The sounds of speech, used as part of a syllable, words, phrases influence each other, undergoing changes. These modifications of sounds in the speech chain are called phonetic (sound) processes. Phonetic processes are caused by the mutual influence of the beginning and end of the articulation of neighboring sounds, as well as the position of the sound in the word. Phonetic processes are combinatorial and positional.
combinatorial processes cover mainly consonants: assimilation, dissimilation and accommodation (Latin assimilis - similar, dissimilis - unlike, accommodation - adaptation).
Assimilation- assimilation of neighboring sounds in some component of articulation. She happens complete and partial. Full - two sounds are exactly the same: be ssh smart(w), szh go(and). Partial - assimilation in only one component of articulation: together (in`m`), here (h`d`). Assimilation also happens progressive(straight) and regressive(reverse). Progressive - the imposition of the previous consonant on the next. For example, cloud (from cloud as a result of complete progressive assimilation Russian word). Regressive - the imposition of the subsequent sound on the previous one: two times - twice, before - before, here - here, wedding - wedding.
Dissimilation- a process opposite to assimilation: it consists in dissimilating the articulation of neighboring vowels and consonants. For example, the word lead[c] arose as a result of dissimilation [e] lead; colloquial pronunciation of words tranway, colidor.
Accommodation- the interaction of neighboring vowels and consonants. For example, in Russian, after soft consonants, vowels become more front, pronounced higher; on the contrary, after solid consonants, the vowel becomes more back - to play (game).
Less common are such combinatorial phonetic processes as diarrhea and epenthesis. Diareza(Greek separation) - (discard) loss of sound in a complex combination of sounds: Che sn th - che stn th, co nc e - with lnts e, se rc e - se RDC e. Epenthesis- inserting sound into certain combinations. For example, dialect. indrav(temper).
Positional phonetic processes: reduction of unstressed vowels, vowel harmony, deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word, addition or loss of sounds at the beginning of a word.
Reduction of unstressed vowels– attenuation and change in sound quality. German K o rrektur
Vowel harmony (vowel harmony). It is especially characteristic of the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages.
Stunning voiced consonants (German: San d).
Orthoepy(Greek ortho - correct, epic - speech) - a set of pronunciation rules that correspond to the norm of the national language. It relies on phonetic processes and rules for reading individual letter combinations: for example, [h`] in certainly and what like [w]. In orthoepy, the concept of the main (literary) and stylistic variant is important (for example, the full style bud´it- colloquial buit).
Required Literature
1. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Enlightenment, 1987. - S. 101 - 138.
additional literature
1. Kochergina V.A. Introduction to linguistics M.: Gaudeamus, 2004.-S.13-87.
2. Girutsky A.A. Introduction to Linguistics: Minsk: Tetra - Systems, 2005.-p. 43-76.
3. Yemets T.V. Introduction to linguistics. Magnitogorsk, 2006, 129p.
Vocabulary
Lecture plan
1. The concept of the word. Semantic structure of the word.
2. Classification of the word. Lexicon as a system.
3. Non-discrete units of vocabulary.
- Word concept. Semantic structure of the word
The word (lexeme) is the central unit of the language. Vocabulary language is called vocabulary, and the section studying it is lexicology. It is subdivided into onomasiology and semasiology.
Onomasiology- a section of lexicology that studies the vocabulary of the language, its nominative means, types of vocabulary units of the language, methods of nomination.
Semasiology- a section of lexicology that studies the meaning of dictionary languages, types of lexical meanings, and the semantic structure of a word.
Depending on the originality of lexemes and compound names, such lexicological disciplines are distinguished as phraseology, terminology, onomastics(the science of proper names). Closely related to lexicology etymology- the science of the origin of words and expressions and lexicography as the theory of compiling dictionaries different types. Word- the main structural - semantic unit of the language, which serves to name objects, properties, phenomena and relations of reality, which has a set of semantic, phonetic and grammatical features.
Characteristic features the words:
1. integrity
2. indivisibility
3. free reproducibility in speech
The word contains:
1. phonetic structure (an organized set of sound
phonetic phenomena, forming the sound shell of the word)
2. morphological structure(a set of morphemes included in it)
3. semantic structure (a set of meanings in the content of a word)
All words included in a particular language form its vocabulary (lexicon, lexicon).
