectical nature of the approach to the study of economic processes involves their consideration in the formation and development. They are characterized by the regularity of the transition of quantity into quality, the emergence of a new quality, the negation of negation, the struggle of opposites, the withering away of the old and the emergence of a new, more progressive, i.e. all the methods and techniques of dialectics are manifested in the study of economic processes, economic activity at all levels.
It is advisable to note the characteristic features of the method of economic analysis. The first such feature is the use of a system of indicators in the study of economic phenomena and processes. This system is usually formed in the course of planning, during the development of systems and subsystems of economic information, which does not exclude the possibility of calculating new indicators during the analysis itself.
The second characteristic feature of the method of economic analysis is the study of the causes that caused the change in certain economic indicators. Since economic phenomena are caused by a causal relationship and causal dependence, the task of analysis is the disclosure and study of causal relationships. The economic activity of an enterprise, even a single indicator, can be influenced by numerous and diverse reasons. It is very difficult, as noted earlier, to identify and study the effect of absolutely all causes, and besides, it is not always practically expedient. The task is to establish the most significant reasons that decisively influenced one or another indicator. Thus, a prerequisite, a prerequisite for a correct analysis, is an economically justified classification of the causes that affect economic activity and its results.
The characteristic features of the method of economic analysis include the identification and measurement of the relationship and interdependence between indicators that are determined by the objective conditions of production and circulation of goods. It is impossible to impose them artificially. The volume of industrial output depends, for example, on three groups of factors related to the use of labor, tools, and objects of labor. Each group is subdivided into constituent elements. Thus, the factors associated with the use of labor force are divided into quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative refers to the number of workers, to qualitative - the productivity of their labor (output per worker). The average output per worker per year depends, in turn, on the average number of days worked per worker per year, the average number of hours worked per worker per day, and the average output per man-hour worked. Each of these indicators also depends on a number of reasons. The average number of days worked by one worker per year depends, for example, on the provision of additional holidays, absences due to illness, business trips, all-day downtime due to the fault of the enterprise, absenteeism, etc. It turns out, therefore, a certain chain of dependence of one indicator on another, where each factor has its own value. The exclusion of one or another factor from the orbit of the economist's attention, and sometimes the violation of the sequence of consideration of factors, makes the analysis economically untenable.
The above list of some of the factors affecting the volume industrial production, indicates that it is impossible to consider a single economic concept, an economic indicator in isolation; they are all interconnected. However, this circumstance does not at all exclude the possibility and necessity of their logical isolation in the process of economic calculations. A very common methodological technique is to determine the degree of influence of a given factor, all other things being equal, i.e. when other factors are supposedly held constant.
Many theorists of analysis did not consider it necessary to give a general definition of the method of analysis.
The point of view, according to which the economic analysis of the activities of economic entities has no independent method, shared by many authors and motivated by the applied nature of science. These authors did not consider it necessary to formulate a general definition of the method, but limited themselves to listing individual techniques and methods. The refusal to formulate the definitions of the subject and method of analysis, in essence, means the refusal of its independent development, since these definitions are fundamental in the theory of any science.
In the 50s of the XX century. analysis of economic activity has already reached such a degree of scientific maturity that its further development through theoretical development scientific foundations became objectively necessary.
An attempt to give such a definition was made as early as 1954. Later, in a textbook for students economic specialties“Economic analysis of the economic activity of enterprises and associations”, the following definition of the method of analysis was formulated: “The method of analysis is a method of systematic comprehensive study, measurement and generalization of the influence of individual factors on the implementation of economic plans and on the dynamics of economic development, carried out by processing plan indicators with special techniques, accounting, reporting and other sources of information”.
The positive aspects of this definition are its generalizing nature, the emphasis on a systematic integrated approach to the study, measurement and generalization of data on the subject of analysis. At the same time, a serious drawback of this definition is its one-sidedness: we are not talking about studying the activities of an economic entity and its results, but only about the factors influencing them. Therefore, this definition is not precise enough.
More precisely, the method of economic analysis should be understood as a dialectical method of approach to the study of economic processes in their formation and development, the characteristic features of which are: the use of indicator systems that comprehensively characterize economic activity, the study of the causes of changes in these indicators, the identification and measurement of the relationship between them in order to increase socio-economic efficiency.
The advantage of this definition of the method of analysis is that it emphasizes the importance of developing and using a system of indicators as the most characteristic feature of the method of analysis. This drew the attention of a wide range of specialists to the problems of improving the system of indicators for assessing the effectiveness of the analyzed object, for measuring the degree of use of the economic potential and identifying reserves for improving the efficiency of management.
At the same time in modern conditions it is necessary to emphasize more clearly the systematic nature and complexity of the analysis. A systematic integrated approach takes into account the integrity of the activities of an economic entity, the relationship and interaction of its individual parties and their contradictory impact on the final results of this activity.
Thus, the analysis method is a systematic integrated approach to studying the results of an economic entity, identifying and measuring the contradictory influence of individual factors on them, summarizing the analysis materials in the form of conclusions and recommendations based on the processing of all available information about the results of this activity with special techniques.
System analysis is a methodology for solving innovative problems based on the concept of systems.
At the center of the system analysis methodology is the operation of a quantitative comparison of alternatives to select one to be implemented. To achieve the final result, it is necessary to quantify the quality of alternatives. This can be achieved if all elements - alternatives are taken into account and the correct estimates are given to each element. Hence the need arises to combine all the elements associated with a given problem into a system that solves the problem.
