In the trenches of World War I

So, the Eastern Front was liquidated, and Germany could concentrate all its forces on Western front.

This became possible after a separate peace treaty was signed on February 9, 1918 between the Ukrainian People's Republic and the Central Powers in Brest-Litovsk (the first peace treaty signed during the First World War); a separate international peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918 in Brest-Litovsk by representatives of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria) and a separate peace treaty concluded on May 7, 1918 between Romania and the Central Powers. This treaty ended the war between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey on the one hand, and Romania on the other.

Russian troops leave the Eastern Front

The offensive of the German army

Germany, withdrawing its troops from Eastern Front, hoping to transfer them to the Western, having received a numerical superiority over the troops of the Entente. Germany's plans included a large-scale offensive and the defeat of the allied forces on the Western Front, and then the end of the war. It was planned to dismember the allied grouping of troops and thereby achieve victory over them.

In March-July, the German army launched a powerful offensive in Picardy, Flanders, on the Aisne and Marne rivers, and during fierce battles advanced 40-70 km, but could not defeat the enemy or break through the front. The limited human and material resources of Germany were depleted during the war years. In addition, having occupied the vast territories of the former Russian Empire after the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the German command was forced to leave large forces in the east in order to maintain control over them, which had a negative impact on the course of hostilities against the Entente.

By April 5, the first phase of the Spring Offensive (Operation Michael) was over. The offensive continued until mid-summer 1918, culminating in the second Battle of the Marne. But, as in 1914, here the Germans were also defeated. Let's talk about this in more detail.

Operation Michael

german tank

This is the name of the large-scale offensive of the German troops against the armies of the Entente during the First World War. Despite tactical success, the German armies failed to complete the main task. The offensive plan provided for the defeat of the Allied forces on the Western Front. The Germans planned to dismember the allied grouping of troops: the British troops were "thrown into the sea", and the French were forced to retreat to Paris. Despite initial successes, the German troops failed to complete this task. But after Operation Michael, the German command did not abandon active operations and continued offensive operations on the Western Front.

Battle on the Fox

Battle of the Fox: Portuguese Forces

The battle between the German and allied (1st, 2nd English armies, one French cavalry corps, as well as Portuguese units) troops during the First World War in the area of the Lys River. It ended with the success of the German troops. The operation on the Fox was a continuation of Operation Michael. In making an attempt to break through in the Lis area, the German command hoped to turn this offensive into the "main operation" to defeat the British troops. But the Germans did not succeed. As a result of the battle on the Lys, a new ledge 18 km deep was formed in the Anglo-French front. The Allies suffered heavy losses during the April offensive on Lisa and the initiative in the conduct of hostilities continued to remain in the hands of the German command.

Battle on the Aisne

The battle took place on May 27-June 6, 1918 between the German and allied (Anglo-French-American) troops, it was the third phase of the German Army's Spring Offensive.

The operation was carried out immediately after the second phase of the Spring Offensive (Battle of the Fox). The German troops were opposed by French, British and American troops.

On May 27, artillery preparation began, which caused great damage to the British troops, then the Germans used a gas attack. After that, the German infantry managed to move forward. The German troops were successful: 3 days after the start of the offensive, they captured 50,000 prisoners and 800 guns. By June 3, German troops approached 56 km to Paris.

But soon the offensive began to subside, the attackers did not have enough reserves, the troops were tired. The allies put up fierce resistance, and the newly arrived American troops were brought into battle. On June 6, in view of this, the German troops were ordered to stop on the Marne River.

End of the Spring Offensive

Second Battle of the Marne

On July 15-August 5, 1918, a major battle took place between German and Anglo-French-American troops near the Marne River. This was the last general offensive of the German troops in the entire war. The battle was lost by the Germans after a French counterattack.

The battle began on July 15, when 23 German divisions of the 1st and 3rd armies, led by Fritz von Bülow and Carl von Einem, attacked the French 4th army, led by Henri Gouraud, east of Reims. At the same time, 17 divisions of the 7th German Army, with the support of the 9th, attacked the 6th French Army west of Reims.

The Second Battle of the Marne took place here (modern photo)

American troops (85,000 men) and the British Expeditionary Force came to the aid of the French troops. The offensive in this area was stopped on July 17 by the joint efforts of the troops of France, Great Britain, the USA and Italy.

Ferdinand Foch

After stopping the German offensive Ferdinand Foch(Commander of the Allied Forces) launched a counteroffensive on July 18, and already on July 20 the German command gave the order to retreat. The Germans returned to the positions they occupied before the spring offensive. By August 6, the Allied counterattack had fizzled out after the Germans had established themselves in their old positions.

The catastrophic defeat of Germany led to the abandonment of the plan to invade Flanders and was the first of a series of Allied victories that ended the war.

The Battle of the Marne marked the beginning of the Entente counteroffensive. By the end of September, the Entente troops liquidated the results of the previous German offensive. In the course of a further general offensive in October and early November, most of the occupied French territory and part of Belgian territory were liberated.

At the Italian theater in late October, Italian troops defeated the Austro-Hungarian army at Vittorio Veneto and liberated Italian territory captured by the enemy the previous year.

In the Balkan theater, the Entente offensive began on 15 September. By November 1, the Entente troops liberated the territory of Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, entered the territory of Bulgaria and invaded the territory of Austria-Hungary.

Germany's surrender in World War I

Hundred-day offensive of the Entente

It took place on August 8-November 11, 1918 and was a large-scale offensive of the Entente troops against the German army. The hundred-day offensive consisted of several offensive operations. The decisive Entente offensive involved British, Australian, Belgian, Canadian, American and French troops.

After the victory on the Marne, the Allies began to develop a plan for the final defeat of the German army. Marshal Foch believed that the moment had come for a large-scale offensive.

Together with Field Marshal Haig, the site of the main attack was chosen - the site on the Somme River: here was the border between the French and British troops; in Picardy there was a flat terrain, which allowed the active use of tanks; the section on the Somme was covered by the weakened German 2nd Army, which was exhausted by the constant raids of the Australians.