The word has many definitions. One of the more successful prof. Golovin:
Word- the smallest semantic unit of the language, freely reproduced in speech to build statements.
By this definition, the word can be distinguished from phonemes and syllables, which are not semantic units, from morphemes, not reproduced in speech freely, from phrases consisting of 2 or more words.
Any word is included in 3 main types of relationships:
1. attitudes towards objects and phenomena of reality;
2. attitudes towards thoughts, feelings, desires of the person himself;
3. relationship to other words.
In linguistics these relationship types are called:
1. denotative (from the word through its meaning to the subject)
2. significative (from the word through its meaning to the concept)
3. structural (relational) (from word to another word)
In accordance with the indicated types of relations, the functions of the word are also defined:
● denotative function- allows a word to designate an object;
● significative function- allows the word to participate in the formation and expression of concepts;
● structural function- allows the word to enter into different rows and groups of words.
concept(denotation) - reflects the most common and at the same time the most significant features of an object and phenomenon.
The denotative (from Lat. denotatum - marked, designated), or subject, component correlates the word with one or another phenomenon of reality: objects, qualities, relationships, actions, processes, etc. The object designated by the word is called a denotation, or a referent (from Latin to refer - to send, to relate)
denotations- these are images of real or imaginary objects or phenomena, embodied in verbal form. Through denotations, words are related to real (human, tree, dog, cat) or imaginary (mermaid, dragon, brownie) realities.
Meaning (significat) – the highest level reflection of reality in the human mind, the same stage as the concept. The meaning of the word reflects the general and at the same time essential features of the subject, known in the social practice of people.
significative(from lat. significatum - denoted) the meaning component correlates the word with the concept it denotes. A significat is a concept embodied in a verbal form. The concept itself is defined as a thought, which in a generalized form reflects objects and phenomena by fixing their properties, features and relationships. Conceptual thinking is carried out with the help of special mental operations - analysis and synthesis, identification and distinction, abstraction and generalization, which receive a verbal form in the language. Any concept always corresponds to a large volume, the content of which is revealed not with the help of one word, but with a detailed description. The word only fixes a certain set of features characteristic of a certain concept. So, the word signification river contains in its meaning the conceptual features of the river as "a natural, significant and continuous water flow, flowing in the channel developed by him."
- Word classifications. Vocabulary as a system
The vocabulary of a particular language includes hundreds of thousands of words, but the vocabulary of a language is characterized not only by the quantity, but also by the quality of its constituent units, which simultaneously have typical and specific features. The properties and differences of language units help to classify them on various grounds.
By way of nomination There are 4 types of words:
● independent (full-valued, denoting directly fragments of reality). These are: nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, numerals.
● official (do not have sufficient independence to be used independently). They form one member of the sentence together with an independent word (prepositions, articles), or connect words (conjunctions), or replace structurally and functionally other words (substituent words);
● pronominal words (denoting objects indirectly);
● interjections (denoting the phenomena of reality and the reaction of a person to them in an undivided way, in connection with which they do not have grammatical formality).
According to impact, i.e. words differ phonetically:
● single-beat (eg table);
● multi-beat (railway);
● unstressed (for example, he).
Morphologically words differ:
● changeable and unchangeable;
● simple, derivative, complex (move, walk, lunar rover).
By motivation:
● motivated (environment, cuckoo (because cuckoo), carpenter (because he makes tables));
● unmotivated (flour, beam, bread).
By vocabulary usage:
● active (common and very common words);
● passive (it is made up of words that are not commonly used, or are not commonly used at all for a given era).
In historical terms, the language is continuously updated, while:
1 .new words appear - neologisms(satellite, moon rover). Neologisms that are individual, speech are also called occasionalisms (egologisms). For example, the author's neoplasms of Mayakovsky;
2 .go into the passive stock of words that have become unnecessary - archaisms - the establishment of words displaced from active use (stable, neck, verb - word) and historicisms- obsolete words denoting the realities and concepts of previous eras (potbelly stove), which have now come out of the life and life of the people;
3 .famous words acquire new value(pioneer - pioneer, pioneer - member of the pioneer organization).