The system has, along with the general properties listed above, a number of characteristic features including:
- the unity of the system, the presence of a common goal, general purpose;
- the integration nature of the system, characterized a large number functions performed, inputs and outputs;
- the complexity of the system behavior, i.e. in the presence of intertwining and overlapping relationships between variables, a change in one variable entails a change in others;
- irregular in time receipt of external influences;
- the presence in most cases of competitive, competing parties.
A system is defined by specifying system objects. System objects are input, output, process, Feedback and limitation.
entrance called an object that changes during the course of this process. The input may take such forms as: a) sequentially associated with data; b) the result of the preceding process, randomly associated with the data; c) the result of the process of this system, which is again introduced into it.
Exit called the object (result) or the final state of the process. In other words, an output is a goal for which system objects, properties, and relationships are connected together.
process is called the transformation of input to output (property of this process). Between the input of one process and the output of another, there is connection. To identify systems means to identify all the processes that form a given output.
Feedback is a function of a subsystem that compares the output with a criterion (in order to control the process).
As noted above, any system consists of subsystems and, in turn, is a subsystem of some system. The system boundary is determined by a set of inputs from the external environment. External (environment) environment is a set of natural and artificial systems for which this system is not a functional subsystem.
Problem This is a situation that needs to be resolved. Identification of problem situations is the problem of decision making. The decision-making should be completed with concrete results and is divided into a number of mandatory stages: defining the purpose of the study and the criterion for achieving it; formulation of specific tasks; choice of methods, techniques, methods and means for solving the tasks. So, the process of rational problem solving can be represented in the form of a diagram (Fig. 5.13).
Rice. 5.13.
At the same time, the stages of system analysis shown in the diagram are abstract, general character. A more in-depth sequence of work to find a rational solution to problems is presented in Table. 5.1.
Table 5.1
Finding a rational solution to problems
|
Scientific tools of system analysis |
||
|
I. Analysis of the problem |
||
|
Methods: "scenarios", diagnostic, "goal tree", economic analysis |
|
|
II. System Definition |
||
|
Methods: matrix, cybernetic models |
|
|
III. Analysis of the system structure |
||
|
Methods: diagnostic, matrix, network, morphological, cybernetic models |
|
|
IV. Formulating the overall goal and criteria of the system |
||
|
Methods: expert assessments (Delphi method), "goal tree", economic analysis, morphological, cybernetic models, normative operating |
|
|
V. Goal decomposition, identification of resource and process needs |
||
|
Methods: "tree of goals", network, descriptive models, simulations |
|
|
VI. Identification of resources and processes, composition of goals |
||
|
Methods: expert assessments (Delphi method) |
|
|
VII. Forecast and analysis of future conditions |
||
|
Methods: "scenarios", expert assessments (Delphi method), "goal tree", network, economic analysis, statistical, descriptive models |
|
|
VIII. Evaluation of ends and means |
||
|
Methods: expert assessments (Delphi method), economic analysis, morphological method |
|
|
IX. Selection of options |
||
|
Methods: "goal tree", matrix, economic analysis, morphological |
|
|
||
|
X. Existing System Diagnosis |
||
|
Methods: diagnostic, matrix, economic analysis, cybernetic models |
|
|
XI. Building integrated program development |
||
|
Methods: matrix, network, economic analysis, descriptive models, normative operating models |
|
|
XII. Designing an Organization to Achieve Goals |
||
|
Methods: diagnostic, goal trees, matrix, network methods, cybernetic models |
|
Note. Informal methods: the method of "scenarios", the method of expert assessments (Delphi method), diagnostic methods. Graphical methods: "target tree" method, matrix methods, network methods. Quantitative methods: methods of economic analysis, morphological methods, statistical methods. Modeling methods: cybernetic models, descriptive models, normative operating models (optimization, simulation, game).
We note the following aspects.
1. Formulation and description problem situation is the starting point of the study. Identification of the problem, its correct and accurate description is the first stage of a systematic study.
To begin with, it is necessary to determine the external signs of the manifestation of the problem, its time parameters, the sources of the problem, the factors that cause it, the nature of the influence of the problem on the main elements of the object of study, and possible studies of the development of the problem situation.
As a research tool, you can use the analysis of the logical structure of the problem, study it in a retrospective aspect, evaluate possible development paths in the future and in conjunction with other problems.
In the analysis of complex problems, decomposition techniques, matrices of system characteristics, "black box" models, etc. are used.
2. At the stage of defining the system, the tasks that need to be solved in order to obtain the final results are set; the composition of the elements included in the system is established, thereby determining the object of study.
The position of the observer determines the criterion for solving the problem. The result of the second stage of solving the problem is the development of a scientific model for studying the object-system.
For this purpose, matrix, cybernetic, informational, synergetic simulation and other models can be used.
3. At the stage of system structure analysis, the hierarchy levels of the system object are determined, all elements (subsystems) are identified, their connections and relationships are established.
Then, a structural and functional analysis of the object of study is carried out, a graphic description of the process of functioning of the elements of the system is given, their specificity and information connections with the external environment are determined based on the development of the structure of goals, etc. The methods of logical constructions, diagnostics, and synthesis are used as a research tool. The analysis is based on the construction of graphical, matrix, network, morphological, cybernetic and synergetic models.
The result of this stage of work is the construction of a structural-functional model of the object-system.