The offensive grouping included 17 infantry and 3 cavalry divisions, 2,684 artillery pieces, 511 tanks (heavy Mark V and Mark V * tanks and Whippet medium tanks, 16 armored vehicles and about 1,000 aircraft. The German 2- I army had 7 infantry divisions, 840 guns and 106 aircraft.The huge advantage of the Allies over the Germans was that they had large mass tanks.

Mk V * - British heavy tank of the First World War

The start of the offensive was scheduled for 4 hours 20 minutes. It was planned that after the tanks had passed the line of advanced infantry units, all artillery would open a sudden fire. A third of the guns was supposed to create a fire shaft, and the remaining 2/3 to fire on infantry and artillery positions, command posts, and approach routes for reserves. All preparations for the attack were carried out covertly, using carefully thought-out measures to disguise and mislead the enemy.

Amiens operation

On August 8, 1918, at 4:20 a.m., Allied artillery opened heavy fire on the positions, command and observation posts, communication centers and rear facilities of the 2nd German Army. At the same time, a third of the artillery organized a fire shaft, under the cover of which the divisions of the 4th English army accompanied by 415 tanks went on the attack.

The surprise was a complete success. The Anglo-French offensive came as a complete surprise to the German command. Fog and massive explosions of chemical and smoke shells covered everything that was further than 10-15 m from the positions of the German infantry. Before the German command could understand the situation, a mass of tanks fell on the positions of the German troops. The headquarters of several German divisions were taken by surprise by the rapidly advancing British infantry and tanks.

The German command abandoned any offensive actions and decided to move on to the defense of the occupied territories. “Not an inch of land should not be left without a fierce struggle,” was the order to the German troops. In order to avoid serious internal political complications, the High Command hoped to hide from the German people the true state of the army and achieve acceptable peace conditions. As a result of this operation, the German troops began to withdraw.

The Allied Saint-Miel operation was supposed to eliminate the Saint-Miel ledge, go to the Norois, Odimon front, liberate railway Paris-Verdun-Nancy and create an advantageous starting position for further operations.

Saint Miel operation

The plan of operation was developed jointly by the French and American headquarters. It provided for the application of two blows to the converging directions of the German troops. The main blow was delivered on the southern face of the ledge, the auxiliary one on the western. The operation began on 12 September. The German defenses, overwhelmed by the American offensive in the midst of the evacuation, and stripped of most of their artillery, already withdrawn to the rear, were powerless. The resistance of the German troops was insignificant. The next day, the St. Miel ledge was practically eliminated. On September 14 and 15, American divisions came into contact with the new German position and at the line of Norois, Odimon stopped the offensive.

As a result of the operation, the front line was reduced by 24 km. In four days of fighting, the German troops lost only 16,000 prisoners and more than 400 guns. American losses did not exceed 7 thousand people.

The Entente's main offensive began, which dealt the final, mortal blow to the German army. The front was falling apart.

But Washington was in no hurry with a truce, trying to weaken Germany as much as possible. The US President, without rejecting the possibility of starting peace talks, demanded that Germany guarantees the fulfillment of all 14 points.

Fourteen Points of Wilson

US President W. Wilson

Fourteen Points of Wilson- A draft peace treaty ending the First World War. It was developed by US President Wilson and presented to Congress on January 8, 1918. This plan included the reduction of armaments, the withdrawal of German units from Russia and Belgium, the declaration of Poland's independence and the creation of a "general association of nations" (called the League of Nations). This program formed the basis of the Treaty of Versailles. 14 Wilson points were an alternative to the one developed by V.I. Lenin's Decree on Peace, which was less acceptable to the Western powers.

Revolution in Germany

The fighting on the Western Front by this time entered the final stage. On November 5, the 1st American Army broke through the German front, and on November 6, the general retreat of the German troops began. At this time, an uprising of sailors of the German fleet began in Kiel, which developed into the November Revolution. All attempts to suppress revolutionary uprisings were unsuccessful.

Compiègne truce

In order to prevent the final defeat of the army, on November 8, a German delegation arrived in the Compiègne Forest, received by Marshal Foch. The terms of the Entente Armistice were as follows:

Cessation of hostilities, evacuation within 14 days of the areas of France occupied by German troops, the territories of Belgium and Luxembourg, as well as Alsace-Lorraine.
Entente troops occupied the left bank of the Rhine, and on the right bank it was planned to create a demilitarized zone.
Germany undertook to immediately return all prisoners of war to their homeland, to evacuate their troops from the territory of the countries that were previously part of Austria-Hungary, from Romania, Turkey and East Africa.

Germany was to give the Entente 5,000 artillery pieces, 30,000 machine guns, 3,000 mortars, 5,000 locomotives, 150,000 wagons, 2,000 aircraft, 10,000 trucks, 6 heavy cruisers, 10 battleships, 8 light cruisers, 50 destroyers and 160 submarines. Other ships of the German navy disarmed and interned by the Allies. The blockade of Germany was maintained. Foch sharply rejected all attempts by the German delegation to soften the terms of the armistice. In fact, the conditions put forward required unconditional surrender. However, the German delegation still managed to soften the terms of the truce (reduce the number of weapons for extradition). The requirements for the extradition of submarines were lifted. In other points, the terms of the truce remained unchanged.

November 11, 1918 at 5 am French time, the terms of the armistice were signed. The Compiègne truce was signed. At 11 o'clock the first shots of the artillery salute of the nations in 101 volleys were heard, announcing the end of the First World War. Germany's allies in the Quadruple Alliance capitulated even earlier: on September 29, Bulgaria capitulated, on October 30 - Turkey, on November 3 - Austria-Hungary.

Allied representatives at the signing of the armistice. Ferdinand Foch (second from right) near his carriage in the forest of Compiègne

Other theaters of war

On the Mesopotamian front the whole of 1918 was calm. On November 14, the British army, without meeting the resistance of the Turkish troops, occupied Mosul. On this fighting ended here.