From point of view areas of use vocabulary is:
● unlimited (typical for oral and writing);
● limited (sometimes territorially limited - dialect, social - professional, jargon)
FROM positions of stylistic (connotative) allocate:
● neutral vocabulary
● technical vocabulary
● political vocabulary
● official vocabulary - business
Based on the semantic relationships between words, they distinguish:
1. Synonyms(words that are similar in meaning, but differ in form (eyes, eyes, pupils, peepers, flashing lights, Zenks, balls, and also the organ of vision). Synonyms are synonymous rows. In the synonymic series, there is always a word that expresses the "pure" meaning of this synonymic series without any additional shades, without emotional coloring, they call it indifferent;
2. Antonyms(words that are opposite in meaning and differ in form (top - bottom, white - black, speak - be silent);
3. Homonyms(words similar in form but different in meaning). Homonyms are words that have the same sound and writing(onions - plants and onions - weapons). However, in this case, a discrepancy between pronunciation and spelling is possible, and on this basis there are homophones and homographs.
Homophones - different words which, while differing in spelling, are the same in pronunciation. For example, Russian: onion and meadow, take (take) and take (take), German: Saite - string and Seite - side. A significant number of homophones are found in French and especially in English: write - write and right - straight, straight; meat - meat and meet - to meet.
Homographs are different words that have the same spelling, although they are pronounced differently. For example, Russian: castle - castle; English: tear - tear and tear - tear.
4. Paronyms(words that differ both in form and in meaning, but not significantly). For example, Russian: protect - watch out German: gleich-glatt-flach-platt; English: bash - mash - smash (hit, smash) - crash (collapse) - dash (throw) - lash (whip) - rash (throw) - brash (break) - clash (push) - plash (splash) - splash (splatter) ) - flash (flicker).
By source of origin:
native vocabulary
borrowed vocabulary (from the French language album)
Every developed language has its own vocabularies. thesauri. Except general dictionaries, which have an alphabetical construction, ideographic dictionaries are also known, where words are distributed according to classes of concepts. The Thesaurus was the first ideographic dictionary of the modern type. English words and expressions" by P.M. Roger, published in London in 1852. The entire conceptual field of English language was divided into 4 classes - abstract relations, space, matter and spirit (mind), each class is divided into types, each type into groups: there are only 1000 of them. Large dictionaries are called academic (or thesauri).
Development lexical meaning the words
Polysemy. Most words in the language have not one, but several meanings that have appeared in the process of a long historical development. Yes, noun pear means: 1) fruit tree; 2) the fruit of this tree; 3) an object that has the shape of this fruit. Often words have up to 10-20 meanings. Four-volume academic "Dictionary of the Russian language" in the word go notes 27 meanings, in the word a business - 15 meanings, in words burn, give 10 values, etc. Polysemy is also characteristic of other languages of the world. For example, English do‘do, perform’ has 16 meanings, French a11er ‘ to go somewhere, to move in one way or another’ has 15 meanings, German comment‘come, arrive’ - 6, Czech povoleni, Polish nastaviazh‘set, set’ - at least 5 values each, etc. The ability of a word to have multiple meanings is called ambiguity or polysemy(from Greek. holysemos- multivalued). Words with at least two meanings are called polysemantic or polysemantic.
Metaphor(from Greek metaphorá - transfer) is the transfer of a name from one object to another according to the similarity of certain signs: in shape, size, quantity, color, function, location in space, impression and sensation. The main mechanism for the formation of a metaphor is comparison, therefore it is not by chance that a metaphor is called a hidden, abbreviated comparison. For example, based on the metaphorical connection of the meanings of a noun nose there is a similarity in shape and location in space: 1) part of a person’s face, an animal’s muzzle; 2) bird's beak; 3) a part of a teapot or jug protruding in the form of a tube; 4) front part of a vessel, aircraft, etc.; 5) cape.
Metonymy(from Greek metōnymia - renaming) - transfer of names from one object to another by adjacency. Unlike metaphor, metonymy does not provide for any similarity between the designated objects or phenomena. It is based on a close and easily understood contiguity, contiguity in space or time, involvement in one situation of designated realities, persons, actions, processes, etc.
