To fully understand how the First World War(1914-1918), you must first familiarize yourself with the political situation that developed in Europe by the beginning of the 20th century. The prehistory of the global military conflict was the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871). It ended with the complete defeat of France, and the confederal union of German states was transformed into the German Empire. Wilhelm I became its head on January 18, 1871. Thus, a powerful state appeared in Europe with a population of 41 million people and an army of almost 1 million soldiers.

The political situation in Europe at the beginning of the 20th century

At first, the German Empire did not seek political dominance in Europe, as it was economically weak. But in 15 years, the country has gained strength and began to claim a more worthy place in the Old World. It must be said here that politics is always determined by the economy, and German capital had very few markets. This can be explained by the fact that Germany in its colonial expansion hopelessly lagged behind Great Britain, Spain, Belgium, France, and Russia.

Map of Europe by 1914. Germany and its allies are shown in brown. Entente countries are shown in green

It is also necessary to take into account the small areas of the state, the population of which was growing rapidly. It required food, but it was not enough. In a word, Germany gained strength, and the world was already divided, and no one was going to voluntarily give up the promised lands. There was only one way out - to take away the tidbits by force and provide their capital and people with a decent and prosperous life.

The German Empire did not hide its ambitious claims, but it could not stand alone against England, France and Russia. Therefore, in 1882, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy formed a military-political bloc (Triple Alliance). Its consequence was the Moroccan crises (1905-1906, 1911) and the Italo-Turkish war (1911-1912). It was a test of strength, a rehearsal for a more serious and large-scale military conflict.

In response to the growing German aggression in 1904-1907, a military-political bloc of cordial consent (Entente) was formed, which included England, France and Russia. Thus, at the beginning of the 20th century, two powerful military forces were formed on the territory of Europe. One of them, led by Germany, sought to expand its living space, and another force tried to counteract these plans in order to protect their economic interests.

Germany's ally Austria-Hungary was a hotbed of instability in Europe. It was a multinational country, which constantly provoked interethnic conflicts. In October 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Herzegovina and Bosnia. This caused sharp dissatisfaction with Russia, which had the status of a defender of the Slavs in the Balkans. Russia was supported by Serbia, which considered itself the unifying center of the southern Slavs.

A tense political situation was observed in the Middle East. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire that once dominated here began to be called the “sick man of Europe”. And therefore, stronger countries began to claim its territory, which provoked political disagreements and wars of a local nature. All of the above information has given a general idea of ​​​​the prerequisites for a global military conflict, and now it's time to find out how the First World War began.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

The political situation in Europe was heating up every day and by 1914 had reached its peak. All that was needed was a small push, a pretext for unleashing a global military conflict. And soon such an occasion presented itself. It went down in history as the Sarajevo murder, and it happened on June 28, 1914.

Assassination of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Sophia

On that ill-fated day, a member of the nationalist organization "Mlada Bosna" (Young Bosnia) Gavrilo Princip (1894-1918) killed the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914) and his wife, Countess Sofia Chotek (1868-1914). "Mlada Bosna" advocated the liberation of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the rule of Austria-Hungary and was ready to use any methods for this, including terrorist ones.

The Archduke and his wife arrived in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina, at the invitation of the Austro-Hungarian governor, General Oskar Potiorek (1853-1933). Everyone knew about the arrival of the crowned couple in advance, and the members of Mlada Bosna decided to kill Ferdinand. For this purpose, a battle group of 6 people was created. It consisted of young people, natives of Bosnia.

Early on the morning of Sunday, June 28, 1914, the royal couple arrived in Sarajevo by train. On the platform, she was met by Oskar Potiorek, journalists and an enthusiastic crowd of loyal associates. The arrivals and high-ranking greeters sat in 6 cars, while the Archduke and his wife were in the third car with a folded top. The motorcade pulled away and rushed towards the military barracks.

By 10 o'clock the inspection of the barracks was completed, and all 6 cars drove along the Appel embankment to the city hall. This time the car with the crowned couple moved second in the cortege. At 10:10 am, the moving cars caught up with one of the terrorists named Nedelko Chabrinovich. This young man threw a grenade at the car with the Archduke. But the grenade hit the convertible top, flew under the third car and exploded.

Detention of Gavrilo Princip, who killed Archduke Ferdinand and his wife

Shrapnel killed the driver of the car, injured passengers, as well as people who were at that moment near the car. A total of 20 people were injured. The terrorist himself swallowed potassium cyanide. However, that did not give the desired effect. The man vomited, and he, escaping from the crowd, jumped into the river. But the river in that place was very shallow. The terrorist was dragged ashore, and angry people brutally beat him. After that, the crippled conspirator was handed over to the police.

After the explosion, the cortege picked up speed and rushed to the city hall without incident. There, a magnificent reception awaited the crowned couple, and, despite the assassination attempt, the solemn part took place. At the end of the celebration, it was decided to curtail the further program in connection with emergency. It was decided only to go to the hospital to visit the wounded there. At 10:45 a.m., the cars started off again and drove along Franz Josef Street.

Another terrorist, Gavrilo Princip, was waiting for the moving cortege. He was standing outside Moritz Schiller's Delicatessen, next to the Latin Bridge. Seeing a crowned couple sitting in a convertible car, the conspirator stepped forward, caught up with the car and was near it at a distance of only one and a half meters. He fired twice. The first bullet hit Sophia in the stomach, and the second in Ferdinand's neck.

After the execution of people, the conspirator tried to poison himself, but, like the first terrorist, he only vomited. Then Princip made an attempt to shoot himself, but people ran up, took away the gun and started beating the 19-year-old man. He was so beaten that in the prison hospital the killer had to amputate his arm. Subsequently, the court sentenced Gavrilo Princip to 20 years of hard labor, since, according to the laws of Austria-Hungary, he was a minor at the time of the crime. In prison, the young man was kept in the most difficult conditions and died of tuberculosis on April 28, 1918.

Wounded by the conspirator, Ferdinand and Sophia remained sitting in the car, which rushed to the governor's residence. There, they were going to provide medical assistance to the injured. But the couple died on the way. First, Sophia died, and after 10 minutes Ferdinand gave her soul to God. Thus ended the Sarajevo massacre, which became the reason for the start of the First World War.

July Crisis

The July crisis is a series of diplomatic clashes between the leading powers of Europe in the summer of 1914, provoked by the Sarajevo assassination. Of course, this political conflict could be resolved peacefully, but the powerful of this world really wanted war. And such a desire was based on the belief that the war would be very short and effective. But it took on a protracted character and claimed more than 20 million human lives.

Funeral of Archduke Ferdinand and his wife Countess Sofia

After the assassination of Ferdinand, Austria-Hungary stated that Serbian state structures were behind the conspirators. At the same time, Germany publicly announced to the whole world that in the event of a military conflict in the Balkans, she would support Austria-Hungary. This statement was made on July 5, 1914, and on July 23, Austria-Hungary issued a harsh ultimatum to Serbia. In particular, in it the Austrians demanded that their police officers be allowed into the territory of Serbia to investigate and punish terrorist groups.

The Serbs could not agree to such a thing and announced mobilization in the country. Literally two days later, on July 26, the Austrians also announced mobilization and began to gather troops to the borders of Serbia and Russia. The final touch in this local conflict was July 28. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and began shelling Belgrade. After the artillery preparation, the Austrian troops crossed the Serbian border.

On July 29, Russian Emperor Nicholas II proposed to Germany to resolve the Austro-Serbian conflict at the Hague Conference by peaceful means. But Germany did not respond to this. Then July 31st Russian Empire general mobilization was announced. In response, Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and war on France on August 3. Already on August 4, German troops entered Belgium, and its king Albert turned to the European countries-guarantors of its neutrality.

After that, Great Britain sent a note of protest to Berlin and demanded an immediate end to the invasion of Belgium. The German government ignored the note, and Great Britain declared war on Germany. And the final touch of this universal madness was August 6th. On this day, Austria-Hungary declared war on the Russian Empire. This is how the First World War began.

Soldiers in World War I

It officially lasted from July 28, 1914 to November 11, 1918. Military operations were conducted in Central and Eastern Europe, the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Middle East, Africa, China, and Oceania. Nothing like this before the human civilization did not know. It was the largest military conflict that shook the state foundations of the leading countries of the planet. After the war, the world became different, but humanity did not grow wiser and by the middle of the 20th century unleashed an even larger massacre that claimed many more lives..

Berlin, London, Paris wanted to start big war in Europe, Vienna was not opposed to the defeat of Serbia, although they did not particularly want a pan-European war. The reason for the war was given by the Serbian conspirators, who also wanted a war that would destroy the "patchwork" Austro-Hungarian Empire and allow the plans to create a "Great Serbia" to be realized.

June 28, 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia) terrorists kill the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia. Interestingly, the Russian Foreign Ministry and Serbian Prime Minister Pasic received a message through their channels about the possibility of such an assassination attempt and tried to warn Vienna. Pasic warned through the Serbian envoy in Vienna, and Russia through Romania.

In Berlin, they decided that this was an excellent reason to start a war. Kaiser Wilhelm II, who learned about the attack at the celebration of the "Week of the Fleet" in Kiel, wrote in the margins of the report: "Now or never" (the emperor was a lover of high-profile "historical" phrases). And now the hidden flywheel of war has begun to unwind. Although most Europeans believed that this event, like many before (like the two Moroccan crises, the two Balkan wars), would not become the detonator of a world war. In addition, the terrorists were Austrian subjects, not Serbian. It should be noted that the European society of the early 20th century was largely pacifist and did not believe in the possibility of a big war, it was believed that people were already “civilized” enough to resolve controversial issues by war, there are political and diplomatic tools for this, only local conflicts are possible.

In Vienna, they have long been looking for a reason to defeat Serbia, which was considered the main threat to the empire, "the engine of pan-Slavic politics." True, the situation depended on the support of Germany. If Berlin puts pressure on Russia and she retreats, then the Austro-Serbian war is inevitable. During negotiations in Berlin on July 5-6 German Kaiser assured the Austrian side of its full support. The Germans sounded the mood of the British - the German ambassador told British Foreign Minister Edward Gray that Germany, "taking advantage of Russia's weakness, considers it necessary not to restrain Austria-Hungary." Gray evaded a direct answer, and the Germans felt that the British would remain on the sidelines. Many researchers believe that in this way London pushed Germany to war, Britain's firm position would have stopped the Germans. Gray told Russia that "England will take a position favorable to Russia." On the 9th, the Germans hinted to the Italians that if Rome took a position favorable to the Central Powers, then Italy might get Austrian Trieste and Trentino. But the Italians evaded a direct answer and, as a result, until 1915 they bargained and waited.