In Palestine it was also quiet. In the autumn of 1918, the British army launched an offensive and occupied Nazareth, the Turkish army was surrounded and defeated. The British then invaded Syria and ended the fighting there on 30 October.

In Africa German troops continued to resist. Leaving Mozambique, the Germans invaded the territory of the English colony of Northern Rhodesia. But when the Germans learned of Germany's defeat in the war, their colonial troops laid down their arms.

Allies (Entente): France, Great Britain, Russia, Japan, Serbia, USA, Italy (participated in the war on the side of the Entente since 1915).

Friends of the Entente (supported the Entente in the war): Montenegro, Belgium, Greece, Brazil, China, Afghanistan, Cuba, Nicaragua, Siam, Haiti, Liberia, Panama, Honduras, Costa Rica.

Question about the causes of the First World War has been one of the most discussed in world historiography since the outbreak of the war in August 1914.

The beginning of the war was facilitated by the widespread strengthening of nationalist sentiments. France hatched plans for the return of the lost territories of Alsace and Lorraine. Italy, even being in alliance with Austria-Hungary, dreamed of returning her lands to Trentino, Trieste and Fiume. The Poles saw in the war an opportunity to recreate a state destroyed by the divisions of the 18th century. Many peoples who inhabited Austria-Hungary aspired to national independence. Russia was convinced that it could not develop without limiting German competition, protecting the Slavs from Austria-Hungary, and expanding influence in the Balkans. In Berlin, the future was associated with the defeat of France and Great Britain and the unification of countries Central Europe under German leadership. In London, it was believed that the people of Great Britain would live in peace only by crushing the main enemy - Germany.

In addition, international tensions were exacerbated by a series of diplomatic crises - the Franco-German clash in Morocco in 1905-1906; the Austrian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908-1909; Balkan wars in 1912-1913.

The immediate cause for the war was the Sarajevo massacre. June 28, 1914 Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand, nineteen-year-old Serbian student Gavrilo Princip, who was a member of the secret organization "Young Bosnia", fighting to unite all South Slavic peoples in one state.

July 23, 1914 Austria-Hungary, enlisting the support of Germany, presented an ultimatum to Serbia and demanded that its military formations be allowed into the territory of Serbia in order to prevent hostile actions together with the Serbian forces.

Serbia's response to the ultimatum did not satisfy Austria-Hungary, and July 28, 1914 she declared war on Serbia. Russia, having received assurances of support from France, openly opposed Austria-Hungary and July 30, 1914 announced a general mobilization. Germany, taking advantage of this occasion, announced August 1, 1914 Russian war, and August 3, 1914- France. After the German invasion August 4, 1914 Britain declared war on Germany in Belgium.

First World War consisted of five campaigns. During first campaign in 1914 Germany invaded Belgium and northern France, but was defeated at the Battle of the Marne. Russia took part East Prussia and Galicia (East Prussian operation and the Battle of Galicia), but then was defeated as a result of the German and Austro-Hungarian counter-offensive.

Campaign of 1915 associated with the entry into the war of Italy, the disruption of the German plan to withdraw Russia from the war and the bloody inconclusive battles on the Western Front.

Campaign of 1916 associated with the entry into the war of Romania and the conduct of an exhausting positional war on all fronts.

Campaign of 1917 associated with the US entry into the war, Russia's revolutionary exit from the war, and a number of successive offensive operations on the Western Front (Operation Nivelle, operations in the Messines region, on Ypres, near Verdun, near Cambrai).

Campaign of 1918 characterized by a transition from positional defense to a general offensive of the Entente armed forces. From the second half of 1918, the Allies prepared and launched retaliatory offensive operations (Amiens, Saint-Miyel, Marne), during which they eliminated the results of the German offensive, and in September 1918 they switched to a general offensive. By November 1, 1918, the allies liberated the territory of Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, entered the territory of Bulgaria after the armistice and invaded the territory of Austria-Hungary. Bulgaria signed an armistice with the Allies on September 29, 1918, Turkey on October 30, 1918, Austria-Hungary on November 3, 1918, and Germany on November 11, 1918.

June 28, 1919 signed at the Paris Peace Conference Treaty of Versailles with Germany, officially ending the First World War of 1914-1918.

On September 10, 1919, the Treaty of Saint-Germain was signed with Austria; November 27, 1919 - Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria; June 4, 1920 - Treaty of Trianon with Hungary; August 20, 1920 - Treaty of Sevres with Turkey.

In total, the First World War lasted 1568 days. 38 states participated in it, in which 70% of the population lived the globe. The armed struggle was carried out on the fronts with a total length of 2500-4000 km. The total losses of all warring countries amounted to about 9.5 million people killed and 20 million people wounded. At the same time, the losses of the Entente amounted to about 6 million people killed, the losses of the Central Powers were about 4 million people killed.

During the First World War, for the first time in history, tanks, aircraft, submarines, anti-aircraft and anti-tank guns, mortars, grenade launchers, bomb throwers, flamethrowers, super-heavy artillery, hand grenades, chemical and smoke shells, poisonous substances were used. New types of artillery appeared: anti-aircraft, anti-tank, infantry escorts. Aviation became an independent branch of the military, which began to be subdivided into reconnaissance, fighter and bomber. arose tank forces, chemical troops, air defense troops, naval aviation. Increased role engineering troops and reduced the role of the cavalry.

The results of the First World War were the liquidation of four empires: German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman, the latter two being divided, and Germany and Russia were cut down territorially. As a result, new independent states: Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland.

The material was prepared on the basis of information from open sources

World War I began on August 1, 1914. It lasted more than 4 years (ended on November 11, 1918), 38 states participated in it, over 74 million people fought on its fields, of which 10 million were killed and 20 million were maimed. This war led to the collapse of the most powerful European states and the formation of a new political situation in the world.

On the eve of the war, relations between the strongest countries, England and Germany, worsened. Their rivalry turned into a fierce struggle for dominance in the world, for the capture of new territories. There were also alliances of states that were at enmity with each other.