For example: porcelain ‘ mineral mass from high-grade clay with various impurities’ and porcelain ‘ utensils, various products from such a mass’; the audience ' room for lectures, reports and the audience ' listeners of lectures, reports’; evening ‘ time of day and evening' meeting, concert’, etc.
Synecdoche(from Greek synekdochē - connotation, hint expression) - this is such a transfer of meaning when the name of the part is used in the meaning of the whole, the smaller - in the meaning of the larger and vice versa. Synecdoche is often considered a form of metonymy. However, its essential difference from metonymy lies in the fact that synecdoche is based on a quantitative sign of the ratio of direct and figurative meanings. Synecdoche is based on the relationship of objects and phenomena that are characterized by unity, integrity, but differ in quantitative terms: one is part of the other, that is, one member of the relationship will always be general, wider, and the other - private, narrower. Synecdoche covers a significant amount of vocabulary and is characterized by fairly stable relationships. The transfer of meaning can be carried out according to the following criteria: 1) part of the human body - a person: beard, long hair, head- a man of great intelligence, muzzle - a person with an ugly, rough face; 2) a piece of clothing - a person: ran after each skirt Little Red Riding Hood, pea coat - spy of the tsarist secret police; 3) a tree or plant - their fruits: plum, cherry, pear; 4) plant, cereals - their seeds: wheat, oats, barley, millet; 5) animal - its fur: beaver, fox, sable, nutria etc.
To replace forbidden words, other words were used, which in linguistics were called euphemisms. Euphemism(from Greek euphēmismos - I speak politely) - this is a substitute, permitted word, used instead of a taboo, prohibited. A classic example of a hunting euphemism is the various designations of a bear in Slavic, Baltic, Germanic languages. The original Indo-European name of this animal was preserved in Latin like ursus, in French like ours, in Italian like orso, in Spanish like oso, etc. The Slavic, Baltic and Germanic languages have lost this name, but retained euphemisms for the bear: German Bär - brown, Lithuanian Lokys - slime, Russian bear - the one who eats honey, extinct Prussian clokis - grumbler. Euphemisms could be like new words (cf. Russian bear) so and old, already known to the language, but used with a new value. The classification is very important. according to semantic and grammatical indicators(parts of speech).
The phonetic process that occurs in a word largely explains its spelling and pronunciation. This linguistic phenomenon should also be taken into account when performing sound analysis in Russian language lessons. Particular attention is paid here to the position of a particular sound. The so-called positional phonetic processes are characteristic of most languages. Interestingly, many changes in the sound design of a word depend on the location of the speakers. Someone rounds vowels, someone softens consonants. The differences between the Moscow bulo[sh]naya and the St. Petersburg bulo[ch]ay have already become textbook.
Concept definition
What is the phonetic process? These are special changes in the sound expression of letters under the influence of various factors. The type of this process depends on these factors. If they are not dictated by the lexical component of the language itself, by the general pronunciation of the word (for example, stress) - such a phenomenon will be called positional. This includes all sorts of reduced consonants and vowels, as well as stunning at the end of a word.
Vowel reduction
Let's start with the phenomenon of reduction. It is worth saying that it is characteristic of both vowels and consonants. As for the former, this phonetic process is completely subordinate to the stress in the word.
To begin with, it should be said that all vowels in words are divided depending on the relationship to the stressed syllable. To the left of it go pre-shock, to the right - behind-shock. For example, the word "TV". Stressed syllable -vi-. Accordingly, the first pre-shock -le-, the second pre-shock -te-. And the shock -zor-.
In general, vowel reduction is divided into two types: quantitative and qualitative. The first is determined not by a change in sound design, but only by intensity and duration. This phonetic process concerns only one vowel, [y]. For example, it is enough to clearly pronounce the word "boudoir". The stress here falls on the last syllable, and if in the first pre-stressed "u" it is heard clearly and more or less loudly, then in the second pre-stressed it is heard much weaker.
Let's make another thing - a qualitative reduction. It involves not only a change in the strength and weakness of the sound, but also in a different timbre color. Thus, the articulatory design of sounds changes.