The Turks also began to fuss, began to look for the most profitable scenario for themselves. Naval Minister Ahmed Jemal Pasha visited Paris, he was a supporter of an alliance with the French. Minister of War Ismail Enver Pasha visited Berlin. And the Minister of the Interior, Mehmed Talaat Pasha, left for St. Petersburg. As a result, the pro-German course won.

In Vienna, at that time, they came up with an ultimatum to Serbia, and they tried to include such items that the Serbs could not accept. On July 14, the text was approved, and on the 23rd it was handed over to the Serbs. The answer had to be given within 48 hours. The ultimatum contained very harsh demands. The Serbs were required to ban print publications that promoted hatred of Austria-Hungary and the violation of its territorial unity; to ban the Narodna Odbrana society and all other similar unions and movements conducting anti-Austrian propaganda; remove anti-Austrian propaganda from the education system; dismiss from the military and civil service all officers and officials who were engaged in propaganda directed against Austria-Hungary; assist the Austrian authorities in suppressing the movement against the integrity of the empire; stop smuggling and explosives into Austrian territory, arrest border guards involved in such activities, etc.

Serbia was not ready for war, it had just gone through two Balkan Wars experienced an internal political crisis. And there was no time to drag out the issue and diplomatic maneuvering. This was understood by other politicians, Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov, having learned about the Austrian ultimatum, said: "This is a war in Europe."

Serbia began to mobilize the army, and the Serbian Prince Regent Alexander "begged" Russia to help. Nicholas II said that all the efforts of Russia are aimed at avoiding bloodshed, and if the war starts, then Serbia will not be left alone. On the 25th, the Serbs responded to the Austrian ultimatum. Serbia agreed to almost all points except one. The Serbian side refused the participation of the Austrians in the investigation of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand on the territory of Serbia, since this affected the sovereignty of the state. Although they promised to conduct an investigation and announced the possibility of transferring the results of the investigation to the Austrians.

Vienna regarded this answer as negative. On July 25, the Austro-Hungarian Empire began a partial mobilization of troops. On the same day, the German Empire began a covert mobilization. Berlin demanded that Vienna begin military operations against the Serbs immediately.

Other powers tried to intervene with a view to a diplomatic settlement of the issue. London came up with a proposal to convene a conference of the great powers and peacefully resolve the issue. The British were supported by Paris and Rome, but Berlin refused. Russia and France tried to persuade the Austrians to accept a settlement plan based on the Serbian proposals - Serbia was ready to transfer the investigation to the international tribunal in The Hague.

But the Germans had already decided on the issue of war, in Berlin on the 26th they prepared an ultimatum to Belgium, which stated that the French army planned to strike Germany through this country. Therefore, the German army must prevent this attack and occupy Belgian territory. If the Belgian government agrees, the Belgians were promised compensation for the damage after the war, if not, then Belgium was declared an enemy of Germany.

In London, there was a struggle between various power groups. Highly strong positions were among the supporters of the traditional policy of "non-intervention", they were supported by public opinion. The British wanted to stay out of the European war. The London Rothschilds, associated with the Austrian Rothschilds, financed an active propaganda of a non-interference policy. It is likely that if Berlin and Vienna had directed the main blow against Serbia and Russia, the British would not intervene in the war. And the world saw strange war» 1914, when Austria-Hungary crushed Serbia, and the German army sent the main blow against the Russian Empire. In this situation, France could conduct a "positional war", limited to private operations, and Britain could not enter the war at all. London was forced to intervene in the war by the fact that it was impossible to allow the complete defeat of France and German hegemony in Europe. The First Lord of the Admiralty Churchill, at his own peril and risk, after the completion of the summer maneuvers of the fleet with the participation of reservists, did not let them go home and kept the ships in concentration, not sending them to their places of deployment.

Austrian cartoon "Serbia must perish".

Russia

Russia at this time behaved extremely cautiously. For several days, the emperor held lengthy meetings with the Minister of War Sukhomlinov, the Minister of the Navy, Grigorovich, and the Chief of the General Staff, Yanushkevich. Nicholas II did not want to provoke a war with the military preparations of the Russian armed forces.
Only preliminary measures were taken: on the 25th of the holidays, the officers were recalled, on the 26th the emperor agreed to preparatory measures for partial mobilization. And only in a few military districts (Kazan, Moscow, Kiev, Odessa). In the Warsaw Military District, mobilization was not carried out, because. it bordered simultaneously with Austria-Hungary and Germany. Nicholas II hoped that the war could be stopped, and sent telegrams to "cousin Willy" (the German Kaiser), asking him to stop Austria-Hungary.

These fluctuations in Russia became proof for Berlin that “Russia is now unfit for combat,” that Nikolai is afraid of war. Wrong conclusions were drawn: the German ambassador and military attaché wrote from St. Petersburg that Russia was planning not a decisive offensive, but a gradual retreat, following the example of 1812. The German press wrote about complete decomposition» in the Russian Empire.

The beginning of the war

On July 28, Vienna declared war on Belgrade. It should be noted that the First World War began on a great patriotic upsurge. General jubilation reigned in the capital of Austria-Hungary, crowds of people filled the streets, singing patriotic songs. The same mood reigned in Budapest (capital of Hungary). It was a real holiday, women filled up the military, who were supposed to smash the damned Serbs, with flowers and signs of attention. Then people believed that the war with Serbia would be a victory walk.

The Austro-Hungarian army was not yet ready for the offensive. But already on the 29th, the ships of the Danube Flotilla and the Zemlin fortress, located opposite the Serbian capital, began shelling Belgrade.

Reich Chancellor of the German Empire Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg sent threatening notes to Paris and Petersburg. The French were informed that the military preparations which France was about to begin "force Germany to declare a state of threat of war." Russia was warned that if the Russians continued military preparations, "then it would hardly be possible to avoid a European war."

London proposed another settlement plan: the Austrians could occupy part of Serbia as a "collateral" for a fair investigation, in which the great powers would take part. Churchill orders the ships to be moved north, away from a possible attack by German submarines and destroyers, and "preliminary martial law" is introduced in Britain. Although the British still refused to "have their say", although Paris asked for it.

In Paris, the government held regular meetings. The chief of the French General Staff, Joffre, carried out preparatory measures before the start of a full-scale mobilization and offered to bring the army to full combat readiness and take up positions on the border. The situation was aggravated by the fact that the French soldiers, according to the law, could go home during the harvest, half of the army went to the villages. Joffre reported that german army will be able to occupy part of the territory of France without serious resistance. In general, the French government was confused. Theory is one thing, reality is quite another. The situation was aggravated by two factors: firstly, the British did not give a definite answer; secondly, apart from Germany, France could be attacked by Italy. As a result, Joffre was allowed to recall the soldiers from vacations and mobilize 5 border corps, but at the same time take them 10 kilometers from the border to show that Paris was not going to attack first, and not to provoke a war with some random conflict between German and French soldiers.

Petersburg, too, there was no certainty, there was still hope that big war can be avoided. After Vienna declared war on Serbia, Russia announced a partial mobilization. But it turned out to be difficult to implement, because. in Russia there were no plans for partial mobilization against Austria-Hungary, such plans were only against the Ottoman Empire and Sweden. It was believed that separately, without Germany, the Austrians would not dare to fight with Russia. And Russia itself was not going to attack the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The emperor insisted on partial mobilization, the head of the General Staff, Yanushkevich, argued that without the mobilization of the Warsaw Military District, Russia risks missing a powerful blow, because. according to intelligence, it turned out that it was here that the Austrians would concentrate a strike force. In addition, if an unprepared partial mobilization is initiated, it will lead to a breakdown in rail transport schedules. Then Nikolai decided not to mobilize at all, to wait.

The information was the most contradictory. Berlin tried to buy time - the German Kaiser sent encouraging telegrams, reported that Germany was inciting Austria-Hungary to make concessions, and Vienna seemed to agree. And then there was a note from Bethmann-Hollweg, a message about the bombing of Belgrade. And Vienna, after a period of wagging, announced the refusal of negotiations with Russia.

Therefore, on July 30, the Russian emperor gave the order to mobilize. But immediately canceled, because. several peace-loving telegrams from "Cousin Willy" came from Berlin, who reported on his efforts to persuade Vienna to negotiate. Wilhelm asked not to start military preparations, because. this would interfere with Germany's negotiations with Austria. Nikolai in response suggested that the issue be submitted for consideration by the Hague Conference. Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov went to the German Ambassador Pourtales to work out the main points for resolving the conflict.

Petersburg then received other information. The Kaiser changed his tone to a harsher one. Vienna refused any negotiations, there was evidence that the Austrians would clearly coordinate their actions with Berlin. There were reports from Germany that military preparations were in full swing there. German ships from Kiel were transferred to Danzig in the Baltic. Cavalry units advanced to the border. And Russia needed 10-20 days more to mobilize its armed forces than Germany. It became clear that the Germans were simply fooling St. Petersburg in order to gain time.

On July 31, Russia announced mobilization. Moreover, it was reported that as soon as the Austrians cease hostilities and a conference was convened, Russian mobilization would be stopped. Vienna announced that a halt to hostilities was impossible and announced a full-scale mobilization directed against Russia. The Kaiser sent a new telegram to Nicholas, saying that his peace efforts had become "illusory" and that the war could still be stopped if Russia canceled military preparations. Berlin got a pretext for war. And an hour later, Wilhelm II in Berlin, to the enthusiastic roar of the crowd, announced that Germany was "forced to wage war." Martial law was introduced in the German Empire, which simply legalized the previous military preparations (they had been going on for a week).

France was sent an ultimatum about the need to maintain neutrality. The French had to answer within 18 hours whether France would be neutral in the event of a war between Germany and Russia. And as a pledge of "good intentions" they demanded to transfer the border fortresses of Tul and Verdun, which they promised to return after the end of the war. The French were simply stunned by such impudence, the French ambassador in Berlin was even ashamed to convey the full text of the ultimatum, limiting himself to the requirement of neutrality. In addition, in Paris they were afraid of mass unrest and strikes that the left threatened to organize. A plan was prepared according to which they planned, according to pre-prepared lists, to arrest socialists, anarchists and all "suspicious".