The reason for the war was the assassination on June 28, 1914 in the city of Sarajevo (in Bosnia on the Balkan Peninsula) of the heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Franz Ferdinand. As a result, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia a month later. On August 1 Germany declared war on Russia, on August 3 on France and Belgium, and on August 4 England declared war on Germany. Most of the countries of the world were involved in the war. On the side of the Entente (England, France, Russia) - 34 states, on the side of Germany and Austria - 4. Military operations covered the territory of Europe, Asia and Africa, were conducted on all oceans and many seas. The main land fronts in Europe, on which the outcome of the war was decided, were the Western (in France) and Eastern (in Russia).

In August 1914, German troops were almost near Paris, where bloody battles were fought. From the border of Switzerland to the North Sea stretched a continuous front line. But Germany's reckoning on a quick defeat of France failed. Japan declared war on Germany on August 23, and Turkey entered the war on Germany's side in October. It became clear that the war was taking on a protracted character.

In the rear in many countries, people are faced with poverty, there is no longer enough food. The situation of the peoples, especially the belligerent states, has deteriorated sharply. To change the course of the war, Germany decided to use a new type of weapon - poisonous gases.

It was very difficult to fight on two fronts. In October 1917, a revolution took place in Russia, and she withdrew from the war by signing a peace treaty with Germany. But this did not help Germany much; its offensive on the Western Front in 1918 failed.

In August-September, the Allied armies, using their superiority in troops and equipment (in March 1918, troops from the United States, which entered the war in 1917, began to arrive on the Western Front), went on the offensive and forced the German troops to leave France.

At the beginning of October, Germany's position became hopeless. Defeats at the fronts, devastation led to a revolution in Germany. On November 9, the monarchy in it was overthrown, and on November 11, Germany recognized itself as defeated. Final terms peace treaties with Germany and its allies were signed at the Paris Conference of 1919-20. Germany paid the victors large sums in damages (except for Russia, which, after October revolution left the Entente). In 1918, Austria-Hungary also collapsed.

The First World War changed the whole map of Europe.

Turning to international relations in the first decades of the 20th century, historians most often try to find an answer to the question: why did the world war begin? Consider events and phenomena that will help to find out the causes of its occurrence.

International relations in the late XIX - early XX century

The rapid industrial development of European countries and North America at that time pushed them to enter the broad world market, spreading their economic and political influence in different parts of the world.
The powers that already had colonial possessions sought to expand them in every possible way. So, France in the last third of the XIX - early XX century. increased the territory of its colonies by more than 10 times. The clash of interests of individual European powers led to armed confrontation, as, for example, in Central Africa where the British and French colonizers competed. Great Britain also tried to strengthen its position in South Africa- in the Transvaal and the Orange Republic. The determined resistance of the descendants of European settlers who lived there - the Boers - led to Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902).

The guerrilla struggle of the Boers and the cruelest methods of warfare by the British troops (up to the burning of peaceful settlements and the creation of concentration camps, where thousands of prisoners died) showed the whole world the terrible face of war in the coming 20th century. Great Britain defeated the two Boer republics. But this inherently imperialist war was then condemned by most European countries, as well as by democratic forces in Britain itself.

Completed by the beginning of the 20th century. the colonial division of the world did not bring peace to international relations. Countries that have made significant progress in industrial development (USA, Germany, Italy, Japan) are actively involved in the struggle for economic and political influence in the world. In some cases, they tore away the colonial territories from their owners by military means. This is what the United States did by unleashing a war against Spain in 1898. In other cases, the colonies "bargained". This was done, for example, by Germany in 1911. Having declared its intention to seize part of Morocco, it sent a warship to its shores. France, which had previously penetrated into Morocco, in exchange for the recognition of its priority, ceded to Germany part of its possessions in the Congo. The following document testifies to the decisiveness of Germany's colonial intentions.

From the parting words of Kaiser Wilhelm II to the German troops heading to China in July 1900 to suppress the Yihetuan uprising:

“There are great tasks ahead of the newly emerged German Empire across the sea ... And you ... must teach the enemy a good lesson. Converging with the enemy, you must beat him! Give no mercy! Take no prisoners! With those who fall into your hands, do not stand on ceremony. Just as a thousand years ago, under their king Attila, the Huns glorified their name, which is still preserved in fairy tales and legends, so the name of the Germans should evoke such feelings in China in a thousand years, so that no Chinese would ever again dare to look askance to the German!

The increased conflicts between the great powers in different parts of the world caused concern not only in public opinion, but also among the politicians themselves. In 1899, at the initiative of Russia, a peace conference was held in The Hague with the participation of representatives of 26 states. The second conference in The Hague (1907) already involved 44 countries. At these meetings, conventions (agreements) were adopted that contained recommendations on the peaceful settlement of international disputes, limiting cruel forms of warfare (prohibiting the use of explosive bullets, poisonous substances, etc.), reducing military spending and armed forces, humane treatment of prisoners, and also determined the rights and obligations of neutral states.

The discussion of general problems of maintaining peace did not prevent the leading European powers from dealing with completely different issues: how to ensure the achievement of their own, not always peaceful, foreign policy goals. It was increasingly difficult to do this alone, so each country was looking for allies. FROM late XIX in. two international blocs began to take shape - the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy) and the Franco-Russian alliance, which outgrew at the beginning of the 20th century. in the Triple Entente of France, Russia, Great Britain.

Dates, documents, events

Triple Alliance
1879 - secret treaty between Germany and Austria-Hungary on joint defense against Russian attack.
1882 - Triple alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy.

Franco-Russian alliance
1891-1892 - Consultative pact and military convention between Russia and France.

Entente
1904 - agreement between Great Britain and France on the division of spheres of influence in Africa.
1906 - negotiations between Belgium, Great Britain and France on military cooperation.
1907 - agreement between Great Britain and Russia on the division of spheres of influence in Iran, Afghanistan and Tibet.