4. The formulation of a common goal, the definition of the criterion of the system, the goals and limitations of the external environment, the decomposition of the goals and criteria of subsystems are a complex logical procedure within the framework of the concepts general theory systems.
On the this stage research methods are used: expert assessments, network structures of goals, optimization, game, simulation models, etc.
The result of the analysis at this stage is a description of the conditions for the study of the object of study as a system, the establishment of a criterion for purposeful development and the composition of the resource support of the full life cycle, as well as the definition of the principles of decomposition of the goals of the system and the conditions for maintaining its integrity.
5. Linking the goal with the means of its implementation is carried out by decomposing the goals and formulating them, determining the current processes, the efficiency of the functioning of subsystems of each level, sustainable dynamic development, external conditions and restrictions.
This stage is central in system analysis. As a result of its implementation, it is necessary to link goals with the means to achieve them, both within the system and outside it.
For this, the methods of "tree of goals", system state modeling, network, descriptive models, etc. are used.
- 6. The identification of resources and processes, the composition of goals are carried out in the traditional way, starting with an analysis of the current situation, the achieved level and a consistent forecast. In this case, the methods of expert assessments, the "tree of goals", predictive calculations, etc. are used.
- 7. Forecasting and analysis of development conditions system object starts with impact assessment various factors both within the system and external influences. Analyzed possible options changes in the goals and trends of the system development, the state of resource support for future development, a forecast and analysis of future conditions are made. For this, the methods of "scenarios", expert assessments, "tree of goals", statistical, descriptive models, etc. are used.
- 8. Evaluation of the goals and means of achieving them is one of the most time-consuming stages of system analysis, at which a mechanism for matching the goals and their achievement is developed, evaluation criteria are determined, and evaluation methods are selected. After the criterion is formed, i.e. a method for comparing alternatives is found, selection and optimization tasks are set, a system for a comprehensive assessment of the correspondence between goals and means is created, and the parameters of the evaluation mechanism are determined.
Given that system analysis, as a rule, deals with objects devoid of quantitative assessments, export evaluation methods, morphological method, etc. are used as methodological tools.
9. At the stage of selection of options, the goals and means are compared, their optimization is the cutting off of those goals that are recognized as insignificant or do not have the means to achieve the final result. The goals are specified, adjusted, based on the conditions of the functioning of the object-system.
In order to be able to compare alternatives, it is necessary to develop a preference criterion.
In the process of analysis, modeling methods, "tree of goals", matrix, etc. are used.
10. Diagnostic analysis of the existing object-system is aimed at identifying adaptive conditions for the new system.
A calculation of the potential possibilities of resource provision is also made, a change in the problem situation is predicted.
At the subsequent stages, a comprehensive program (plan of measures) is carried out for the implementation of the research results, the conditions for their application are designed.
Thus, the approach to solving problems involves the sequential implementation of the following works.
- 1. Problem analysis (problem statement): definition of the essence of the problem, its precise formulation, analysis of the logical structure of the problem, analysis of the development of the problem (assessment of the past state and forecast), identification of external relations, assessment of the fundamental solvability of the problem.
- 2. Definition, design of the system: definition of goals and objectives, formulation of the position of the observer, definition of system objects, allocation of subsystems, definition of the external environment.
- 3. Analysis of the structure of the system: determination of hierarchy levels, aspects of consideration, processes, specification of subsystems, processes and functions.
- 4. Formulation of the general goal and criterion of the system: determination of the goals of higher-order systems, goals and limitations of the external environment, formulation of the common goal, definition of the criterion, decomposition of goals and criteria of subsystems.
- 5. Decomposition of the goal, identification of the need for resources and processes: formulation of top-level goals, goals of current processes and development goals.
- 6. Resource assessment: assessment of existing technologies and capacities, the current state of resources, interaction with other systems, social factors.
- 7. Forecast and analysis of future conditions: analysis of sustainable trends in the development of the problem, forecast of development and changes in the environment, forecast of the emergence of new factors that affect the system; analysis of future resources, analysis of possible shifts in goals and criteria.
- 8. Evaluation of goals and means: calculation of estimates according to the criterion, evaluation of the interdependence of goals, evaluation of the relative importance of goals.
- 9. Formation of alternatives for solving the problem and selection of options: evaluation of alternatives according to the criterion, comparison and selection of options.
- 10. Building a comprehensive solution program: formulating project and program activities, determining the order of goals and activities to achieve them, distributing areas of activity, distributing areas of competence, developing an action plan under resource and time constraints, distributing responsibility to organizations, managers and performers.
- 11. Designing an organization to achieve the goal: the purpose of the organization, the appointment of the functions of the organization, the design of the organizational structure, information flows, modes of operation, material and moral incentives.
This list of works is indicative only. In each specific case of problem solving, a research plan is developed based on the content of the task.
- Problem- this is a kind of question (non-paradigm situation) that has a specific goal, but the ways to achieve the goal are still unknown. A task is a kind of question, for the solution of which there are known ways to achieve the goal.
Send your good work in the knowledge base is simple. Use the form below
Students, graduate students, young scientists who use the knowledge base in their studies and work will be very grateful to you.
Posted on http://www.allbest.ru/
Introduction
2. Methods used in scientific research
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
An important role in the study of economics is played by general scientific methods. Among them is the historical method, which allows you to find out how economic systems arise and develop. This approach helps to concretely and visually present all the features of each system at different stages of its historical development, including distinctive features modern economy.