The situation was very difficult. Petersburg learned about Germany's ultimatum to stop mobilization from the German press (!). The German Ambassador Pourtales was instructed to hand it over at midnight from July 31st to August 1st, the deadline was given at 12 o'clock in order to reduce the opportunities for diplomatic maneuver. The word "war" was not used. Interestingly, St. Petersburg was not even sure of French support, because. the union treaty was not ratified by the French parliament. Yes, and the British offered the French to wait for "further developments", because. the conflict between Germany, Austria and Russia "does not affect the interests of England." But the French were forced to join the war, because. the Germans did not give any other choice - at 7 am on August 1, German troops (16th Infantry Division) crossed the border with Luxembourg and occupied the town of Trois Vierges ("Three Virgins"), where the borders and railway communications of Belgium, Germany and Luxembourg converged. In Germany, they later joked that the war began with the possession of three virgins.

Paris on the same day began a general mobilization and rejected the ultimatum. Moreover, they have not yet talked about the war, informing Berlin that "mobilization is not a war." Concerned Belgians (the treaties of 1839 and 1870 determined the neutral status of their country, Britain was the main guarantor of Belgium's neutrality) asked Germany for clarification about the invasion of Luxembourg. Berlin replied that there was no danger to Belgium.

The French continued to appeal to England, recalling that the English fleet, according to an earlier agreement, should protect the Atlantic coast of France and the French fleet should concentrate in the Mediterranean. During the meeting of the British government, 12 out of 18 of its members opposed the support of France. Gray informed the French ambassador that France must decide for itself, Britain was not currently in a position to provide assistance.

London was forced to reconsider its position because of Belgium, which was a possible springboard against England. The British Foreign Office asked Berlin and Paris to respect Belgium's neutrality. France confirmed the neutral status of Belgium, Germany remained silent. Therefore, the British declared that in an attack on Belgium, England could not remain neutral. Although London retained a loophole here, Lloyd George opined that if the Germans did not occupy the Belgian coast, then the violation could be considered "minor".

Russia offered Berlin to resume negotiations. Interestingly, the Germans were going to declare war anyway, even if Russia accepted an ultimatum to stop mobilization. When German ambassador handed the note, he gave Sazonov two papers at once, both Russias declared war.

There was a dispute in Berlin - the military demanded to start a war without declaring it, they say, the opponents of Germany, having taken retaliatory actions, would declare war and become "instigators". And the Reich Chancellor demanded the preservation of the rules international law, the Kaiser took his side, because. loved beautiful gestures - the declaration of war was historical event. On August 2, Germany officially declared general mobilization and war on Russia. It was the day the "Schlieffen plan" began to be implemented - 40 German corps were to be transferred to offensive positions. Interestingly, Germany officially declared war on Russia, and troops began to be transferred to the west. On the 2nd, Luxembourg was finally occupied. And Belgium was given an ultimatum to let the German troops through, the Belgians had to respond within 12 hours.

The Belgians were shocked. But in the end they decided to defend themselves - they did not believe in the assurances of the Germans to withdraw troops after the war, they were not going to destroy good relations with England and France. King Albert called for defense. Although the Belgians had the hope that this was a provocation and that Berlin would not violate the neutral status of the country.

On the same day, England was determined. The French were informed that the British fleet would cover the Atlantic coast of France. And the reason for the war will be the German attack on Belgium. A number of ministers who were against this decision resigned. The Italians declared their neutrality.

On August 2, Germany and Turkey signed a secret agreement, the Turks pledged to take the side of the Germans. On the 3rd, Turkey declared neutrality, which was a bluff given the agreement with Berlin. On the same day, Istanbul began the mobilization of reservists aged 23-45, i.e. almost universal.

On August 3, Berlin declared war on France, the Germans accused the French of attacks, "aerial bombardments" and even violation of "Belgian neutrality." The Belgians rejected the German ultimatum, Germany declared war on Belgium. On the 4th the invasion of Belgium began. King Albert asked for help from the guarantor countries of neutrality. London issued an ultimatum: stop invading Belgium or Britain would declare war on Germany. The Germans were outraged and called this ultimatum a "racial betrayal". At the end of the ultimatum, Churchill ordered the fleet to begin fighting. Thus began World War I...

Could Russia have prevented the war?

There is an opinion that if Petersburg had given Serbia to be torn to pieces by Austria-Hungary, the war could have been prevented. But this is an erroneous opinion. Thus, Russia could only win time - a few months, a year, two. The war was predetermined by the course of development of the great Western powers, the capitalist system. Germany, the British Empire, France, the USA needed it, and sooner or later they would have started it anyway. Find another reason.

Russia could only change its strategic choice - for whom to fight - at the turn of about 1904-1907. Then London and the United States frankly helped Japan, while France adhered to cold neutrality. During that period, Russia could join Germany against the "Atlantic" powers.

Secret intrigues and the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand

A film from a series of documentaries "Russia of the XX century". The director of the project is Smirnov Nikolai Mikhailovich, a military expert-journalist, author of the project "Our Strategy" and the series of programs "Our View. Russian Frontier". The film was made with the support of the Russian Orthodox Church. Its representative is Nikolai Kuzmich Simakov, a specialist in church history. Involved in the film: historians Nikolai Starikov and Pyotr Multatuli, Professor of St. Petersburg State University and Herzen Russian State Pedagogical University and Doctor of Philosophy Andrey Leonidovich Vassoevich, editor-in-chief of the national-patriotic magazine "Imperial Renaissance" Boris Smolin, intelligence and counterintelligence officer Nikolai Volkov.

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The Entente included 29 states: Russia, France, Great Britain, Italy, Serbia, Montenegro, Belgium, Japan, Portugal, Romania, USA, Greece, China, Siam, Liberia and 14 states of Latin America. Human potential (without colonies) - 260 million people. At the beginning of the war, the army had 5,800,000 men, 12,294 guns, 597 aircraft, and a stronger fleet. But there was no unified command.

The Quadruple Alliance (initially Triple) included only 4 states: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey. Potential - 120 million people, in the army - 3 million 800 thousand people, 9383 guns (more modern), 311 aircraft. The advantage was that Germany was preparing for war longer, the discipline and training of the troops was higher, more modern weapons, the rapid pace of mobilization, a single command, a developed network railways, superiority in heavy artillery, the completion of the rearmament program.

The participants in the war had extensive claims to the redistribution of European and colonial borders, which were embodied in governmental and unofficial expansion programs.

On September 9, 1914, Germany published a government program where it outlined its plans: Germany's economic dominance over Central Europe (Scandinavia, the Danubian countries, Italy, France); creation of Middle Africa, control over Egypt; introduction to China; consolidation of influence in the Middle East; an indemnity from the French of 40 billion francs, from the UK and the USA - $ 30 billion.

It was supposed to defeat Great Britain, deprive it of naval power and colonies, defeat France, capture the iron ore regions of Longwy and Brie, redistribute its colonies, redistribute the Belgian and Portuguese colonies, establish itself in the Arabian provinces of Turkey, weaken Russia by capturing the Polish provinces, Ukraine, the Don region with Odessa , the Baltics.

Austria-Hungary hoped to seize Serbia and Montenegro, defeat Romania, establish its hegemony in the Balkans, and take part of the Polish provinces, Podolia and Volyn from Russia.

Turkey laid claim to Russian Transcaucasia.

Italy left the Triple Alliance and fought on the side of the Entente, hoping to penetrate the Balkans.

Britain hoped to crush Germany as a competitor, but keep it as a state for balance in Europe. Turkey was supposed to seize the oil-bearing regions of Mesopotamia and Palestine.

France intended to return Alsace and Lorraine, seize the Saarland and the Rhine industrial zone, split Germany, and seize the Turkish and German colonies.

Russia was interested in free access to the Mediterranean Sea, the capture of Galicia and the lower reaches of the Neman River. The Cadets saw the future of Russia in the Black Sea basin, in possession of the Bosporus and the Dardanelles; nationalists and neo-Slavists - in joining all Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian lands to Russia and turning it into the leader and supreme arbiter of all Slavic countries and peoples; the Octobrists and Progressives - in the predominance of the vast expanse of the Eastern European and Asian regions, into the orbit of which the neighboring countries and peoples were supposed to enter. The press also discussed progressive demands for joining Russia. East Prussia, the Black Sea straits, Turkish Armenia, a significant territory of Poland. Many of these wishes were taken into account by the tsarist government at the beginning of the war and formed the content of the Note of the Minister of Foreign Affairs S.D. Sazonov, sent to the allies to work out the conditions for a future peace.

The armed forces in all countries consisted of the ground forces and the navy. The structure of the ground forces was as follows: infantry was 70-75%, cavalry - 5-8%, artillery - 15-17%, engineering and auxiliary troops - 2-7%. This shows that military leaders and theoreticians assumed almost all combat missions to be solved by infantry forces with little support from other branches of the military.

The imperialist powers paid much attention to the development naval forces. It was believed that the combat power of the fleet depends primarily on the number of heavy battleships. Along with surface ships of various classes, submarines also entered service.

By the beginning of the war, England had the strongest fleet. The fleets of the Entente countries were much stronger than the naval forces of the Triple Alliance, which ensured the Entente gaining dominance at sea.

Other types of armed forces, except for land and sea, did not yet exist. Aviation was just in its infancy; it was not even a branch of the armed forces and was used only as one of the technical means of reconnaissance and communications.

The organizational structure of most European armies was built according to a binary scheme: two regiments made up a brigade, two brigades made up a division, two divisions made up a corps. Infantry divisions in 1914 had the following forces and means:

The infantry corps, in addition to two divisions, had a cavalry regiment, an artillery division (regiment), an aviation detachment (six aircraft), communications, engineering and rear divisions. The corps artillery divisions were armed with howitzers: the Russian division - 122 mm caliber, the German one - 150 mm, the French corps had an artillery regiment (48 75-mm guns).

The infantry regiments did not have their own artillery. The infantry of all capitalist countries was armed with repeating rifles with a caliber of 7.62 to 8 mm with a firing range of up to 4 - 5 km and a small number of heavy machine guns.