International conflicts of the early XX century. were not limited to disputes over overseas territories. They also appeared in Europe itself. In 1908-1909. the so-called Bosnian crisis. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, which were formally part of the Ottoman Empire. Serbia and Russia protested, as they were in favor of granting independence to these territories. Austria-Hungary announced mobilization and began to concentrate troops on the border with Serbia. The actions of Austria-Hungary received the support of Germany, which forced Russia and Serbia to come to terms with the capture.

Balkan Wars

Other states also sought to take advantage of the weakening of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro formed the Balkan Union and in October 1912 attacked the empire in order to liberate the territories inhabited by Slavs and Greeks from Turkish rule. In a short time, the Turkish army was defeated. But the peace negotiations turned out to be difficult, because the great powers joined in: the Entente countries supported the states of the Balkan Union, and Austria-Hungary and Germany supported the Turks. According to the peace treaty signed in May 1913, Ottoman Empire lost almost all of its European territories. But less than a month later, a second Balkan war broke out - this time between the victors. Bulgaria attacked Serbia and Greece, trying to get its part of Macedonia liberated from Turkish rule. The war ended in August 1913 with the defeat of Bulgaria. She left behind unresolved interethnic and interstate contradictions. These were not only mutual territorial disputes between Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Romania. The dissatisfaction of Austria-Hungary with the strengthening of Serbia as a possible center for the unification of the South Slavic peoples, some of which were in the possession of the Habsburg Empire, also grew.

The beginning of the war

On June 28, 1914, in the capital of Bosnia, the city of Sarajevo, a member of the Serbian terrorist organization Gavrilo Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and his wife.

June 28, 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sofia in Sarajevo Five minutes before the assassination attempt

Austria-Hungary accused Serbia of instigation, to which an ultimatum note was sent. The fulfillment of the requirements contained in it meant for Serbia the loss of its state dignity, consent to Austrian interference in its affairs. Serbia was ready to fulfill all the conditions, except for one, the most humiliating for it (about the investigation by the Austrian services on the territory of Serbia of the reasons for the Sarajevo assassination attempt). However, on July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Two weeks later, 8 states of Europe were involved in the war.

Dates and events
August 1 - Germany declares war on Russia.
August 2 - German troops occupied Luxembourg.
August 3 - Germany declared war on France, its troops moved to France through Belgium.
August 4 - Britain enters the war against Germany.
August 6 - Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia.
August 11 - France enters the war against Austria-Hungary.
August 12 - Great Britain declares war on Austria-Hungary.

On August 23, 1914, Japan declared war on Germany and began seizing German possessions in China and the Pacific. In the autumn of the same year, the Ottoman Empire entered the struggle on the side of the Triple Alliance. The war went beyond the borders of Europe and turned into a world war.

The states that entered the war, as a rule, explained their decision by “higher interests” - the desire to protect themselves and other countries from aggression, allied duty, etc. But the true goals of most of the participants in the conflict were to expand their territories or colonial possessions, to increase the influence in Europe and other continents.

Austria-Hungary wanted to subjugate the growing Serbia, to weaken Russia's position in the Balkans. Germany sought to annex the border territories of France and Belgium, the Baltic states and other lands in Europe, and also to expand its colonial possessions at the expense of English, French, and Belgian colonies. France resisted the onslaught of Germany and at least wanted to return Alsace and Lorraine captured from her in 1871. Britain fought to preserve its colonial empire and wished to weaken Germany, which had gained strength. Russia defended its interests in the Balkans and the Black Sea, and at the same time was not averse to annexing Galicia, which was part of Austria-Hungary.

Some exceptions were Serbia, which became the first victim of the attack, and Belgium, occupied by the Germans: they fought the war primarily for the restoration of their independence, although they also had other interests.

War and society

So, in the summer of 1914, the wheel of war rolled out of the hands of politicians and diplomats and invaded the lives of millions of people in dozens of countries in Europe and the world. How did people feel when they learned about the war? In what mood did the men go to the mobilization points? What were those who were not supposed to go to the front preparing for?

Official announcements about the beginning of hostilities were accompanied by patriotic appeals and assurances of an imminent victory.

French President R. Poincaré noted in his notes:

“The German declaration of war aroused in the nation a magnificent outburst of patriotism. Never in all its history has France been so beautiful as in these hours which we have been given to witness. The mobilization, which began on August 2, ended today, was carried out with such discipline, in such order, with such calmness, with such enthusiasm, that the government and military authorities admire ... In England, the same enthusiasm as in France; The Royal Family was the subject of repeated applause; patriotic demonstrations everywhere. The Central Powers aroused the unanimous indignation of the French, English and Belgian peoples.

A significant part of the population of the countries that entered the war was seized by nationalist sentiments. The attempts of pacifists and some socialists to raise their voice against the war were drowned out by a wave of jingoistic patriotism. The leaders of the workers' and socialist movement in Germany, Austria-Hungary, France put forward the slogans of "civil peace" in their countries and voted for war loans. The leaders of the Austrian Social Democracy called on their supporters "to fight against tsarism", while the British socialists decided above all to "fight against German imperialism". The ideas of the class struggle and the international solidarity of the workers were relegated to the background. This led to the collapse of the Second International. Only a few groups of social democrats (including the Russian Bolsheviks) condemned the outbreak of the war as imperialist and called on the working people to refuse to support their governments. But their voices were not heard. Thousands of armies went to fight, hoping for victory.

The failure of the lightning war plans

Although the leadership in declaring war belonged to Austria-Hungary, the most decisive action was immediately launched by Germany. She sought to avoid a war on two fronts - against Russia in the east and France in the west. The plan of General A. von Schlieffen, developed even before the war, provided first for the rapid defeat of France (in 40 days), and then for an active struggle against Russia. The German strike group, which invaded Belgian territory at the beginning of the war, approached the French border in a little over two weeks (later than planned, because the fierce resistance of the Belgians prevented it). By September 1914, the German armies crossed the Marne River and approached the fortress of Verdun. It was not possible to fulfill the plan of "blitzkrieg" (blitzkrieg). But France was in a very difficult position. Paris was in danger of being invaded. The government left the capital and turned to Russia for help.