Consideration of the qualitative features of economic systems is supplemented by the study of the quantitative side of economic processes using the methods of mathematics and statistics. In economic theory, special sections of these sciences are widely used: economic and mathematical methods and economic statistics.
The whole set scientific methods allows you to perform an important task - to identify elements and features common to all systems under study, patterns of development, and also to show the differences between them. On this basis, economic research provides a comparative analysis of the main economic systems that exist in the modern world.
1. The content of the concepts of "sensory" and "rational" knowledge
scientific knowledge it is a system of cognitive actions aimed at the production and theoretical systematization of knowledge about natural, social and spiritual reality.
Cognitive actions of a person (both non-scientific and scientific) are carried out in various forms. In their totality, several key forms of sensory and rational cognition are distinguished, common not only to scientific and non-scientific cognition, but also inherent in representatives of higher biological species. Moreover, according to some authors, it is preferable to qualify these forms as human cognitive abilities. Nevertheless, the former idea dominates so far, according to which the most general structuring of the entire set of cognitive actions is carried out by highlighting the forms of sensory and rational cognition according to such criteria as the general orientation, the nature of the cognitive means used and the specificity of the result of cognition.
Sense cognition is a cognitive process that is carried out through the human senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell and taste. Often in philosophical literature sensory knowledge is called "living contemplation". In the ordinary sense, living "contemplation" is visual perception things and phenomena. In philosophical reflection, i.e. in the theory of knowledge, it is synonymous with sensory knowledge and includes four forms: sensation, perception, representation and imagination.
Feeling- this is a direct reflection of the individual properties of objects that affect the senses. This is an elementary, further indecomposable mental cognitive process. Sensation is also called the result of this process, the reproduction by a person of the configuration, the relative position of objects, their color, the degree of surface roughness, the sounds they make, smells, etc. Each sensation reflects one of the properties of the reflected object and exists only in the presence of direct contact.
Perception- this is a holistic image that reflects objects that directly affect the sense organs, their properties and relationships. Perception thus retains one of the main characteristics of sensation - the presence of direct contact with the perceived object, but transforms another - in it the reflection of the individual properties of the perceived object is subordinated to the construction of its integral image. In perception, the leading role is played by those components that ensure the constancy (constancy) of the image of the perceived object, living being or any situation when the conditions of perception change.
Submission - uh it is the highest form of sensory reflection in the form of a holistic image of objects that are not directly perceived. Representation retains such an important characteristic of perception as the integrity of the image of a cognized object, but its reproduction is carried out not through direct contact, but "from memory". Representation raises the cognitive capabilities of a person at the sensory level to a new, more high step, freeing him from energy-intensive and time-consuming direct contacts with cognizable objects.
Imagination- this is a form of sensory cognition, the result of which is the creation of ideas about objects and mental situations that have never been generally perceived by a person in reality. Imagination differs from representation in that part of its content, which is introduced by fantasy, fiction, "anticipatory reflection" of a person.
Imagination supplies such ideas, important in scientific knowledge, as ideal gas, ideal steam engine, etc., in technical creativity the idea of a road that arises where the wheels of a car touch it, in economics, the idea of the exchange of goods strictly according to their value, etc.
rational cognition it is a cognitive process that is carried out through forms of mental activity. Forms of rational cognition have several common characteristics: firstly, their inherent focus on reflection common properties cognizable objects, processes, phenomena; secondly, the associated abstraction from their individual properties; thirdly, an indirect relationship to the cognizable reality (through the forms of sensory cognition and the cognitive means observation, experimentation, information processing); fourthly, a direct connection with the language (language is the material shell of thought).
The main forms of rational knowledge traditionally include three logical forms of thinking: concept, judgment and inference.
concept is a form of thought that reflects the subject of thought in its general and essential features.
Judgmentnande - it is a form of thought in which, through the connection of concepts, something is affirmed or denied about the subject of thought.
Inference - it is a form of thought by means of which, from one or more propositions, a proposition is necessarily deduced containing new knowledge.
The selected logical forms of thinking are among the main ones, since through them the content of the whole multitude of other forms of rational cognition is expressed. Among them search forms of knowledge (question, problem, idea, hypothesis), forms system expression subject knowledge ( scientific fact, law, principle, theory, scientific picture peace) and forms regulatory knowledge (way, method, technique, algorithm, program, ideals and norms of cognition, style of scientific thinking, cognitive tradition).
The interrelationship of sensory and rational forms of cognition is not limited to the mediating function of sensory forms noted above in relation, on the one hand, to perceived objects and to forms of rational cognition, on the other. This relationship is more complex and dynamic: sensory data is constantly being "processed" by the mental content of concepts, laws, principles, overall picture world, and rational knowledge is structured under the influence of information coming from the sense organs (the importance of creative imagination is especially great). The most striking manifestation of the dynamic unity of the sensual and the rational in cognition is intuition.
Until a certain time, such phenomena were considered mysterious, not subject to logical analysis and study. by scientific means. However, their subsequent study made it possible, firstly, to identify the main types of intuition; secondly, to present it as a specifically cognitive process and a special form of cognition. The main types of intuition are sensual intuition (quick identification, the ability to form analogies, creative imagination, etc.) and intellectual intuition , including accelerated inference, the ability to synthesize and evaluate.