Soldiers were trained to conduct an offensive battle in shallow but dense battle formations (thick skirmish lines) without applying to the terrain and digging in.

Thus, the armament of the armies on the eve of the First World War did not differ in variety. Nevertheless, magazine rifles, machine guns and rapid-fire artillery significantly increased the firepower of the troops. But the general staffs, as before, did not take into account the increased force of fire and intended to achieve victory by blows of large masses of infantry.

Strategic plans of the parties.

The general staffs of all countries developed strategic plans for the war long before it began. The authors of the strategic plans did not use the experience of the first wars of the era of imperialism. They did not notice that the conditions for waging war had changed radically. In particular, the increased role of economic and moral factors was underestimated.

The idea prevailed in all the general staffs that the war would be short, that victory could be won in one or several pitched battles. Vitality modern armies, due to the presence of numerous reserves and the mass production of weapons, was not taken into account. The plans of each of the belligerent countries expressed its imperialist aspirations, its predatory goals.

German strategic plan was developed by Chief of the General Staff Schlieffen. The main idea of ​​the plan is to defeat the armies of France and Russia consistently and quickly and thereby avoid a protracted war on two fronts. It was planned initially to concentrate the main forces in the strip from the Dutch border to the fortress of Metz, to deliver a surprise blow through the territory of Belgium and Luxembourg, to go around from the north and defeat the French armies, to occupy Paris and force France to capitulate. During this period of the war, it was supposed to defend with limited forces on the section of the Franco-German border south of Metz. Given that Russia, with a weak development of transport, cannot quickly carry out mobilization deployment, Schlieffen proposed covering East Prussia with the forces of one army in the first period of the war, and after defeating France, transfer all forces from the western front to the east and defeat the Russian armies. It was planned to defeat France and Russia in three to four months.

The German strategic plan was fundamentally flawed. Opportunities and forces of the enemy were underestimated, which gave the plan an adventurous character. Calculations for the defeat of the armed forces of a major power (France) in one pitched battle were also unrealistic.

Along with the fundamental flaws, the German plan also had strengths. He was imbued with the spirit of active, decisive action. The direction of the main attack, chosen correctly, made it possible to carry out a maneuver with access to the flank of the enemy. Forces significantly superior to the enemy were concentrated in the direction of the main attack. The role of surprise was taken into account.

However, the presence of a number of correct operational-strategic provisions in the German plan could not compensate for its main shortcomings and miscalculations.

French strategic plan ("Plan No. 17") was indecisive and ambivalent. The French planned to deploy: the 1st and 2nd armies in the area of ​​​​the fortresses of Belfort, Epinal, Nancy with the task of attacking Alsace and Lorraine; 3rd Army - to the north, in the Verdun region, and 5th Army - on the border with Belgian Luxembourg. In the second line, behind the adjacent flanks of the 2nd and 3rd armies, the 4th army was deployed. The actions of the 3rd, 4th and 5th armies, according to the plan, depended entirely on how the enemy would behave, where he would strike the main blow. Thus, the strategic initiative was ceded to the enemy, and friendly troops were doomed to passive defensive actions.

In particular, the 4th Army was intended not to build up forces during an offensive, but to counter the enemy in the direction of his main attack.

Strategic plan of Russia formed under the strong influence of its political and economic dependence on Western allies.

Russia assumed the obligation to launch an offensive against East Prussia 15 days after the announcement of mobilization and thereby create a threat to the central regions of Germany. To solve this problem, Russia deployed two strong armies (1st and 2nd) on the Neman and Narev rivers.

The main aspirations of the Russian landowners and the bourgeoisie were directed to Galicia and the Balkans. Therefore, according to the strategic plan, it was planned to deploy four armies against Austria-Hungary (3rd, 4th, 5th and 8th), on the 19th day of mobilization, launch an offensive, encircle and destroy the Austro-Hungarian armies.

The Russian army was supposed to advance simultaneously in two strategic directions, which did not at all correspond to the economic and military capabilities of the country.

Austria-Hungary planned decisive action simultaneously against Russia and Serbia. The Austro-Hungarian plan, drawn up under German pressure, did not take into account the real balance of forces, the weakness of economic resources and the low morale of a significant part of their troops.

England planned to maintain and strengthen its dominance at sea. For actions on land, it was supposed to send to France only one small expeditionary army, consisting of six infantry and one cavalry divisions. Thus, England intended to shift the main burdens of the war onto the Allies and use the latter to defeat her main rival and competitor - Germany.

The stake "on a lightning war" was also expressed in the grouping of forces outlined by all plans. All countries deployed their forces in one strategic echelon. The wide deployment of strategic reserves was not envisaged, since each country planned to win victory in a short time, by defeating the enemy in one or more pitched battles.

Despite the presence of military alliances and the coalition nature of the war, none of the military coalitions has created a single strategic plan and a single command.

The plans of the allied countries were very poorly coordinated. Moreover, the imperialist powers shied away from fulfilling their allied duty in every possible way, fearing great successes for their allies.

The beginning of the war. Military Art in the 1914 Campaign

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the murder on June 28, 1914 of the heir to the Austrian throne by Serbian nationalists in the city of Sarajevo.

The declaration of war and the start of open hostilities were preceded by a one-month threatening period, during which the countries of the German bloc and the Entente secretly carried out a number of pre-mobilization measures. These included checking the status of mobilization bodies, replenishing fuel and food supplies at naval bases and in the designated areas of concentration of troops, strengthening the protection of borders, bridges and other important objects, canceling holidays in the army, returning troops from camps to places of permanent deployment, advancing cover troops and invading deployment areas, etc. For example, during June 1914, Germany deployed three cavalry corps and six infantry brigades along the western border and concentrated a grouping of troops intended to invade Belgium in order to capture crossings on the river. Maas.

Only after the preliminary preparations had been completed did the imperialists of the German-Austrian bloc present ultimatum demands to their opponents and unleash a war.

July 28, 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. On the same day, Russia began a general mobilization. Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, and two days later on France. On August 4, England declared war on Germany. In 1914, Japan joined the Entente, and Turkey joined the German bloc.

Initial period the first world war lasted 16 - 20 days and had a number of important features. During this period, the covering troops deployed along the frontiers and the invading armies fought with only limited forces. The belligerent states sought to mobilize and strategically deploy in border areas as quickly as possible, under the protection of covering troops. The main forces of the belligerent states began active operations only 16-20 days after the start of mobilization and the declaration of war. At the same time, the main forces of the Russian army went on the offensive in East Prussia and Galicia, without even completing their deployment, with an incomplete set and an unorganized rear.

In the initial period of the First World War, cavalry formations were used primarily as covering troops. They were also intended for long-range reconnaissance. Conducted reconnaissance and aviation, but the radius of action of the aircraft then lay within the limits of up to 100 km.

The active operations of the limited invasion forces were also carried out in order to create the most favorable conditions for the subsequent offensive operations of the main forces.

So the content initial period The First World War consisted of the combat operations of the covering and invasion troops, the conduct of deep reconnaissance, the mobilization, concentration and strategic deployment of the main forces of the warring countries.

The mobilization and strategic deployment of the armed forces in all the belligerent countries, carried out according to predetermined plans, did not encounter any serious obstacles from the enemy.

The correlation and grouping of forces in the main theaters of military operations did not correspond to the decisive strategic goals outlined by the war plans.

At the Western European theater Germany deployed 7 armies, which included 86 infantry and 10 cavalry divisions. They were opposed by five French, one English and one Belgian armies, which had 85 infantry and 12 cavalry divisions.

With a general equality of forces, the five German armies, which delivered the main blow through Belgium and Luxembourg, had one and a half superiority over the forces of the French, British and Belgians operating in these areas.

At the Eastern European theater against Russia, Germany and Austria-Hungary deployed five armies (one German and four Austro-Hungarian), which included 51 infantry and 12.5 cavalry divisions. Russia initially deployed six armies with 54 infantry and 17.5 cavalry divisions.

The Russian armies were reduced to two fronts: the Northwestern (1st and 2nd armies) and the Southwestern (3rd, 4th, 5th and 8th armies). Russia was the first country to create front-line associations. In all other countries, the control of the armies was carried out by the headquarters of the main command.

Active hostilities began in the West on August 4, 1914, when the German troops, having not yet completed their concentration, invaded the territory of Belgium.

From the very first days of the war, serious miscalculations in the German strategic plan were revealed. The Belgians, using the r. The Meuse and the fortresses of Liège and Namur delayed the German armies for two weeks. During this time, the French 4th and 5th armies managed to reach the Franco-Belgian border. The Germans failed to fully use the surprise factor.

August 21-25 in the so-called "border battle" five German armies defeated three French and one English armies, forcing the latter to withdraw.

At this point, Russia provided important assistance to France. The armies of the Northwestern Front, without even finishing their concentration, launched an offensive in East Prussia in mid-August and forced the 8th German Army to retreat.

The German command was forced to take two corps and one cavalry division from its strike force in France and send them to East Prussia. Another corps, destined for action in the West, was detained in the Metz region in order to send it to the Russian front. In a short time, the German armies lost the numerical superiority created at the beginning of the war in a decisive direction. The German command did not have strategic and operational reserves for building up forces.

The counterattacks of the French armies inflicted at the end of August forced the German command to abandon the original plan to bypass Paris from the west. The right-flank German armies were turned south, to the river. Marne, east of Paris. They lost their enveloping position and were under threat from the Paris area, where the new (6th) French army was deployed, on a completely unsecured right flank.

September 5-9, 1914 on the river. Marne German armies suffered a serious defeat and were forced to retreat across the river. Aisne, where they switched to positional defense. Thus, the complete failure of the plans to defeat France with one blow and quickly end the war was determined.

Large scale in the campaign of 1914 acquired military operations on Eastern European theater. The successfully launched offensive of the Russian armies in East Prussia was not completed. Incompetent management by the command of the North-Western Front, the lack of interaction between the two armies of this front and the criminal behavior of the commander of the 1st Army allowed the German troops not only to avoid defeat, but also to inflict successive defeat. to both armies. By mid-September, these armies were driven out of the territory of East Prussia.

More successful were the fighting of the Southwestern Front, whose armies in Galician battle, which took place from August 19 to September 21, 1914, inflicted severe defeat enemy and captured the territory of Galicia. But economically backward tsarist Russia quickly used up its mobilization reserves and had absolutely no means to build on the success achieved and achieve victory over Austria-Hungary and Germany.