Despite the fact that the deployment and equipping of the Russian troops had not been completed by that time (this is exactly what Schlieffen was counting on in his plan), two Russian armies under the command of Generals P.K. Rennenkampf and A.V. Samsonov were abandoned on the offensive in August in East Prussia (here they soon failed), and the troops under the command of General N.I. Ivanov in September - in Galicia (where they dealt a serious blow to the Austrian army). The offensive cost the Russian troops heavy losses. But to stop him, Germany transferred several corps from France to the Eastern Front. This allowed the French command to gather forces and repel the onslaught of the Germans in a difficult battle on the Marne River in September 1914 (more than 1.5 million people participated in the battle, losses on both sides amounted to almost 600 thousand killed and wounded).

The plan to quickly defeat France failed. Unable to get the better of each other, the opponents “sat down in trenches” along a huge front line (600 km long) that crossed Europe from the North Sea coast to Switzerland. A protracted positional war broke out on the Western Front. By the end of 1914, a similar situation had developed on the Austro-Serbian front, where the Serbian army managed to liberate the country's territory, previously captured (in August - November) by the Austrian troops.

During a period of relative calm on the fronts, diplomats became more active. Each of the warring groups sought to attract new allies into their ranks. Both sides negotiated with Italy, which at the beginning of the war declared its neutrality. Seeing the failure of the German and Austrian troops in conducting a blitzkrieg, Italy in the spring of 1915 joined the Entente.

On the fronts

Since the spring of 1915, the center of hostilities in Europe has moved to the Eastern Front. The combined forces of Germany and Austria-Hungary carried out a successful offensive in Galicia, driving out Russian troops from there, and the army under the command of General P. von Hindenburg captured the Polish and Lithuanian territories that were part of the Russian Empire (including Warsaw) by autumn.

Despite the difficult situation Russian army, the French and British command was in no hurry to advance on their front. Military reports of the time included the proverbial phrase: "All Quiet on the Western Front." True, positional warfare was also an ordeal. The fight intensified, the number of victims steadily increased. In April 1915, on the Western Front near the Ypres River, the German army carried out its first gas attack. About 15 thousand people were poisoned, of which 5 thousand died, the rest remained disabled. In the same year, war at sea between Germany and Great Britain intensified. To block the British Isles, German submarines began to attack all ships going there. During the year, over 700 ships were sunk, including many civilian ships. Protests from the United States and other neutral countries forced the German command to abandon attacks on passenger ships for some time.

After the successes of the Austro-German forces on the Eastern Front in the fall of 1915, Bulgaria entered the war on their side. Soon, as a result of a joint offensive, the Allies occupied the territory of Serbia.

In 1916, believing that Russia was sufficiently weakened, the German command decided to deliver a new blow to France. The goal of the German offensive, undertaken in February, was the French fortress of Verdun, the capture of which would open the way for the Germans to Paris. However, it was not possible to take the fortress.

This was due to the fact that during the previous break in active operations on the Western Front, the British-French troops secured a superiority over the Germans by several dozen divisions. In addition, at the request of the French command in March 1916, an offensive was launched by Russian troops near Lake Naroch and the city of Dvinsk, which diverted significant German forces.

Finally, in July 1916, a massive offensive by the British-French army began on the Western Front. Particularly heavy fighting took place on the Somme. Here the French concentrated powerful artillery, which created a continuous shaft of fire. The British, for the first time, used tanks, which caused a real panic among the German soldiers, although they had not yet been able to turn the tide of battles.

The bloody battle, which lasted almost half a year, in which both sides lost about 1 million 300 thousand people killed, wounded and captured, ended with a relatively small advance of the British and French troops. Contemporaries called the battles of Verdun and the Somme "meat grinders".

Even the inveterate politician R. Poincare, who at the beginning of the war admired the patriotic upsurge of the French, now saw a different, terrible face of the war. He wrote:

“How much energy does this life of troops require daily, half underground, in trenches, in rain and snow, in trenches destroyed by grenades and mines, in shelters without clean air and light, in parallel ditches, always subject to the destructive action of shells, in side passages , which can suddenly be cut off by enemy artillery, at posts advanced forward, where a patrol can be caught every minute by an impending attack! How can we still know moments of deceptive calm in the rear, if there, at the front, people like us are doomed to this hell?

Significant events unfolded in 1916 on the Eastern Front. In June, Russian troops under the command of General A. A. Brusilov broke through the Austrian front to a depth of 70-120 km. The Austrian and German command hastily transferred 17 divisions from Italy and France to this front. Despite this, Russian troops occupied part of Galicia, Bukovina, entered the Carpathians. Their further advance was suspended due to lack of ammunition, isolation of the rear.

In August 1916, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente. But by the end of the year, her army was defeated, the territory was occupied. As a result, the front line for the Russian army increased by another 500 km.

Position in the rear

The war required the belligerent countries to mobilize all human and material resources. The life of people in the rear was built according to the laws of wartime. The working hours were extended at the enterprises. Restrictions were imposed on holding meetings, rallies, strikes. The newspapers were censored. The state strengthened not only political control over society. During the war years, its regulatory role in the economy grew noticeably. State bodies distributed military orders and raw materials, disposed of the produced military products. They formed an alliance with the largest industrial and financial monopolies.

The daily life of people has also changed. The work of young, strong men who left to fight fell on the shoulders of old men, women and teenagers. They worked in military factories, cultivated the land in immeasurably more difficult conditions than before.

From the book by S. Pankhurst "The Home Front" (the author is one of the leaders of the women's movement in England):

“In July (1916) I was approached by women who worked in aviation enterprises in London. They covered airplane wings with camouflage paint for 15 shillings a week, working from 8 o'clock in the morning until half past six in the evening. They were often asked to work until 8 o'clock in the evening, and they were paid for this overtime work as usual ... According to them, constantly six or more of the thirty women who worked on the painting were forced to leave the workshop and lie down on the stones for half an hour and more before they could return to their workplace.”