In this way, intuition - it is a complex process , including both rational and sensual elements , what served as the basis for attributing it to special forms of cognition .
2. Methods used in scientific research
Method scientific research It is a way of knowing the objective reality. The method is a certain sequence of actions, techniques, operations.
Depending on the content of the studied objects, methods of natural science and methods of social and humanitarian research are distinguished.
Research methods are classified by branches of science: mathematical, biological, medical, socio-economic, legal, etc.
Depending on the level of knowledge, there are methods of empirical, theoretical and metatheoretical levels.
To methods empirical levels include observation, description, comparison, counting, measurement, questionnaire, interview, testing, experiment, modeling, etc.
To methods theoretical levels include axiomatic, hypothetical (hypothetical-deductive), formalization, abstraction, general logical methods (analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy), etc. scientific knowledge method inference
Methods metatheoretical levels are dialectical, metaphysical, hermeneutical, etc. Some scientists refer the method of system analysis to this level, while others include it among the general logical methods.
depending on the scope and degree of generality distinguished methods:
1) universal (philosophical), operating in all sciences and at all stages of knowledge;
2) general scientific, which can be applied in the humanities, natural and technical sciences;
3) private - for related sciences;
4) special - for a particular science, area of scientific knowledge.
From the considered concept of method, it is necessary to delimit the concepts of technology, procedure and methodology of scientific research.
Under the research technique is understood a set of special techniques for using a particular method, and under the research procedure - a certain sequence of actions.
Among general methods the most famous are dialectical and metaphysical. These methods can be associated with various philosophical systems.
All general scientific methods for analysis, it is advisable to divide into three groups: general logical, theoretical and empirical.
General logical methods are analysis, synthesis, induction, deduction, analogy.
Analysis- this is a dismemberment, decomposition of the object of study into its component parts. It underlies analytical method research. Varieties of analysis are classification and periodization.
Synthesis- this is a combination of separate parties, parts of the object of study into a single whole.
Induction- this is the movement of thought (knowledge) from facts, individual cases to a general position. Inductive reasoning "suggests" a thought, a general idea.
Deduction - this is the derivation of a single, particular from some general position; the movement of thought (cognition) from general statements to statements about individual objects or phenomena. Through deductive reasoning, a certain thought is “deduced” from other thoughts.
Analogy- this is a way of obtaining knowledge about objects and phenomena based on the fact that they are similar to others; reasoning in which, from the similarity of the studied objects in some features, a conclusion is made about their similarity in other features.
To methods theoretical level they include axiomatic, hypothetical, formalization, abstraction, generalization, ascent from the abstract to the concrete, historical, method of system analysis.
Axiomatic method - a method of research, which consists in the fact that some statements (axioms, postulates) are accepted without proof and then, according to certain logical rules, the rest of the knowledge is derived from them.
Hypothetical method - a method of research using a scientific hypothesis, i.e. assumptions about the cause that causes a given effect, or about the existence of some phenomenon or object.
Formalization- displaying a phenomenon or object in the symbolic form of some artificial language (for example, logic, mathematics, chemistry) and studying this phenomenon or object through operations with the corresponding signs. The use of an artificial formalized language in scientific research makes it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of a natural language as ambiguity, inaccuracy, and uncertainty.
When formalizing, instead of reasoning about the objects of study, they operate with signs (formulas). Through operations with formulas of artificial languages, one can obtain new formulas, prove the truth of any proposition.
abstraction- mental abstraction from some properties and relations of the subject under study and the selection of properties and relations of interest to the researcher. Usually, when abstracting, the secondary properties and relationships of the object under study are separated from the essential properties and relationships.
Generalization- establishment of general properties and relations of objects and phenomena; definition general concept, which reflects the essential, main features of objects or phenomena of this class. At the same time, generalization can be expressed in the allocation of not essential, but any features of an object or phenomenon. This method of scientific research is based on the philosophical categories of general, particular and singular.
historical method consists in revealing historical facts and, on this basis, in such a mental reconstruction of the historical process, in which the logic of its movement is revealed. It involves the study of the emergence and development of objects of study in chronological order.
Climbing from the abstract to the concrete as a method of scientific knowledge is that the researcher first finds the main connection of the object (phenomenon) being studied, then, tracing how it changes into various conditions, opens up new connections and in this way displays its essence in its entirety.
System Method consists in the study of the system (i.e. a certain set of material or ideal objects), the connections of its components and their connections with the external environment. At the same time, it turns out that these relationships and interactions lead to the emergence of new properties of the system that are absent from its constituent objects. Methods of the empirical level include: observation, description, calculation, measurement, comparison, experiment, modeling.
Observation- this is a way of cognition based on the direct perception of the properties of objects and phenomena with the help of the senses. As a result of observation, the researcher gains knowledge about the external properties and relationships of objects and phenomena.
Description- this is a fixation of the features of the object under study, which are established, for example, by observation or measurement. Description is: 1) direct, when the researcher directly perceives and indicates the features of the object; 2) indirect, when the researcher notes the features of the object that were perceived by other persons (for example, the characteristics of a UFO).
Measurement- this is the definition of the numerical value of a certain quantity by comparing it with the standard. In forensics, measurement is used to determine: the distance between objects; movement speed Vehicle, person or other objects; the duration of certain phenomena and processes; temperature, size, weight, etc.
Comparison- this is a comparison of the features inherent in two or more objects, establishing differences between them or finding common ground in them.