The attempts of the German command to defeat the Russian troops in the area of ​​Warsaw and Lodz were also unsuccessful.

Not a single belligerent country has been able to fulfill its strategic plan and achieve quick and decisive success. In the autumn of 1914 in the West, both sides tried to outflank the open flank of the enemy from the north, which led to a rapid extension of the positional front. These attempts, which received the figurative name "run to the sea" in the historical literature, did not give success to either side and ended in mid-November, when a continuous positional front was established throughout the Western European theater of operations - from the border of neutral Switzerland to the coast of the North Sea.

Military operations unfolded in 1914 also in the Far East and Africa (the struggle for German colonies), in the Transcaucasus, the Balkans and the Middle East (the struggle against Austria-Hungary and Turkey). The Western and Eastern European theaters of operations were the main ones throughout the war.

Naval Forces in 1914 they limited themselves to laying minefields, shelling ports and cities on the coast of the enemy, attacks on merchant ships on ocean and sea lanes, separate naval battles involving a limited number of warships. There were no major naval battles. Submarines proved to be an effective means of fighting at sea, which required the organization of anti-submarine defense. A significant shortcoming of the combat activity of the naval forces was that it was poorly coordinated with the actions of the ground forces.

The 1914 campaign revealed a complete discrepancy between the theoretical ideas and views of bourgeois military theorists and military leaders and the actual conditions of warfare, operations and battles.

Strategic plans of all countries that planned to win victory with the forces of cadre armies in a short time, suffered a complete failure. It turned out that in the epoch of imperialism, armies have great survivability, that the losses incurred in manpower and equipment can be made up for by the reserves accumulated in peacetime and by expanding the production of military products. The war turned into a comprehensive test for the countries participating in it and required the mobilization of all economic resources and human reserves.

The armies of all states were preparing for maneuvering operations, planned encirclement, detours and encirclement of the main enemy forces. But none of the armies was able to carry out their plan, and soon after the start of the war on the most important directions continuous positional fronts with their inherent immobility began to take shape.

Campaign results. In the campaign of 1914, major operations of a strategic scale were objectively taking shape (the operation on the Marne River, the Battle of Galicia, the East Prussian operation). But the command and staffs did not yet have experience in organizing and conducting operations of this magnitude. Therefore, in the course of operations, the armies had considerable independence, the interaction between the armies was not close enough, the headquarters and the front command poorly coordinated the efforts of the armies.

The experience of the war has shown that for a successful offensive to a great depth it is necessary to mass forces and means in decisive directions, to create several operational echelons in order to be able to build up efforts and maintain the superiority over the enemy achieved at the beginning of the operation. The absence of second strategic and operational echelons in the belligerent countries led to the incompleteness and rapid fading of their offensive operations.

The extremely heavy losses suffered by all the armies in the first months of the war are proof that the tactics of these armies did not correspond to the new conditions, in particular to the new means of struggle.

The infantry was the main branch of the army, and it was entrusted with the solution of the main combat missions. However, the increased strength and effectiveness of small arms and artillery fire was underestimated. The combat formations of formations and units consisted of combat sectors and reserves. The combat unit consisted of units deployed in a very dense rifle chain, with an interval between fighters of 1-2 steps. The offensive was carried out linearly, without the use of maneuver. The battlefield was oversaturated with infantry, and artillery densities were low (20-25 guns per 1 km of front). The interaction between infantry and artillery was weak.

They did not know how to use machine guns in an offensive battle, they were used only to secure the occupied terrain. Infantry during the offensive was forbidden to dig in.

Artillery, machine gun and rifle fire on the advancing uncovered infantry was very effective, and the infantry suffered heavy losses.

Significant development in the campaign of 1914 received field positional defense. Initially, such defense had a focal linear character. The defense consisted of one line of individual and group rifle trenches. Then these trenches began to be connected with each other by a continuous trench, and wire barriers were built in front. Communication passages were torn off from the trenches to the rear, shelters and shelters were created for the reserves.

The infantry division in defense occupied a strip 10-12 km wide. Small arms fire formed the basis of the defense, therefore, when repelling an enemy attack, they tried to place the maximum number of shooters in the first trench.

In order to better cover the infantry from artillery fire and increase the stability of the defense, by the end of 1914, one or two more trenches were built behind the first trench at a distance of 100-150 m from one another. Defensive positions equipped according to such a system, covered from the front by a system of barbed wire, reliably sheltered the infantry from enemy cannon artillery fire and made it possible to repel the enemy infantry offensive. None of the sides had any other means of attack at that time. There was a situation when the defense turned out to be stronger than the offensive. The armies of both sides dug into the ground and for a long period went over to the defensive on an immovable continuous front.

Military Art in the 1915 Campaign

The complete failure of the strategic plans developed before the start of the war forced the military leaders of all the belligerent states to look for new ways to win.

Britain and France decided to switch to strategic defense, using the year 1915 to rebuild the economy, expand military production and accumulate reserves. They planned active actions for 1916. The British and French imperialists shifted the main burden of the struggle against the Austro-German bloc to Russia.

Germany decided in 1915 to carry out the second part of the Schlieffen plan, that is, to defeat the Russian army, to force Russia to capitulate. This would relieve Germany of the need to fight on two fronts - and would give her the opportunity to use Russian food and raw materials to continue the war in the West.

Russia, under pressure from its allies, also planned active offensive operations, although it did not have the necessary material and technical means.

In this way, in the campaign of 1915, the Russian front was the main one. Active hostilities were fought on this front from February to October. The German command, having concentrated powerful groupings of troops in East Prussia and in the Carpathian region, tried to encircle and destroy the main forces of the Russian army in Poland by means of an offensive in converging directions.

The offensive operations of the German and Russian troops in January - March 1915 on the North-Western Front did not bring decisive success to either side. The German command was unable to carry out the planned deep detour of the right wing of the Russian armies, and the command of the North-Western Front did not have enough strength to carry out plans to defeat the enemy and capture East Prussia.

Intense battles also unfolded on the southern wing of the Russian-German front, where the troops of the Southwestern Front unsuccessfully tried in January-April to capture the Carpathians and invade Hungary.

In May, German troops, secretly concentrating a strong grouping in a narrow area, broke the stubborn resistance of the 3rd Russian army in Gorlitsa area and, building on their success, they pushed the Russians back across the San and Dniester rivers. decisive role in ensuring the success of the German troops played their overwhelming superiority in artillery. On the breakthrough site near Gorlitsa, where the Russian troops had 141 light and 4 heavy guns, extremely poorly supplied with ammunition, the enemy concentrated 457 light and 159 heavy guns and a huge amount of ammunition (1200 shells for a light gun and up to 600 shells for a heavy gun).

In the summer of 1915, the German command tried to implement its plan to encircle and defeat the Russian troops in Poland and launched an offensive from the regions of Galicia and East Prussia. The Russian units were forced to fight heavy defensive battles and, avoiding the threat of encirclement, retreat to the east. In early October, they completely liquidated the offensive of the German armies and switched to positional defense at the turn of Riga, r. Western Dvina, Smorgon, Baranovichi, Dubno, r. Strypa.

Thus, in the autumn of 1915, maneuver operations ceased on the Russian-German front as well. Since that time, the armed struggle on all the decisive fronts of the First World War acquired a positional character. The belligerents faced the problem of organizing a breakthrough in the prepared defenses of the enemy, without which it was impossible to carry out an offensive operation, even on a small scale.

Operations with limited targets were conducted in the Western European theater of operations. Both sides focused on the development and improvement of their defensive positions.

In the autumn of 1915, the French and British armies tried to break through the defenses of the German troops in Champagne and Artois. Strong groupings of troops and artillery were concentrated in selected areas of the breakthrough. However, these operations, despite the huge amount of money spent and heavy losses, were not successful. Both in Champagne and in Artois, the advancing infantry managed to capture only the first position of the enemy, which was completely destroyed by artillery during many days of artillery preparation. Attempts to overcome the subsequent positions, densely occupied by the approaching reserves, were carried out without sufficient artillery support and were repulsed by the German troops.

In 1915, Italy joined the Entente, and Bulgaria joined the Austro-German bloc. An Italian front was formed, and the struggle in the Balkans escalated, where an Anglo-French expeditionary force arrived through the Greek port of Thessaloniki.

The fighting at sea was also not decisive enough. The English fleet blockaded the coast of Germany. In turn, the German submarines inflicted quite heavy damage. merchant fleet England. Nevertheless, the British Admiralty, by organizing patrols and strengthening anti-submarine defenses, eliminated the threat of a complete disruption of sea communications.

In general, the 1915 campaign was marked by the failure of the plans of the German bloc, designed to defeat Russia and withdraw it from the war. The German imperialists and their allies were forced to long war on two fronts, which doomed them to inevitable defeat.

Russia lost vast territories (parts of the Baltic states, Poland and Galicia), but the Russian army retained the ability to continue the war. She fettered the huge forces of the enemy. Russia's Western allies, having shifted the brunt of the armed struggle onto Russia, were able to rebuild their economy on a military footing, expand the production of weapons, ammunition and equipment, and prepare numerous reserves.

The peculiarity of this campaign is: on the Russian-German front - in conducting extensive maneuver operations, which, however, did not give decisive results; on the Western European front - in the failure of the first serious attempts to break through a continuous positional defense.

The means and methods of armed struggle have undergone significant changes. Artillery developed rapidly; it was at that time the main fire weapon of the ground forces, capable of seriously disrupting the stability of the positional defense and ensuring the success of the infantry offensive. Along with the rapid increase in the number of artillery, qualitative changes took place in its composition: the production of howitzers and heavy systems increased, and mortars were widely used. Anti-aircraft artillery was born.

Aviation turned into a combat weapon, as the aircraft received small arms and bomber weapons. The world's first heavy bombers - the Ilya Muromets aircraft - were built and successfully used at the front in the Russian army at the beginning of 1915. The Muromets raised up to 500 kg of bombs and had three firing points to protect against fighters, which then only appeared on fronts of the First World War. Thus, along with the ever wider use of reconnaissance aircraft, new types of aviation arose - bomber and fighter.