In most of the warring countries, a system of strictly rationed distribution of food and essential goods on cards was introduced. At the same time, the norms, compared with the pre-war level of consumption, were cut two to three times. It was possible to buy products in excess of the norm only on the "black market" for fabulous money. Only industrialists and speculators who got rich on military supplies could afford it. Most of the population was starving. In Germany, the winter of 1916/17 was called "rutabaga", because due to a poor potato harvest, rutabaga became the main food product. People also suffered from lack of fuel. In Paris, during the said winter, there were cases of people dying from the cold. The prolongation of the war led to an ever greater deterioration in the situation in the rear.

The crisis is ripe. The final stage of the war

The war brought ever-increasing losses and suffering to the peoples. By the end of 1916, about 6 million people died on the fronts, about 10 million were injured. The cities and villages of Europe became battlefields. In the occupied territories, the civilian population was subjected to robbery and violence. In the rear, both people and machines worked for wear and tear. The material and spiritual forces of the peoples were depleted. This was already understood by both politicians and the military. In December 1916, Germany and its allies proposed that the Entente countries begin peace negotiations, and representatives of several neutral states spoke in favor of the same. But each of the warring parties did not want to recognize itself as a loser and sought to dictate its own terms. The negotiations did not take place.

Meanwhile, in the warring countries themselves, dissatisfaction with the war and those who continued to wage it was growing. "Civil Peace" was falling apart. Since 1915, the strike struggle of the workers has intensified. At first, they demanded mainly higher wages, which were depreciated all the time due to rising prices. Then, anti-war slogans began to sound more and more often. The ideas of struggle against the imperialist war were put forward by the revolutionary Social Democrats in Russia and Germany. On May 1, 1916, during a demonstration in Berlin, the leader of the leftist Social Democrats, Karl Liebknecht, issued calls: "Down with the war!", "Down with the government!" (for this he was arrested and sentenced to four years in prison).

In England, the strike movement of workers in 1915 was led by the so-called guild elders. They presented the demands of the workers to the administration and steadily achieved their fulfillment. Active anti-war propaganda was launched by pacifist organizations. The national question has also become aggravated. In April 1916 there was an uprising in Ireland. Rebel detachments led by socialist J. Connolly seized government buildings in Dublin and proclaimed Ireland an independent republic. The uprising was mercilessly crushed, 15 of its leaders were executed.

An explosive situation has developed in Russia. Here the matter was not limited to the growth of strikes. The February Revolution of 1917 overthrew the autocracy. The provisional government intended to continue the war "to the bitter end." But it did not retain power over either the army or the country. In October 1917, the Soviet authority. As for their international consequences, the most tangible at that moment was Russia's withdrawal from the war. At first, unrest in the army led to the collapse of the Eastern Front. And in March 1918, the Soviet government concluded Brest Peace with Germany and its allies, under whose control vast territories remained in the Baltic, Belarus, Ukraine and the Caucasus. The impact of the Russian revolution on events in Europe and the world was not limited to this, it, as it became clear later, also touched the internal life of many countries.

Meanwhile, the war continued. In April 1917, the United States of America declared war on Germany, and then on its allies. They were followed by several states of Latin America, China and other countries. The Americans sent their troops to Europe. In 1918, after the conclusion of peace with Russia, the German command made several attempts to attack France, but to no avail. Having lost about 800 thousand people in battles, the German troops withdrew to their original lines. By the autumn of 1918, the initiative in the conduct of hostilities passed to the Entente countries.

The question of ending the war was decided not only on the fronts. Anti-war protests and discontent grew in the warring countries. At demonstrations and rallies, the slogans put forward by the Russian Bolsheviks were increasingly heard: “Down with the war!”, “A world without annexations and indemnities!” AT different countries workers' and soldiers' councils began to appear. The French workers adopted resolutions stating: "From the spark ignited in Petrograd, light will light up over the rest of the world enslaved by militarism." In the army, battalions and regiments refused to go to the front lines.

Germany and her allies, weakened by defeats on the fronts and internal difficulties, were forced to ask for peace.

On September 29, 1918, Bulgaria ceased hostilities. On October 5, the German government made a request for a truce. On October 30, the Ottoman Empire signed a truce with the Entente. On November 3, Austria-Hungary capitulated, liberation movements the peoples who lived in it.

On November 3, 1918, an uprising of sailors broke out in Germany in the city of Kiel, which marked the beginning of the revolution. On November 9, the abdication of Kaiser Wilhelm II was announced. On November 10, a Social Democratic government came to power.

On November 11, 1918, the commander-in-chief of the allied forces in France, Marshal F. Foch, in his staff car in the Compiègne forest, dictated the terms of the armistice to the German delegation. Finally, the war ended, in which more than 30 states participated (by the number of inhabitants they accounted for more than half of the world's population), 10 million were killed and 20 million were injured. The road to peace lay ahead.

References:
Aleksashkina L. N. / General History. XX - the beginning of the XXI century.

World War I (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war is solved.
Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was rather ambiguous and extremely contradictory described in modern history. I specifically cited Chamberlain's words in the epigraph to once again emphasize this inconsistency. Prominent politician England (Russia's ally in the war) says that by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia, one of the goals of the war has been achieved!

The Balkan countries played an important role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policy (both foreign and domestic) was greatly influenced by England. Germany by that time had lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, New Zealand.
Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later, the Bulgarian kingdom joined them, and the coalition became known as the Quadruple Union.

The following took part in the war major countries: Austria-Hungary (July 27, 1914 - November 3, 1918), Germany (August 1, 1914 - November 11, 1918), Turkey (October 29, 1914 - October 30, 1918), Bulgaria (October 14, 1915 - September 29, 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

Another important point. Initially, a member of the "Triple Alliance" was Italy. But after the outbreak of the First World War, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of World War I

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War is the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years by exploiting the colonies, were no longer allowed to obtain resources simply by taking them away from the Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won back from each other. Therefore, contradictions arose:

Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent the strengthening of German influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to gain a foothold in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of naval dominance.
Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which she had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Contradictions arose because of the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as the desire of Russia to subjugate the Bosporus and the Dardanelles.