Experiment- this is an artificial reproduction of a phenomenon, a process under given conditions, during which the put forward hypothesis is tested. Experiments can be classified on various grounds: by branches of scientific research - physical, biological, chemical, social, etc.; according to the nature of the interaction of the research tool with the object - ordinary (experimental tools directly interact with the object under study) and model (the model replaces the object of research). The latter are divided into mental (mental, imaginary) and material (real).
Modeling- this is the acquisition of knowledge about the object of study with the help of its substitutes - analogue, model. A model is a mentally represented or materially existing analogue of an object. Based on the similarity of the model and the object being modeled, conclusions about it are transferred by analogy to this object.
In the study of complex, interconnected problems, it is used system analysis, which has been widely used in various fields scientific activity person.
System analysis is based on the concept of a system, which is understood as a set of objects that have predetermined properties with fixed relationships between them.
System analysis is used to study such complex systems as the economy of a particular industry, industrial enterprise.
System analysis consists of the main 4 stages: the first is to set the task - determine the object, goals and objectives of the study, as well as criteria for studying the object. During the second stage, the boundaries are outlined and its structure is determined: objects and processes related to the goal are divided into the actual studied and external environment. Then, separate components of the system - its elements are isolated, their interaction with the external environment is established. The third, most important, stage of system analysis is the compilation of a mathematical model of the system under study.
Analytical Methods are used to describe only small systems due to their bulkiness or the impossibility of compiling and solving complex system equations.
A complex approach allows you to explore the market situation as an object that has various manifestations. For example, the problem of the market of a particular product can be associated with a deviation in demand, product supply or price, that is, with such aspects of the object under study, with the help of which one can determine and make strategic or tactical decisions about changing the situation as a whole.
At the same time, system analysis and an integrated approach are closely interrelated and cannot be implemented one without the other.
Program-targeted planning widely used in the development and implementation of strategy and tactics in business research.
Linear programming as a mathematical method for choosing the optimal solution (with minimal costs, maximum profit, etc.) is used in business, for example, when developing the optimal assortment in conditions of limited resources, determining the optimal amount of inventory, planning the movement of sales agents.
When solving problems of customer service order, scheduling the supply of goods, and other similar tasks, methods are used queuing theory, which provide an opportunity, firstly, to study the patterns associated with the presence of a flow of service requests, and, secondly, to maintain the necessary order of their execution.
Methods of probability theory are used in making decisions that come down to determining the likelihood of specific events and choosing the most optimal from a number of possible actions (for example, to produce or not to produce product A or B, reorganize or expand production, etc.).
The system of existing or possible connections between events, actions, or processes can be described using modeling methods.
The most effective are econometric (economic-mathematical) models. A special place in the methodological assortment is occupied by methods of expert assessments ("Delphi", "Devil's Advocate", etc.), which allow you to quickly get an answer about the possible development processes of one or another event on the market, discover the strengths and weaknesses of the enterprise, evaluate the effectiveness of certain marketing decisions.
Conclusion
The characteristic of the main forms of cognition gives mainly an idea of what is common to scientific and non-scientific cognition. Both in the first and in the second, both the sensory cognitive abilities of a person and his ability to abstract thinking are used. In all spheres of human activity where cognitive processes are carried out, people think through logical forms (concepts, judgments, conclusions).
Along with the general focus of cognitive actions on the production of knowledge, scientific knowledge is characterized by a number of features:
1) scientific knowledge is based on a clear distinction of its subject as an integral set of interrelated characteristics of the object;
2) it involves the use of specialized tools, in particular, special material means;
3) scientific knowledge is regulated by a certain set of special methods and other types of normative knowledge;
4) the results of scientific knowledge are recorded in special forms knowledge and must meet a number of requirements;
5) a significant difference between scientific knowledge and other forms of cognitive processes is the presence of a specialized language.
The specifics of science as a sociocultural phenomenon are largely determined by the features of scientific knowledge.
List of used literature
1. Shklyar M.F. Fundamentals of scientific research, textbook, M., 1989.
2. Fundamentals of scientific research: a textbook for universities Krutov V.I., Grushko I.M., Popova V.V., M., 1989.
3. Sabitov R.I. Fundamentals of scientific research. Tutorial. Chelyabinsk, 2002.
4. Makogon Yu.V., Pilipenko V.V. Methods of scientific research of foreign economic relations. Donetsk. 2012.
Hosted on Allbest.ru
...Similar Documents
general characteristics heuristic methods of scientific knowledge, the study of historical examples of their application and analysis of the significance of these methods in theoretical activity. Evaluation of the role of analogy, reduction, induction in the theory and practice of scientific knowledge.
term paper, added 09/13/2011
Specificity and levels of scientific knowledge. Creative activity and human development. Methods of scientific knowledge: empirical and theoretical. Forms of scientific knowledge: problems, hypotheses, theories. The importance of having philosophical knowledge.
abstract, added 11/29/2006
Concept, essence and laws of methods of knowledge. Analysis of the relationship and features of correctness and truth. Dialectics as a universal philosophical method modern science. General characteristics of the main structural elements of the system of general scientific methods.
abstract, added 10/11/2010
test, added 12/30/2010
Concept, essence and subject of methodology. The concept of "method", the main types of methods and their relationship. Methods of scientific knowledge. Basic methods of empirical and theoretical knowledge. Problems of methodology and ways to solve them. The most important tasks of methodology.