For example, [o] and [a] in strong position(i.e., under stress) are always heard clearly, it is impossible to confuse them. Let's take the word "samovar" as an example. In the first pre-stressed syllable (-mo-), the letter "o" is heard quite distinctly, but not fully formed. For her, the transcription has its own designation [^]. In the second prestressed syllable -sa- vowel framed even more indistinctly, greatly reduced. It also has its own designation [ъ]. Thus, the transcription will look like this: [sm ^ var].
Vowels preceded by soft consonants are also very interesting. Again, in a strong position, they are heard clearly. What happens in unstressed syllables? Let's take the word "spindle". The stressed syllable is the last one. In the first pre-stressed vowel, it is weakly reduced, it is denoted in transcription as [and e] - and with an overtone e. The second and third pre-shocks were completely reduced. Such sounds denote [b]. Thus, the transcription is as follows: [v’rti e no].
The scheme of the linguist Potebnya is well known. He deduced that the first pre-stressed syllable is the clearest of all unstressed syllables. All others are inferior to him. If a vowel in a strong position is taken as 3, and the weakest reduction as 2, the following scheme will be obtained: 12311 (the word "grammatical").
Uncommon events (often in colloquial speech), when the reduction is zero, i.e. the vowel is not pronounced at all. There is a similar phonetic process both in the middle and at the end of a word. For example, in the word "wire" we rarely pronounce the vowel in the second stressed syllable: [provlk], and in the word "to" the vowel in the stressed syllable [shtob] is reduced to zero
Consonant reduction
also in modern language there is a phonetic process called consonant reduction. It lies in the fact that such a sound at the end of the word practically disappears (often there is a zero reduction).
This is due to the physiology of the pronunciation of words: we pronounce them on the exhale, and sometimes the air flow is not enough to articulate the last sound well. It also depends on subjective factors: the rate of speech, as well as pronunciation features (for example, dialect).
This phenomenon can be found, for example, in the words "disease", "life" (some dialects do not pronounce the last consonants). Also, j is sometimes reduced: we pronounce the word "my" without it, although, according to the rules, it should be, because "and" comes before a vowel.
Stun
Stunning is a separate process of reduction, when voiced consonants change under the influence of voiceless ones or at the absolute end of a word.
For example, let's take the word "muffin". Here, the voiced [g], under the influence of the deaf [k], standing behind, is deafened. As a result, a combination [shk] is heard.
Another example is the absolute end of the word "oak". Here the voiced [b] is stunned to [n].
Always voiced consonants (or sonorants) are also subject to this process, albeit very weakly. If we compare the pronunciation of the word "tree", where [l] is after the vowel, and "ox", where the same sound is at the end, it is easy to notice the difference. In the second case, the sonorant sounds shorter and weaker.
voicing
Completely the opposite process - voicing. It already belongs to the combinatorial, i.e., dependent on certain sounds that stand nearby. As a rule, this applies to voiceless consonants that are located before voiced ones.
For example, words such as "shift", "make" - here the voicing occurred at the junction of the prefix and the root. This phenomenon is also observed in the middle of the word: ko [z ‘] ba, pro [z ‘] ba. Also, the process can take place on the border of a word and a preposition: to the grandmother, "from the village."
Mitigation
Another law of phonetics is that solid sounds are softened if they are followed by soft consonants.
There are several patterns:
- The sound [n] becomes soft if it stands before [h] or [u]: ba [n '] chik, karma [n '] chik, drum [n '] chik.
- The sound [s] softens in position before soft [t '], [n'], and [s], before [d '] and [n ']: go [s '] t, [s '] neg, [s ']here, in[h']nya.
These two rules apply to all speakers of an academic language, however, there are dialects where mitigation also occurs. For example, it can be pronounced [d ‘] believe or [s’] eat.
Assimilation
The phonetic process of assimilation can be defined as an assimilation. In other words, sounds that are difficult to pronounce, as if likened to those standing nearby. This applies to combinations such as "sch", "sch", also "shch", "zdch" and "stch". Instead, [u] is pronounced. Happiness - [n]astie; man - mu[u]ina.
The verb combinations -tsya and -tsya are also assimilated, instead of them [ts] is heard: crown [ts]a, fight [ts]a, hear [ts]a.
This also includes simplification. When a group of consonants loses one of them: so [n] tse, izves [n] yak.