Cause to start a war

The events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina) served as the reason for the start of the First World War. On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand organization of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Frans Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the reason for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed a war throughout Europe. The British, at the level of the embassy, convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia, in the event of aggression, should not leave Serbia without help. But then all (I emphasize this) the English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything so that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the reason for war

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. Was killed French politician Jean Jaurès, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had a great influence on Nicholas 2. I also want to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

Gavrilo Principin. He died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
Russian Ambassador to Serbia - Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
In 1917 Hartley's correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

All this indicates that there were a lot of black spots in the events of the days, which have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

The role of England in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since the forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in " July Crisis» 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see attitude. English diplomacy came to the fore. By means of the press and secret diplomacy, she conveyed to Germany the position - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take the side of Germany. By open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 heard the opposite idea that in the event of a war, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement by England that she will not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything of the kind. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all her diplomacy, pushed European countries to war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia reformed the army. In 1907, a fleet reform was carried out, and in 1910 a reform ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total number of the army in peacetime was now 2 million people. In 1912, Russia adopts a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightfully called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to take personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in the war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past when the role of the cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all the losses of the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a sentence to the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never finished preparing for the war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before the war and after it

Artillery

	Number of guns	Of these, heavy weapons


Austria-Hungary
Germany

According to the data from the table, it can be seen that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in terms of heavy guns. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, before the war created an excellent military industry, which produced 250,000 shells daily. For comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells a month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than in the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that decisive role heavy artillery will play in the war.

Armament and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousand units).

	Shooting	Artillery



Great Britain
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all major indicators, Russia is far behind Germany, but also behind France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

The number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

	At the beginning of the war	By the end of the war	Losses killed



Great Britain
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

The table shows that the smallest contribution, both in terms of combatants and in terms of deaths, was made by Great Britain to the war. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is illustrative. We are told in all textbooks that Austria-Hungary, due to heavy losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed Germany's help. But pay attention to Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are telling. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most efforts in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Brest peace for itself, losing a lot of land. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, in fact, having lost its independence.

The course of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement in the war of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed supreme commander.

In the first days of the beginning of the war, Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, and the capital could not have a name of German origin - "burg".
History reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany was under the threat of a war on two fronts: East - with Russia, West - with France. Then the German command developed the "Schlieffen plan", according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this is how much Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany had reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place, in which about 2 million people participated on both sides.

Northwestern front of Russia in 1914

Russia at the beginning of the war made a stupid thing that Germany could not calculate in any way. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops were successful, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern. The result - Germany repulsed the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result, the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, though by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After that, a positional war began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by the troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people were killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After that, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, as it lost the opportunity to fight independent action. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for blitzkrieg.
No one managed to win a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events in 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. This was strategic plan, developed by the commander of the Eastern Front - General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

The situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went into deep defense. Russian losses were gigantic:

Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the "Triple Alliance" were convinced that Russia would not be able to recover from the losses it had received.

Germany's successes in this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

The situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

2.5 times in machine guns.
4.5 times in light artillery.
40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this sector of the front were gigantic: 150,000 killed, 700,000 wounded, 900,000 prisoners and 4 million refugees.

The situation on the western front

All is calm on the Western Front. This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France in 1915 proceeded. There were sluggish hostilities in which no one sought the initiative. Germany implemented plans in Eastern Europe, while England and France calmly mobilized the economy and the army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly appealed to France, first of all, so that she would switch to active operations on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him ... By the way, this sluggish war on the western front for Germany is perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “Farewell to Arms”.

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to withdraw Russia from the war, although all forces were thrown at it. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since in 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or a strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun meat grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France, with the aim of capturing Paris. For this, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the Verdun Meat Grinder. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name "Brusilovsky breakthrough". This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5th. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defense, but also to advance into its depths in places up to 120 kilometers. German and Austro-Hungarian losses were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and captured. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. They threw it, as usual, the allies. On August 27, 1916, Romania enters the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany very quickly inflicted a defeat on her. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2,000 kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

On the Northwestern Front positional battles continued in the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian front, here the main events continued from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzumur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

Outcome of 1916 in World War I

The strategic initiative went over to the side of the Entente.
The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the advance of the Russian army.
Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
Russia launched a powerful offensive - the Brusilovsky breakthrough.

Military and political events of 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. I will give an example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased by an average of 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out excellent ground for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States enters World War I. The positions of the "Triple Alliance" are deteriorating. Germany with allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

End of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, the Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov region. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but they themselves substituted capitally.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. Issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years have not been resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to re-deploy troops here, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army actually ceased to exist. The front has collapsed. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded that Russia withdraw from the war. And this was one of their main demands on the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the Decree "On Peace", in fact declaring Russia's withdrawal from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. The conditions of this world were as follows:

Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters territory, lost about 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries.
History reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war in 2 directions. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, in its course it became obvious that Germany was squeezing the maximum out of herself, and that she needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the autumn. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. german army was completely ousted from France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria signed a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her position was hopeless, after the German allies in the "Triple Alliance" essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was deposed.

End of World War I

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the forest of Compiègne, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

Germany recognizes complete defeat in the war.
The return of France of the province of Alsace and Lorraine to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and also pledged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
For 15 years, the Entente troops are located on the left bank of the Rhine.
By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay the members of the Entente (Russia was not supposed to do anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
For 30 years, Germany must pay reparations, and the winners themselves determine the amount of these reparations and can increase them at any time during these 30 years.
Germany was forbidden to have an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army was obliged to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of "peace" were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that the First World War, although it ended, did not end with peace, but with a truce for 30 years. And so it eventually happened ...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the total world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of which 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. There were such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, Albania. Austria-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Increased their borders Romania, Greece, France, Italy. There were 5 countries that lost and lost in the territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.