control work, added 11/11/2010
The problem of knowledge in philosophy. The concept and essence of everyday knowledge. Rationality of everyday knowledge: common sense and reason. Scientific knowledge its structure and features. Methods and forms of scientific knowledge. Basic criteria of scientific knowledge.
abstract, added 06/15/2017
The concept and classification of methods of scientific knowledge. Methods applied at the empirical and theoretical levels of knowledge (analysis and synthesis, analogy and modeling). Development of methods of knowledge.
abstract, added 04/02/2007
The concept and main function of the method of scientific research. Approaches to its classification depending on the scope and other features. Essence and types of methodology, general scheme its structures, main levels. General scientific methods of scientific knowledge.
presentation, added 06/23/2011
Empirical and theoretical structural levels of scientific knowledge. Concept, role and tasks of empirical knowledge. Methods for studying objects: observation, experiment, measurement and description. The main characteristics of theoretical knowledge. Types of inferences.
abstract, added 02/02/2011
Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge, their unity and difference. concept scientific theory. Problem and hypothesis as forms of scientific research. Dynamics of scientific knowledge. The development of science as a unity of the processes of differentiation and integration of knowledge.
Analysis is the mental division of the phenomenon under study into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. Through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single holistic picture.
Widespread: induction and deduction. By means of induction (guidance), a transition is provided from the study of single facts to general provisions and conclusions. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively specific ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are applied by economic theory in unity. Their combination provides a systematic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.
An important place in the study of economic phenomena and processes is occupied by historical and logical methods. They do not oppose each other, but are applied in unity, since the starting point historical research coincides, by and large, with the starting point of logical research. However, the logical (theoretical) study of economic phenomena and processes is not mirror image historical process. In the specific conditions of a particular country, economic phenomena may arise that are not necessary for the dominant economic system. If in fact (historically) they take place, then in theoretical analysis they can be ignored. We can get away from them. The historian, however, cannot ignore such phenomena. He must describe them.
Using the historical method, economics explores economic processes and phenomena in the sequence in which they arose, developed and were replaced by one another in life itself. This approach allows us to concretely and visually present the features of various economic systems.
The historical method shows that in nature and society development proceeds from the simple to the complex. With regard to the subject of economics, this means that in the entire set of economic phenomena and processes, it is necessary to single out, first of all, the simplest ones that arise earlier than others and form the basis for the emergence of more complex ones. For example, in market analysis, such an economic phenomenon is the exchange of goods.
Economic processes and phenomena are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. Therefore, economic theory (political economy) makes extensive use of mathematical and statistical methods and means of research, which make it possible to reveal the quantitative side of the processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. At the same time, computer technology is widely used. A special role here is played by the method of economic and mathematical modeling. This method, being one of the systematic research methods, allows in a formalized form to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, opportunities and costs of influence, and also makes forecasting realistic economic processes. With this method, economic models are created.
An economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.
In connection with the construction of models, it is important to note the role of functional analysis in economic theory.
Functions are variables that depend on other variables.
Functions occur in our daily lives, and most of the time we don't realize it. They take place in engineering, physics, geometry, chemistry, economics, and so on. With regard to the economy, for example, one can note the functional relationship between price and demand. Demand depends on the price. If the price of a commodity rises, the quantity demanded for it, ceteris paribus, decreases. In this case, the price is an independent variable, or argument, and demand is a dependent variable, or function. Thus, we can briefly say that demand is a function of price. But demand and price can change places. The higher the demand, the higher the price, other things being equal. Therefore, price can be a function of demand.
Economic and mathematical modeling as a method of economic theory became widespread in the 20th century. However, the element of subjectivity in the construction of economic models sometimes leads to errors. Laureate Nobel Prize French economist Maurice Allais wrote in 1989 that for 40 years, economics has been developing in the wrong direction: towards completely artificial and out of touch with life mathematical models with the predominance of mathematical formalism, which is, in fact, a big step backwards.
Most of the models, principles of economic theory can be expressed graphically, in the form of mathematical equations, therefore, when studying economic theory, it is important to know mathematics and be able to draw and read graphs.
Graphs are a representation of the relationship between two or more variables.
The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).
If the line of the graph goes from left to right in a downward direction, then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables (for example, as the price of a product decreases, the volume of its sale usually increases). If the graph line is ascending, then the relationship is direct (for example, as the cost of production of a product rises, prices for it usually rise -). Dependence can be non-linear (i.e. changing), then the graph takes the form of a curved line (for example, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve).
As part of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - drawings showing the relationship between indicators. They can be circular, columnar, etc.
Schemes clearly demonstrate the indicators of models and their relationships. When analyzing economic problems, positive and normative analysis is often used. A positive analysis gives us the opportunity to see economic phenomena and processes as they really are: what was or what can be. Positive statements do not have to be true, but any argument about a positive statement can be resolved by fact checking. Normative analysis is based on the study of what and how should be. A normative statement is most often derived from a positive one, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. In normative analysis, assessments are made - fair or unfair, bad or good, acceptable or unacceptable.
2. Methodology analysis
2.1 Concept and types
Analysis is the mental division of the phenomenon under study into its component parts and the study of each of these parts separately. Through synthesis, economic theory recreates a single holistic picture.
Widespread: induction and deduction. By means of induction (guidance), the transition from the study of single facts to general provisions and conclusions is ensured. Deduction (inference) makes it possible to move from general conclusions to relatively specific ones. Analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction are applied by economic theory in unity. Their combination provides a systematic (integrated) approach to complex (multi-element) phenomena of economic life.