Phonetic processes are changes in sounds that occur in time: one sound is replaced by another sound in the same position, but at a later time. Some phonetic processes are associated with the interaction of neighboring sounds (such sound processes are called combinatorial), others are due to the position of the sound in the word and are not related to the influence of neighboring sounds (such sound processes are called positional).
Combinatorial ones include assimilation, dissimilation and simplification of consonant groups (sharp).
Positional includes the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word (the law of the end of a word).
Assimilation is the likening of a sound to a neighboring sound. Assimilation is characterized by the following features: 1) by direction; 2) by result; 3) by position.
In the direction of assimilation, there are two types: regressive and progressive. With regressive assimilation, the subsequent sound likens the previous one, for example, a shop - Glafk]. The subsequent deaf consonant [k] likens the previous voiced consonant [c] to itself and makes it deaf - [f]. With progressive assimilation, the previous sound likens the next one to itself. The modern Russian literary language is characterized by regressive assimilation, examples of progressive assimilation in literary language no. Progressive assimilation can only be found in dialects and vernacular, for example, in place of the literary Baa they pronounce Va[n"k"]ya.
According to the result, assimilation can be complete and incomplete (partial). With complete assimilation, one sound is likened to another in all respects: 1) at the place where the barrier is formed; 2) according to the method of formation of the barrier; 3) according to the ratio of voice and noise; 4) by hardness and softness. For example, give - o [dd] at - o [d] at. The voiceless consonant [t] is likened to the subsequent voiced consonant [d] and becomes voiced [d], merging into one long sound [d] in pronunciation. Other characteristics of sounds [t] and [d] (according to the place of formation, according to the method of formation,
hardness) are the same. With incomplete assimilation, one sound is likened to another not in all respects, but only in some, for example, everything - [fs "e]. This is incomplete assimilation, since the previous voiced consonant sound [v] is likened to the subsequent deaf consonant sound only in deafness. According to the method the formation of sounds | в] and both are fricative, i.e. there is no need for assimilation. The sound [f] also remains fricative. According to other features, there is no assimilation: 1) at the place of formation - [f] labial, a front-lingual; 2) by hardness and softness - [f) hard, a soft.
According to the position, assimilation can be contact and distant. With contact assimilation, the likened and likening sounds are nearby, there are no other sounds between them, for example: low - mιo. Literary language is characterized by contact assimilation. With distant assimilation, there are other sounds (or sound) between the assimilated and assimilated sounds. Examples of distant assimilation are found in dialects and vernacular. For example, in the word highway between the sounds [w] and [s] there is a sound [A].
Types of assimilation:
1. Assimilation by deafness. Paired voiced noisy consonants, being in front of deaf noisy consonants, are likened to them and also become deaf: booth - 6ya, everything - [fs "e]. This is a regressive incomplete contact assimilation in deafness.
2. Assimilation by sonority. Paired deaf noisy consonants, being in front of voiced noisy consonants, are likened to them and become voiced: beat off - o [db] yt, pass [zd] at.
This is a regressive incomplete contact assimilation by voicing.
Assimilation by voicedness and deafness occurs within phonetic word, i.e. it is also observed at the junction of a functional word with a significant one: from the mountain - [z g]ora (voiced assimilation), from the park - and [with n] apκa (deafness assimilation).
Consonants [in], [in 1] before deaf noisy ones are deafened: all - [φc "] ex (regressive assimilation by deafness). But deaf noisy consonants before [in], [in 1] do not become voiced: whistle - [ev] ist, not [sv] ist.
3. Assimilation in softness. Paired hard consonants, being in front of soft consonants, are likened to them and become soft: the bridge is mo [s "t"] ik. Previously, before soft consonants, a hard consonant had to be replaced by a soft one, but in modern pronunciation there has been a tendency towards the absence of assimilative softening, although this law applies to consonants.
4. Assimilation by hardness. Paired soft consonants, being in front of hard consonants, are likened to them and become hard: lage [r "] - lage [rn] th, dirty [z "] and - dirty [zn] th. However, such assimilation in the Russian language is inconsistent and occurs in isolated cases. In addition, it is associated with a certain structure of the word: it occurs only in the word formation of adjectives and (less often) nouns at the junction of the generative stem and suffix: zve[r] - zve[rsk"], ko[n] - kouu, cme - cme[ m] ou, knight [r "] ri" tsa [rstv] o, etc.