In the same year, the use of chemical warfare agents began. The German troops were the first to use them: before the attack, with the wind blowing towards the enemy, they released asphyxiating chlorine gas from cylinders. The use of poisonous substances required the provision of troops with gas masks and the organization of anti-chemical protection.

In a situation where the war had reached a positional stalemate, when the technical equipment of the armies was rapidly improving, intense searches were made for new methods of preparing and carrying out offensive operations and battles. In order to break through the prepared positional defense, they began to concentrate a large number of infantry, artillery and aviation on the intended breakthrough site. For example, during an offensive in Champagne, infantry divisions operated in bands of 1.5-2 km; the density of artillery reached 50-60 guns per 1 km of the front. Artillery preparation lasted for several days, and the fire was carried out on areas to the depth of the first position of the enemy. Such a long and limited in depth artillery preparation helped to seize the first position, but the defending side at that time managed to pull up reserves and prepare to repel the offensive in the second and third positions. The advancing troops did not yet have the means to reliably suppress the entire depth of the defense.

When attacking a prepared defense, the infantry began to use deeper battle formations: the division had two regiments in the first line (combat areas) and one or two regiments in the second (reserves). The regiments of the first line created several dense rifle chains that moved at distances of about 50 m.

The reserves were intended to make up for losses and preserve the striking power of the attacking chains. This form of formation of battle formations was called "waves of chains" (in contrast to the single rifle chain used in 1914).

Field positional defense also received significant development. By creating a second, and sometimes a third position and echeloning battle formations, the depth of defense was increased. The number of machine guns increased by two or three times, which accordingly increased the density of fire. Machine guns were rarely used during the offensive. The engineering equipment of the area was improved. The defending troops were covered with barbed wire, various artificial and natural obstacles, and equipped their positions with a system of trenches, communication passages, firing positions, dugouts and shelters.

Defense in 1915 became not only anti-personnel, but also anti-artillery, anti-air and anti-chemical.

Military Art in the 1916 Campaign

On the experience of the campaigns of 1914-1915. the military leaders of the Entente countries became convinced of the expediency of coordinating the efforts of their armies. According to the strategic plan of the Entente, adopted at the allied conferences, it was planned to conduct a large offensive operation in the region of the river with the joint forces of England and France. Somme. Since attempts to break through the enemy's defenses at one point, in a narrow sector, were unsuccessful, a plan was developed to break through the defenses of the German troops on a continuous wide front in the offensive zone of several armies. The start of the offensive was planned for July 1, 1916.

On June 15, Russian troops were to launch an offensive in the Berlin strategic direction, divert the maximum of German troops to themselves and thereby ensure the success of the British and French offensive on the river. Somme.

The German command attached great importance to maintaining the strategic initiative. Therefore, it was decided to start active operations in February in order to preempt the impending attack of the Entente armies. All German calculations again boiled down to the fact that France would not be able to endure a long intense struggle.

Since Germany did not have the forces for an offensive on a broad front, she outlined a plan for a powerful strike on a narrow sector - at such an important point as the Verdun fortified area. To protect it, the French command would be forced to abandon all available forces. This area covered the path to Paris.

In strategic planning and military-political leadership of the events of the 1917 campaign, governments and general staffs had to reckon with the growing protest of the masses against the imperialist war.

The Entente countries intended to use their economic and military superiority in the upcoming campaign and deliver decisive blows to the German-Austrian bloc. The February revolution in Russia partially undermined these plans, and the final withdrawal of Russia from the war significantly weakened the Entente. To some extent, this loss was compensated by the entry into the war of the United States of America (April 1917). The first American divisions arrived in the Western European theater of operations in the autumn of 1917.

Germany, after huge losses, did not have the forces and means to conduct offensive operations. Therefore, the German command decided to go on the defensive on all fronts and use the year 1917 to accumulate reserves and boost military production.

In order to undermine the military and economic potential of the Entente, to disrupt the delivery of raw materials, food and troops from the colonies and from America, it was decided to deploy relentless submarine warfare, that is, to block the coast of Europe with submarines and destroy merchant ships even neutral countries carrying goods to England or France.

The French and English armies, carrying out the adopted strategic plan, went over in April on the offensive, trying to break through the enemy's front in the Reims, Soissons sector. Enormous forces took part in the offensive: four armies, 5580 guns, 500 aircraft, up to 200 tanks, over 30 million shells were concentrated in the main direction alone.

The German troops knew about the upcoming offensive and created a solid, echeloned defense in advance. Even a ten-day artillery preparation, carried out in the direction of the main attack of the French and British troops, did not crush the German defense. The advancing infantry suffered huge losses from the fire of German machine guns, and the tanks were almost completely destroyed by artillery fire. In no area did the French troops succeed in advancing beyond the second position.

In this unsuccessful operation, the French lost over 125 thousand people, and the British - 80 thousand. Mass anti-war demonstrations began in the French army, brutally suppressed by the government.

In the summer and autumn, the armies of the Entente countries carried out several private operations, which are characterized by the massive use of artillery, aircraft, tanks and other military equipment and the extremely limited territorial successes of the attacking side. Among these operations, of great interest from the point of view of the history of military art is the operation at Cambrai.

The Entente countries failed to fulfill their planned strategic plans and achieve a final victory over the German bloc in 1917.

Given the rapid growth of anti-war and revolutionary sentiments, the warring countries tried to compensate for the decline in the mass use of new military equipment. fighting spirit troops and achieve victory.

The German command announced on February 1, 1917 unlimited submarine warfare. Destroyed merchant ships going to English ports. Shipping and the economy of England were seriously damaged. Only by organizing a wide patrol service, anti-submarine defense and a system of escorting merchant ship caravans was it possible to significantly reduce losses and ensure the uninterrupted supply of raw materials, food and other materials.

The 1917 campaign was marked by a further increase in artillery and aviation densities and the first experiments in the massive use of tanks. In combination with other branches of the military, tanks were able to make a tactical breakthrough. However, it has not yet been possible to find means and methods for developing a tactical breakthrough into an operational one.

Continued further improvement of the defense. In order to increase its depth and stability, they began to build advanced, cut-off and rear positions. The battle formations of formations and units were echeloned in depth. From a rigid, linear defense, the purpose of which was to hold the first position, the German troops are moving on to the so-called "elastic" defense, in which the temporary loss of one or several positions is allowed, and the enemy offensive is liquidated by counterattacks and strikes by second echelons and brought up reserves.

Campaign of 1918 End of the First World War.

The strategic plans for 1918 were drawn up under the circumstances and taking into account the growing revolutionary crisis in most of the belligerent countries. The imperialists of the Entente and the German bloc, alarmed by the victory October revolution, along with the continuation of the armed struggle among themselves, organized a military intervention against Soviet Russia.

The Entente countries tried to liquidate Soviet power and force Russia to continue the war. In the Western European theater, the British and French intended to conduct active operations only after the arrival of large contingents of American troops in Europe.

The German command, taking into account the possibility of a revolutionary explosion in the country, decided to achieve victory at any cost in 1918. The German imperialists developed adventurist plans for an offensive in the East and West. They wanted to take possession of the rich regions of the Soviet Republic and at the same time achieve decisive success in the Western European theater, where by the beginning of 1918 Germany concentrated 193 divisions against 181 divisions of the Entente countries. Germany's opponents had significant reserves and had a large superiority in tanks and aircraft.

In pursuit of their predatory aims, the German imperialists treacherously violated the truce with the Soviet Republic.

On February 18, 1918, they launched an offensive on the Russian-German front. At the call of the Communist Party and the Soviet government, the working people of our country rose to the defense of the socialist Fatherland. At the same time, the Soviet state continued to fight for peace. On March 3, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed. Despite the difficult conditions of the treaty for our country, the conclusion of peace was a huge success for the young Soviet Republic, which received a vitally necessary peaceful respite.

Meanwhile, in the territories occupied by the German invaders (the Baltic States, Belarus, Ukraine), a nationwide guerrilla war. She fettered the forces of Germany, which she needed so much at the time when active operations were unfolding in the Western European theater.

In March, German troops, having concentrated 62 divisions, more than 6,000 guns, 1,000 mortars and 1,000 aircraft, on a 70-kilometer front, attacked the junction of the British and French armies in Picardy. The idea of ​​the operation was to push back the English armies to the coast of the English Channel and completely defeat them, after which to concentrate all forces against the French armies.

The offensive of the German troops in Picardy began on March 21 with a short (five hours), but powerful artillery preparation, during which not only the first position was suppressed and destroyed, but also firing positions, defensive structures, command posts, bridges and other important objects in the depths of the defense. The infantry attack was supported by a double barrage and assault air strikes. The battle formations of the German infantry consisted of battle groups (squads and platoons), echeloned in depth.

During the first day of the operation, the German infantry advanced 3-7 km and continued the offensive in the following days. However, it was delayed by the approaching reserves of the French. At the disposal of the German command there were no reserves for building up forces and developing success. The German troops, having advanced 65 km in two weeks of intense fighting, suffered heavy losses and were forced to stop the offensive. The strategic goals outlined by the command were not achieved, and the operation brought only partial successes that did not provide sufficient compensation for the losses incurred and the lengthening of the front line.

In order to retain the strategic initiative, the German command in the spring and summer of 1918 made several more offensive attempts with decisive goals, but these operations only led to the formation of "dents" and "protrusions", to stretching the front and to new heavy losses that Germany there was nothing to fill.

As early as August 1918, the Entente troops seized the initiative. During the summer, French, British and American troops conducted a series of successive operations to eliminate the ledges formed as a result of previous German offensives.

The successful outcome of these operations showed that Germany had completely exhausted its capabilities and could not withstand the onslaught of the Entente armies. In the fall, the Entente armies launched a general offensive against Germany. It was carried out by means of simultaneous powerful strikes by the allied armies in various sectors of the front. Unable to withstand the hardships of the war, the German coalition fell apart: on September 29 Bulgaria capitulated, on October 30 Turkey withdrew from the war. Defeats at the front and the outbreak of the revolution forced Austria-Hungary to capitulate on November 3. In order to avoid complete defeat, the German government, as early as the beginning of October, turned to the Entente countries with a proposal to begin negotiations on an armistice.