An important place in the study of economic phenomena and processes is occupied by historical and logical methods. They do not oppose each other, but are applied in unity, insofar as the starting point of historical research coincides, in general and on the whole, with the starting point of logical research. However, the logical (theoretical) study of economic phenomena and processes is not a mirror reflection of the historical process. In the specific conditions of a particular country, economic phenomena may arise that are not necessary for the dominant economic system. If in fact (historically) they take place, then in theoretical analysis they can be ignored. We can get away from them. The historian, however, cannot ignore such phenomena. He must describe them.
Using the historical method, economics explores economic processes and phenomena in the sequence in which they arose, developed and were replaced by one another in life itself. This approach allows us to concretely and visually present the features of various economic systems.
The historical method shows that in nature and society development proceeds from the simple to the complex. With regard to the subject of economics, this means that in the entire set of economic phenomena and processes, it is necessary to single out, first of all, the simplest ones that arise earlier than others and form the basis for the emergence of more complex ones. For example, in market analysis, such an economic phenomenon is the exchange of goods.
Economic processes and phenomena are characterized by qualitative and quantitative certainty. Therefore, economic theory (political economy) makes extensive use of mathematical and statistical methods and means of research, which make it possible to reveal the quantitative side of the processes and phenomena of economic life, their transition to a new quality. At the same time, computer technology is widely used. A special role here is played by the method of economic and mathematical modeling. This method, being one of the systematic research methods, allows in a formalized form to determine the causes of changes in economic phenomena, the patterns of these changes, their consequences, opportunities and costs of influence, and also makes it possible to predict economic processes. With this method, economic models are created.
An economic model is a formalized description of an economic process or phenomenon, the structure of which is determined by its objective properties and the subjective target nature of the study.
In connection with the construction of models, it is important to note the role of functional analysis in economic theory.
Functions are variables that depend on other variables.
Functions occur in our daily lives, and most of the time we don't realize it. They take place in engineering, physics, geometry, chemistry, economics, and so on. With regard to the economy, for example, one can note the functional relationship between price and demand. Demand depends on the price. If the price of a commodity rises, the quantity demanded for it, ceteris paribus, decreases. In this case, the price is an independent variable, or argument, and demand is a dependent variable, or function. Thus, we can briefly say that demand is a function of price. But demand and price can change places. The higher the demand, the higher the price, other things being equal. Therefore, price can be a function of demand.
Economic and mathematical modeling as a method of economic theory became widespread in the 20th century. However, the element of subjectivity in the construction of economic models sometimes leads to errors. The Nobel Prize-winning French economist Maurice Allais wrote in 1989 that for 40 years, economics has been developing in the wrong direction: towards completely artificial and detached from life mathematical models with a predominance of mathematical formalism, which is, in fact, a big step backwards. .
Most of the models, principles of economic theory can be expressed graphically, in the form of mathematical equations, therefore, when studying economic theory, it is important to know mathematics and be able to draw and read graphs.
Graphs are a representation of the relationship between two or more variables.
The dependence can be linear (i.e. constant), then the graph is a straight line located at an angle between two axes - vertical (usually denoted by the letter Y) and horizontal (X).
If the line of the graph goes from left to right in a downward direction, then there is an inverse relationship between the two variables (for example, as the price of a product decreases, the volume of its sale usually increases). If the graph line is ascending, then the relationship is direct (for example, as the cost of production of a product rises, prices for it usually rise -). Dependence can be non-linear (i.e. changing), then the graph takes the form of a curved line (so, as inflation decreases, unemployment tends to increase - the Phillips curve,).
As part of the graphical approach, diagrams are widely used - drawings showing the relationship between indicators. They can be circular, columnar, etc.
Schemes clearly demonstrate the indicators of models and their relationships. When analyzing economic problems, positive and normative analysis is often used. A positive analysis gives us the opportunity to see economic phenomena and processes as they really are: what was or what can be. Positive statements do not have to be true, but any argument about a positive statement can be resolved by fact checking. Normative analysis is based on the study of what and how should be. A normative statement is most often derived from a positive one, but objective facts cannot prove its truth or falsity. In normative analysis, assessments are made - fair or unfair, bad or good, acceptable or unacceptable.
Others, the third wave - "the latest institutional approach" to the study of society and economy (90s) - D. North, J. M. Hodgson. Chapter 2. Using the institutional method in the study of economic processes 2.1. Institutional approach to pension reform Over the past ten years, the reform of the pension system has been declared as one of the top priorities...
perspective. The second task is to assess how organizations use their material, labor and financial resources. The most rational and efficient use of resources is the most important economic task. On the basis of economic analysis, an assessment of the effectiveness of the use of material, labor and financial resources is given. In industry, for example, in this regard, the effectiveness of ...
Institutes does not always select the best options. Economic theory developed and was divided into diverse directions along with the development of its object - the economic system. The place of economic theory in the system of social and humanitarian sciences The economic life of society is contradictory and complex, it is a multi-level structure that can only be known with the help of ...
In political economy" (1897) outlined the essence of the theory of Jevons, the greatest English mathematician of the 19th century, who did a lot to make mathematics an objective method for studying economic processes and phenomena. Conclusion The history of the development of Russian economic science is distinguished by a certain originality. Russian traditions and features that...