5. Assimilation at the place of formation (assimilation of those who whistle before those who hiss). Consonants [s], [h] before hissing become hissing themselves and merge with them into one long sound (complete assimilation).
Dissimilation is the dissimilarity of sounds in the flow of speech that are within the same word. Dissimilation is characteristic of irregular speech. In the literary language, it is observed only in two words - soft and light, and in their derivatives.
In the Common Slavic language, dissimilation of tt - st, dt - st took place, since according to the law of an open syllable in the Common Slavic language there should not be a row of two explosive consonants, because in this case the first explosive consonant made the syllable closed. The fricatives did not close the previous syllable, they could be pronounced with the next syllable. Therefore, the confluence of two explosives was eliminated in the common Slavic language by the dissimilation of consonants. This led to the emergence of alternations of explosive consonants with fricatives: meta - revenge, delirium - wander, weave - weave, in colloquial pronunciations: bomb - fights ba, tram - tram.
Simplification of consonant clusters. When three or more consonants collide, in some cases one of the consonants drops out, which leads to a simplification of these groups of consonants. Combinations are simplified: stn (local), zdn (holiday), stl (envious), stack (tourist), sts (plaintiff), zdts (bridles), nts (talenta), ndts (goal
landers), ntsk (giant), rdts or rdch (heart), lnts (sun). In words and forms formed from the basics of feelings-, health-, the consonant c is not pronounced. In almost all cases, the simplification results in the omission of the dental consonants d or t.
Of the historical simplifications of consonant groups, one should note the dropping of d and t before the consonant l in past tense verbs: I lead, but led; I weave, but also weaved the loss of the suffix -l in past tense verbs in the masculine gender after stems into a consonant - carried, but carried, could, but could.
- (Greek background - sound) - the doctrine of the sound system of the language, a section of linguistics that studies the sound means of the language (sounds, stress, intonation). A special section of phonetics - orthoepy describes a set of norms of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy occupies a special place among linguistic disciplines. It studies those units of language that do not matter, but they determine the existence of meaningful units of language.
Phonetic laws (sound laws) are the laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, which govern both the stable preservation and the regular change of its sound units, their alternations and combinations.
1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, i.e. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: the threshold is a vice, young is a hammer, goats is a braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: breast - sadness, entrance - drive up [pΛdjest], etc.
Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:
1) before a pause: [pr "ishol post] (the train came); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [c]: [praf he ], [our sat], [slap ja], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your kind).
2. Assimilation of consonants by voicedness and deafness. Combinations of consonants, of which one is deaf and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. Therefore, if two consonants of different voicing appear side by side in a word, the first consonant is likened to the second. This change in consonants is called regressive assimilation.
By virtue of this law, voiced consonants before the deaf turn into paired deaf, and deaf in the same position into voiced. The voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than the stunning of voiced ones; the transition of voiced to deaf creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (shackle - darling), [in "yes" ti - in "yes" t "and] (carry - lead), [fp" yr "em" yeshka - fp " r "eem" yeschka] (interspersed - interspersed).
Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [c], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λtjest] (departure), yours, yours.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions:
1) at the junction of morphemes: [pΛhotk] (gait), [collection] (collection);
2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [where "elu] (to business), [zd" elm] (with business);
3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got-th] (a year), [dod`zh`by] (daughter would);
4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without a pause: [rock-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).
3. Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists in additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).
Softness assimilation has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming like the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.
All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b" ate], [c" eu], [m" ate], [s" ate] (white, weight, chalk, villages), etc .; 2) before [and]: [m "silt], [n" silt "and] (mil, drank).
Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "] (compare the end - the ring).
Dental [h], [s], [n], [p], [e], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f] are most susceptible to softening. They do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "eu]; compare [Λ tor]) and before the particle ([grew-l" and]; compare [rΛsli]) (here is the forest , otter, whether it grew, grew).