Germany, having lost all allies, in an atmosphere of continuous retreat and disintegration at the front, a stormy upsurge of the revolutionary struggle within the country, could no longer continue the war and on November 11, 1918. was forced to sign the terms of surrender dictated by the Entente. The First World War, which lasted four years and three and a half months, is over.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The First World War arose in the context of the beginning of the general crisis of capitalism. Its most important political result was the further aggravation of this crisis, which manifested itself most clearly in the victory of the Great October Socialist Revolution and the establishment of a socialist social system on one sixth of the globe.

Big changes have taken place in political map peace. Collapsed and ceased to exist "dual monarchy" - Austria-Hungary. New states formed in Europe: Hungary, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia. Under the terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty, the victorious countries took away from Germany all the colonies, Alsace, Lorraine, Saar and other territories. Germany was deprived of the right to maintain an army of more than 100 thousand people, military aircraft, tanks, submarines and some other types of weapons.

The first world war is characterized by the main features of the wars of the era of imperialism. For the first time in the history of mankind, war has acquired such a grandiose scope and destructive character.

Lenin's proposition that wars are now being waged by the peoples has been fully confirmed.

The war demanded gigantic material costs, devastated many areas, destroyed and maimed tens of millions of people. About 10 million people died on the fronts, 20 million people were injured.

Consequently, modern wars are distinguished by their destructive power, which is constantly increasing as new means of armed struggle appear.

The First World War showed that the economic factor acquired extremely great importance in the epoch of imperialism. To organize the material support of the multimillion-strong armies, it was necessary to restructure the economy on a war footing, to mobilize all economic opportunities. Military production has reached unprecedented proportions; the entire territory of the belligerent country turned into a strategic rear. The superior economic resources of the Entente served as the material basis for its victory over the German bloc.

The moral factor also had a profound influence on the course and outcome of the war.

During the First World War, strategy, operational art and tactics were significantly developed. The war overturned the previous strategic theories that dominated the 19th century about the possibility of winning victory by defeating the enemy in one or more pitched battles. Therefore, the outcome of the war was determined only in a long, intense struggle.

The First World War was a war between two large imperialist factions. An important task of the strategy was to coordinate the efforts of the allied armies. Bourgeois military leaders have not been able to solve the problems of coalition strategy, since sharp internal contradictions are organically inherent in imperialist coalitions, and the selfish interests of each country prevail over all-union interests.

Military operations in the First World War, unexpectedly for all its participants, acquired a positional character. For a certain period, a situation developed when the defense turned out to be stronger than the offensive. Military art found itself in a "positional impasse." A way out of the impasse was found when large masses of heavy artillery, tanks and combat aircraft appeared on the battlefields.

The protracted war has shown that winning a victory is unthinkable without the most extensive, systematic efforts to prepare, build up, and correctly use strategic reserves.

The huge scale of the armed struggle during the First World War required a change in the methods of strategic management. There was a new structure of the supreme governing bodies: headquarters - front (army group) - army.

The use of technical means of communication (telephone, telegraph, radio, aircraft, etc.) made it possible to increase the degree of centralization of control; during the war years, the armies lost their former independence and acted according to the directives of the main and front command.

The First World War was an important stage in the development operational art. In the course of the war, an operation finally took shape as a set of battles and battles conducted by an operational formation according to a single plan and under a single leadership in order to solve a specific operational or strategic task.

The maneuvering operations of 1914 were distinguished by their large scope. Five German armies, trying to outflank the French troops, advanced on a front of 250 km and in one month advanced to a depth of 400 km.

In the Battle of Galicia, four Russian armies advanced in a 400 km zone, advancing in 33 days to a depth of 200 km.

Six armies of the Entente in the operation on the river. The Marne advanced in a strip of up to 300 km and in 8 days the German troops were driven back by 50 km.

The average advance rate in maneuver operations reached 8-10 km per day.

The most characteristic of the First World War were operations to break through the positional front. Such operations were various forms: frontal strike in a narrow area (12-15 km); strike on a relatively wide continuous section of the front (40-80 km); simultaneous strike on a number of sectors on a wide front. The last form of the operation is the most advantageous, since the enemy's counter-manoeuvre in order to eliminate the resulting breakthrough was extremely difficult.

Only towards the end of the war was it possible to solve the problem of organizing a breakthrough in positional defense through massive strikes by infantry, artillery, tanks and aircraft. Before the art of war arose new problem- development of a tactical breakthrough into an operational one. It remained unresolved until the end of the war, because the range of military equipment of those years did not go beyond the tactical zone.

Tactics were greatly developed during the First World War. The very nature of the battle has changed radically, which was due to the improvement of the old and the emergence of new means of struggle.

At the beginning of the war, almost all the tasks of offensive combat were carried out by infantry forces. The small number of artillery carried out a short artillery preparation, but did not support the infantry at the time of the attack and did not accompany it during the battle in depth. The battle formation of infantry units and formations had no depth; it consisted of a dense skirmish line and the reserves feeding it. A single chain during the offensive had a weak impact force and suffered heavy losses from enemy fire. Firepower the chain was low, since machine guns and escort guns were not used in the offensive at that time.

The experience of the battles of 1914 revealed the need to increase the depth of battle formations and increase the firepower of infantry in an offensive battle. This was achieved by separating battle formations and saturating them with machine guns, mortars, flamethrowers and escort guns. Hand grenades were widely used various types grenade launchers. A new form of infantry battle order developed - "waves of chains", and the intervals between the fighters in the chain increased, and the chains advanced one after another at a distance of 75-100 m.

With the advent of infantry light machine guns, battalion and regimental mortars and cannons, as well as tanks, the form of combat order of infantry units and formations changed again. Instead of "waves of chains" there were small groups of infantry (from squad to platoon), which advanced with the support of tanks, escort guns and machine guns. Such groups could maneuver on the battlefield, suppress, destroy or bypass enemy firing points and strongholds, boldly penetrate into the depths of defense, and conduct an offensive at a higher pace.

Defensive combat tactics were greatly developed during the First World War. At the beginning of the war, during the transition to the defensive, the troops created one line of group rifle trenches and repulsed the enemy offensive with rifle, machine-gun and artillery fire. It was a focal defense, devoid of depth. It was based on small arms fire.

Already by the winter of 1914, the trenches were connected by a continuous narrow trench, the retention of which was the main task of the troops in the defense.

To accommodate the reserves, the second and third trenches were built. The distance between the trenches was 100-150 m. Consequently, the defense was linear, its depth did not exceed 250-300 m. The battle formations of formations and units in the defense were not echeloned. The infantry division defended itself in the 10-12 km zone.

In order to strengthen the stability of the defense and reduce losses from artillery fire, in the campaign of 1915, they began to create a second position 2-4 km from the first position, which housed divisional and corps reserves. Wire fences were built in front of the first position.

In the 1916 campaign, formations and units in the defense continued to build battle formations in one echelon, but the depth of defense increased due to the reduction of lanes and sectors and the construction of a third and intermediate positions. The division defended in the 8-10 km zone, occupying the first and intermediate positions with the main forces and regimental reserves and the second position with divisional reserves. Corps reserves were placed in the third position.

The total depth of defense reached 7-8 km.

Within the positions, forces were not distributed evenly, but were concentrated in well-equipped and adapted to all-round defense "centers of resistance" (strongholds).

In the campaign of 1917, they began to create a forward position ("foreground") in order to hide the true front line from the enemy and reduce losses from artillery fire.

Cannon artillery was used to repel tank attacks and anti-tank ditches were torn off. Consequently, the defense also became anti-tank.

Due to the great force of the initial blows, which fell primarily on the first position, there were some changes in the methods of defense. Temporary loss of one or several positions was allowed, the struggle was transferred to the depth, so that by counterattacks and counterattacks on the flank of the advancing groupings, they could defeat the enemy and push him back to their original positions.

An important moment in the development of defense during the First World War was the development of a fortified area system that combined elements of long-term and field fortification.

СтранаЧисленность армии после мобилизации (млн. чел.)Численность Легких орудийЧисленность Тяжелых орудийЧисленность СамолетовРоссия5.3386.848240263Великобритания1.0001.50050090Франция3.7813.960688156Антанта10.11912.3081.428449Германия3.8226.3292.076232Австро-Венгрия2.3003.10450665Центральные державы6.1229.4332.582297

War at sea. Control of the sea allowed the British to freely move troops and equipment from all parts of their empire to France. They kept sea lanes open for US merchant ships. German colonies were captured, and German trade through sea ​​routes was stopped. In general, the German fleet - except for the submarine fleet - was blocked in its ports. Only occasionally did small fleets come out to attack British seaside towns and attack Allied merchant ships. During the entire war there was only one major naval battle- when the German fleet entered the North Sea and unexpectedly met with the British near the Danish coast of Jutland. The Battle of Jutland May 31 - June 1, 1916 resulted in heavy losses on both sides: the British lost 14 ships, about 6,800 men killed, captured and wounded; the Germans, who considered themselves victorious, - 11 ships and about 3,100 people killed and wounded. However, the British forced the German fleet to withdraw to Kiel, where it was effectively blockaded. The German fleet no longer appeared on the high seas, and Great Britain remained the mistress of the seas.

Having taken a dominant position at sea, the Allies gradually cut off. The Central Powers from overseas sources of raw materials and food. According to international law, neutral countries, such as the United States, could sell goods that were not considered "military contraband" to other neutral countries - the Netherlands or Denmark, from where these goods could be delivered to Germany. However, the warring countries usually did not bind themselves to the observance of international law, and Great Britain so expanded the list of goods considered contraband that in fact nothing passed through its barriers in the North Sea.

The naval blockade forced Germany to resort to drastic measures. Her only effective tool a submarine fleet remained at sea, capable of freely bypassing surface barriers and sinking merchant ships of neutral countries that supplied the allies. It was the turn of the Entente countries to accuse the Germans of violating international law, which obliged them to save the crews and passengers of torpedoed ships.

On February 1915, the German government declared the waters around the British Isles a military zone and warned of the danger of ships from neutral countries entering them. On May 7, 1915, a German submarine torpedoed and sank the ocean-going steamship Lusitania with hundreds of passengers on board, including 115 US citizens. President W. Wilson protested, the United States and Germany exchanged sharp diplomatic notes.