Consonants [h] and [s] soften before soft [t "], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m "ês" t "], [v" iez " d "e], [f-ka with "b], [punishment"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). Mitigation [s], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft lips : [rz "d" iel "it"], [r's" t "ienut"], [b" ez "-n" ievo), [b "yes" -s "il] (split, stretch, without it, no power). Before soft labial softening [h], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes on -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s "m" ex] , [s "in" êr], [d "in" êr |, [t "in" êr], [s "p" êt"], [s "-n" them], [is "-pêch"] , [rΛz "d" t "] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).
The labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt "ên" h "bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).
4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of the root and the suffix, which begins with a hard consonant: locksmith - locksmith, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in hardness does not occur: [prΛs "it"] - [proz "b], [mllt "it"] - [mld" ba] (ask - request, thresh - thresh), etc. [l "] is not subjected to assimilation: [pol" b] - [zΛpol" nyj] (field, outdoor).
5. Assimilation of teeth before hissing. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [h], [s] in the position before the hissing (anteropalatal) [w], [g], [h], [w] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [h], [s] to the subsequent hissing .
Complete assimilation [h], [s] occurs:
1) at the junction of morphemes: [zh at"], [rΛzh at"] (compress, unclench); [sh yt "], [rΛ sh yt"] (sew, embroider); [w "from], [rΛ w" from] (account, calculation); [different sh "ik], [out of sh" ik] (peddler, cab driver);
2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [s-zh arm], [s-sh arm] (with heat, with a ball); [bies-zh ar], [bies-sh ar] (no heat, no ball).
The combination of zzh inside the root, as well as the combination of zhzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh "]: [by zh"] (later), (I drive); [in w "and], [trembling" and] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [g] can be pronounced.
A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], resulting in long [h], [c]: [Λ h "from] (report), (fkra tsb ] (briefly).
6. Simplification of consonant combinations. Consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such a simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [usny], [posn], [w" and iflivy], [g "igansk" and], [h " ustv], [heart], [sun] (oral, late, happy, gigantic, feeling, heart, sun).
7. Reduction of groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra sor "it"] (time + quarrel), [with ylk] (with a link), [kΛlo n s] (column + n + th); [Λde with ki] (Odessa + sk + y).
The main phonetic processes occurring in the word include:
1) reduction;
2) stunning;
3) voicing;
4) softening;
5) assimilation;
6) simplification.
Reduction is the weakening of the pronunciation of vowel sounds in unstressed position: [house] - [d ^ ma] - [d ^ voi].
Stunning is a process in which voiced ones agree before deaf ones and are pronounced as deaf at the end of a word; book - book [w] ka; oak - du [n].
Voicing is a process in which the deaf in a position in front of voiced ones are pronounced as voiced: do - [z "] do; selection - o [d] boron.
Softening is a process in which hard consonants are soft under the influence of subsequent soft ones: depend [s ’] t, ka [s ’] n, le [s ’] t.
Assimilation is a process in which a combination of several dissimilar consonants is pronounced as one long sound [c]): volume [w] ik, spring [w] aty, mu [w "]ina, [t"] astye, ichi [c] a. Simplification of consonant groups is a process in which in combinations of consonants stn, zdn, eats, dts, persons and others, a sound falls out, although the letter denoting this sound is used in the letter: heart - [s "e" rts'], sun - [sonts].
8. Vowel reduction. The change (weakening) of vowels in an unstressed position is called reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish between the position of unstressed vowels in the first prestressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in other unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in weak position of the second degree are subject to greater reduction than vowels in the weak position of the first degree.
Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [bieda] (trouble), etc.
Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [par? Vos] (locomotive); [kargΛnda] (Karaganda); [kalkla] (bells); [p "l" ie on] (shroud); [voice] (voice), [exclamation] (exclamation), etc.
Synchrony - (from the Greek sýnchronós - simultaneous), consideration of a language (or any other system of signs) in terms of the relationship between its constituent parts in one period of time. For example, the singular nominative form "stol" in synchrony has a zero ending, in contrast to genitive"table-a".
The identification of the dynamics of development in synchrony is also possible by comparing several simultaneously functioning styles (the choice of which is determined by the conditions of communication) - more solemn (high), retaining old features, and more colloquial (low), in which the direction of language development is guessed (for example, an abbreviated form [chiek] instead of "man").
The study of phonetic phenomena in terms of synchrony is the study of the phonetics of a particular language at a given moment as a ready-made system of interrelated and interdependent elements.