Verdun and the Somme. Germany was ready to make some concessions at sea and seek a way out of the deadlock in action on land. In April 1916, British troops had already suffered a serious defeat at Kut-el-Amar in Mesopotamia, where 13,000 people surrendered to the Turks. On the continent, Germany was preparing for a large-scale offensive operation on the Western Front, which was supposed to turn the tide of the war and force France to sue for peace. The key point of the French defense was the ancient fortress of Verdun. After an artillery bombardment of unprecedented power, 12 German divisions went on the offensive on February 21, 1916. The Germans slowly advanced until the beginning of July, but they did not achieve their intended goals. The Verdun "meat grinder" clearly did not justify the calculations of the German command. Great importance during the spring and summer of 1916 they had operations on the Eastern and Southwestern fronts. In March, at the request of the Allies, Russian troops carried out an operation near Lake Naroch, which significantly influenced the course of hostilities in France. The German command was forced to stop attacks on Verdun for some time and, holding 0.5 million people on the Eastern Front, transfer an additional part of the reserves here. At the end of May 1916, the Russian High Command launched an offensive against Southwestern Front. During the fighting under the command of A.A. Brusilov managed to carry out a breakthrough of the Austro-German troops to a depth of 80-120 km. Brusilov's troops occupied part of Galicia and Bukovina, entered the Carpathians. For the first time in the entire previous period trench warfare the front was broken. If this offensive had been supported by other fronts, it would have ended in disaster for the Central Powers. To relieve pressure on Verdun, on July 1, 1916, the Allies launched a counterattack on the Somme River. For four months - until November - there were unceasing attacks. The Anglo-French troops, having lost about 800 thousand people, could not break through the German front. Finally, in December, the German command decided to stop the offensive, which cost the lives of 300,000 German soldiers. The 1916 campaign claimed more than 1 million lives, but did not bring tangible results to either side.

Basis for peace negotiations. At the beginning of the 20th century, the ways of conducting military operations completely changed. The length of the fronts increased significantly, the armies fought on fortified lines and attacked from the trenches, machine guns and artillery began to play a huge role in offensive battles. New types of weapons were used: tanks, fighters and bombers, submarines, asphyxiating gases, hand grenades. Every tenth inhabitant of the warring country was mobilized, and 10% of the population was engaged in supplying the army. In the warring countries, there was almost no room left for ordinary civilian life: everything was subordinated to titanic efforts aimed at maintaining military machine. The total cost of the war, including property losses, was estimated to be between $208 billion and $359 billion. By the end of 1916, both sides were tired of the war, and it seemed that the time had come to start peace negotiations.

The second main stage of the war. On December 12, 1916, the Central Powers asked the United States to send a note to the Allies with a proposal to start peace negotiations18. The Entente rejected this proposal, suspecting that it was made in order to break up the coalition. In addition, she did not want to talk about a world that would not provide for the payment of reparations and the recognition of the right of nations to self-determination. President Wilson decided to initiate peace negotiations and on December 18, 1916, he turned to the warring countries with a request to determine mutually acceptable peace terms.

As early as December 12, 1916, Germany proposed to convene a peace conference. The civil authorities of Germany were clearly striving for peace, but they were opposed by the generals, especially General Ludendorff, who was confident of victory. The Allies specified their terms: the restoration of Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro; withdrawal of troops from France, Russia and Romania; reparations; the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France; liberation of subject peoples, including Italians, Poles, Czechs, elimination of the Turkish presence in Europe.

The Allies did not trust Germany and therefore did not take seriously the idea of ​​peace negotiations. Germany intended to take part in a peace conference in December 1916, relying on the benefits of her martial law. The case ended with the Allies signing secret agreements designed to defeat the Central Powers. Under these agreements, Great Britain laid claim to the German colonies and part of Persia; France was to receive Alsace and Lorraine, as well as establish control on the left bank of the Rhine; Russia acquired Constantinople; Italy - Trieste, Austrian Tyrol, most of Albania; Turkey's possessions were to be divided among all the allies.

US entry into the war. At the beginning of the war, public opinion in the United States was divided: some openly sided with the Allies; others - like the Irish-Americans who were hostile to England, and the German-Americans - supported Germany. Over time, government officials and ordinary citizens leaned more and more on the side of the Entente. This was facilitated by several factors, and, above all, the propaganda of the Entente countries and the German submarine war.

On January 22, 1917, President Wilson set out in the Senate terms of peace acceptable to the United States. The main one was reduced to the demand for "peace without victory", i.e. non-annexations and indemnities; others included the principles of the equality of peoples, the right of nations to self-determination and representation, freedom of the seas and trade, the reduction of armaments, the rejection of the system of rival alliances. If peace is made on the basis of these principles, Wilson argued, then a world organization of states can be created that guarantees security for all peoples. On January 31, 1917, the German government announced the resumption of unlimited submarine warfare in order to disrupt enemy communications. Submarines blocked the supply lines of the Entente and put the allies in an extremely difficult position. There was growing hostility towards Germany among Americans, as the blockade of Europe from the west boded ill for the United States. In the event of a victory, Germany could establish control over the entire Atlantic Ocean.

Along with the noted circumstances, other motives also pushed the United States to the war on the side of the allies. The economic interests of the United States were directly connected with the countries of the Entente, since military orders led to the rapid growth of American industry. In 1916, the warlike spirit was spurred on by plans to develop programs for the preparation of military operations. Anti-German sentiment among North Americans grew even more after the publication on March 1, 1917, of the secret Zimmermann dispatch of January 16, 1917, which was intercepted by British intelligence and passed on to Wilson. German Foreign Minister A. Zimmermann offered Mexico the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona if it would support Germany's actions in response to the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente. By the beginning of April, anti-German sentiment in the United States reached such a pitch that on April 6, 1917, Congress voted to declare war on Germany.

Russia's exit from the war. In February 1917, a revolution took place in Russia. Tsar Nicholas II was forced to abdicate. The provisional government (March - November 1917) could no longer conduct active military operations on the fronts, since the population was extremely tired of the war. On December 15, 1917, the Bolsheviks, who took power in November 1917, signed an armistice agreement with the Central Powers at the cost of huge concessions. Three months later, on March 3, 1918, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed. Russia gave up its rights to Poland, Estonia, Ukraine, part of Belarus, Latvia, Transcaucasia and Finland. In total, Russia has lost about 1 million square meters. km. She was also obliged to pay Germany an indemnity in the amount of 6 billion marks.

The third main stage of the war. The Germans had good reason to be optimistic. The German leadership used the weakening of Russia, and then her withdrawal from the war, to replenish resources. Now it could transfer the eastern army to the west and concentrate troops on the main directions of the offensive. The allies, not knowing where the blow would come from, were forced to strengthen their positions along the entire front. American help was late. In France and Great Britain, defeatism grew with threatening force. On October 24, 1917, Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Italian front near Caporetto and defeated the Italian army.

The German offensive of 1918 On a foggy morning on March 21, 1918, the Germans launched a massive attack on the British positions near Saint-Quentin. The British were forced to retreat almost to Amiens, and its loss threatened to break the united Anglo-French front. The fate of Calais and Boulogne hung in the balance.

However, the offensive cost Germany heavy losses - both human and material. The German troops were exhausted, their supply system was shattered. The Allies were able to neutralize the German submarines by creating convoy and anti-submarine defense systems. At the same time, the blockade of the Central Powers was carried out so effectively that food shortages began to be felt in Austria and Germany.

Soon long-awaited American aid began to arrive in France. The ports from Bordeaux to Brest were filled with American troops. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, about 1 million American soldiers had landed in France.

July 1918 the Germans made their last attempt to break through. A second decisive battle unfolded on the Marne. In the event of a breakthrough, the French would have to leave Reims, which, in turn, could lead to the retreat of the allies along the entire front. In the first hours of the offensive, the German troops advanced, but not as fast as expected.

The Allied advance began on other fronts as well. Ethnic unrest flared up in Austria-Hungary - not without the influence of the Allies, who encouraged the defection of Poles, Czechs and South Slavs. The Central Powers mustered the last of their forces to contain the expected invasion of Hungary. The way to Germany was open.

Tanks and massive artillery shelling became important factors in the offensive. In early August 1918, attacks on key German positions intensified. In his Memoirs, Ludendorff called the beginning of the Battle of Amiens on August 8 "a black day for the German army." The German front was torn apart: entire divisions surrendered almost without a fight. By the end of September, even Ludendorff was ready to surrender. Bulgaria signed the armistice on 29 September. A month later, Turkey capitulated, and on November 3, Austria-Hungary.

To negotiate peace in Germany, a moderate government was formed, headed by Prince Max B., who already on October 5, 1918, proposed to President Wilson to begin the negotiation process. In the last week of October, the Italian army launched a general offensive against Austria-Hungary. By October 30, the resistance of the Austrian troops was broken. The cavalry and armored vehicles of the Italians made a swift raid behind enemy lines and captured the Austrian headquarters. On October 27, Emperor Charles I issued an appeal for a truce, and on October 29, 1918, he agreed to conclude peace on any terms.

Brief conclusions. At the beginning of the XX century. the struggle of the capitalist powers for markets, and the sources of raw materials reached extreme severity, against the backdrop of economic rivalry, political disagreements occurred, which led to the political rivalry of the great powers, the result of the rivalry was the formation of two political blocs: the Entente and the Triple Alliance. The formation of two blocs of great powers hostile to each other, which took place against the backdrop of an intensified arms race, created a situation in the world that threatened at any moment to turn into a military conflict on a global scale. The impetus for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. But Russia intervened in the events, which began the mobilization of its army. Germany demanded its termination. When Russia did not respond to her ultimatum, Germany declared war on her on August 1, and later on France. Then Britain and Japan entered the war. The First World War began. The German command believed that after the defeat of France, the army should have been transferred to the east against Russia. Initially, the offensive in France developed successfully. But then part of the German troops were transferred to Eastern front where the Russian army began its offensive. The French took advantage of this and stopped the advance of the German army on the Marne River. Formed Western Front. Soon the war on the side of the Triple Alliance entered Ottoman Empire. Military operations against it began in Transcaucasia, in Mesopotamia, on the Sinai Peninsula. April 6, 1917 The United States declares war on Germany, the United States takes the side of the countries participating in the Entente. By the beginning of the summer of 1918, the United States is landing its troops in France. The First World War ended with the complete defeat of the countries of the Triple Alliance. In October 1918, a truce was signed for 36 days and the German government turned to US President Woodrow Wilson with a proposal to conclude a truce on all fronts. On June 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles was signed, which put an end to World War I.