1. Physical and geographical characteristics of the Caucasus

2. Physical and geographical characteristics of the Crimea

CAUCASUS

Geographical position

The Caucasus is part of the Crimean-Caucasian mountainous country, lying south of the Russian Plain. The Caucasus proper is located between the Caspian and Black Seas. The mountain systems of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and the foothill lowlands and elevated plains come out here. The Caucasus is separated from the Russian Plain by the Kuma-Manych Depression. Russia owns only a part of this physical and geographical country: the plains of Ciscaucasia and the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus (up to the Samur River); state border runs along the watershed. Only in the north-west does the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus belong to us (up to the Psou River). This region is called the North Caucasus, its area is about 300 thousand km2, the length from northwest to southeast is over 1000 km, in the perpendicular direction only 400 km. The North Caucasus lies between 41˚N. and 47˚N, at the junction of the temperate and subtropical zones. According to the features of nature, three regions are distinguished here: the Greater Caucasus (mountainous region); Western and Middle Ciscaucasia (piedmont steppe region); Terek-Kuma lowland (Eastern Ciscaucasia).

Geology and relief

Ciscaucasia lies on the Scythian epihercynian plate, which was formed in the Paleozoic. The middle of the Caucasian belt was formed in the Alpine folding. The oldest Precambrian deposits (gneisses, schists) are found in the axial part of the Main Range. At the beginning of the Paleozoic, there was a continental regime in this territory. In the Hercynian stage of development, all Ciscaucasia and the Greater Caucasus experienced a deflection, the country was flooded by the sea, and then folding began, volcanogenic-sedimentary strata with clay shales and limestones formed (up to 5-6 km). Intensified in the Mesozoic tectonic movements, and the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus was a geosyncline, where sandy-argillaceous deposits up to 10-12 km thick accumulated. This was followed by a transgression that engulfed the Scythian plate. In the Paleogene, the rise began. The orogenic stage in the development of the Caucasus and the formation of the Ciscaucasian trough began in the Alpine cycle of tectogenesis. At the same time, along with the uplift of mountains, denudation processes also took place. In the Quaternary, the relief of the Greater Caucasus rejuvenated. The total rise was 4-5 km, and the foothill depressions continued to sink. An anticline fold formed in the area of ​​the Stavropol Upland. Elbrus and Kazbek volcanoes have become more active in the Greater Caucasus. The cooling of the climate led to the development of mountain glaciation, which took place in several stages and influenced the development of flora and fauna. The tectonic development of the Caucasus continues even now, it is rising at a rate of 1-3 mm per year. The entire region is characterized by high seismicity. Moreover, the centers of earthquakes are close to the surface.

Orographically, the country is subdivided into Ciscaucasia and the Greater Caucasus. Ciscaucasia lies on the Scythian plate, along the northern border, which stretches (for 700 km) from the Sea of ​​\u200b\u200bAzov to the Caspian Sea, the Manych trough. In relief, it corresponds to the Kuma-Manych depression. The central part of Ciscaucasia is occupied by the Stavropol Upland, the highest height of which in the southwest reaches 830 m. It is based on the Stavropol Arch, within which the depth of the foundation is from 0.5 to 2.5 km. To the west of the Stavropol Upland is the Kuban-Azov lowland, which is based on the Azov-Kuban depression, with a basement depth of up to 3 km. The eastern part of Ciscaucasia is occupied by the Terek-Kuma lowland, which is based on the depression of the same name; here the depth of the foundation is more than 6 km. This lowland, in fact, is the southwestern outskirts of the Caspian lowland. South of the Stavropol Upland is the Mineralovodcheskaya (Pyatigorsk) group of island mountains - laccoliths. To the west and east of it lie marginal troughs that pass into the anticlines of the Tersky and Sunzha ranges, which are intermediate structures between Ciscaucasia and the Greater Caucasus.

The Greater Caucasus is a huge mountain structure, with a length of about 1000 km and a width of 30 km near Novorossiysk to 180 km in Dagestan. This is a large asymmetric meganticlinorium. At its core lie Precambrian, Paleozoic and Triassic rocks. They are bordered by Jurassic, Cretaceous, Paleogene and Neogenic strata. The Greater Caucasus is divided into three longitudinal belts (zones): the northern slope belt (a system of several parallel ridges); axial belt - the Main (Dividing) and Lateral ridges; belt of the southern slope (lies outside of Russia). Along the strike of the Caucasus, there are also transverse segments (segments): 1) the Central Caucasus is the highest, here are all the "five-thousanders" of Russia (Elbrus - 5642 m, Dykhtau - 5204 m, Kazbek - 5033 m, etc.); 2) Western Caucasus - from Elbrus to Mount Fisht - descends to the north-west, the highest point is Mount Dombay-Ulgen (4046 m); 3) The North-Western Caucasus - from Mount Fisht to the Taman Peninsula - is a low-mountainous Black Sea chain, its heights decrease from Mount Fisht (2868 m) to 500 m and to Novorossiysk; 4) Eastern Caucasus - lies to the east of Kazbek, a number of peaks exceed 4000m. The predominant type of relief in the mountains and in Ciscaucasia is water erosion, here the depth of erosional dissection is the greatest in Russia, on average 2000 m, and in the upper reaches of the Teberda up to 3000 m. Processes of river accumulation and ravine erosion dominate in Ciscaucasia. The presence of cuesta ridges is associated with different stability of rocks. There is a karst. The highlands are characterized by glacial landforms. There are rockfalls and scree in the mountains.

Climate and surface waters

The climate of the Caucasus is influenced by its geographical position in the south-west of Russia, on the isthmus between the seas, as well as mountainous terrain. The Caucasus receives a large number solar radiation in a year. The country lies at the junction of two climatic zones - temperate and subtropical. Only the Black Sea coast belongs to the subtropical zone in Russia. In winter, the continental air of temperate latitudes spreads to Ciscaucasia, northern and eastern winds prevail. Cold air stagnates near the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus. Over the Black Sea, the pressure decreases and therefore cold air from the mountains rushes towards the sea (this is how the Novorossiysk bora sometimes appears, at temperatures down to -15˚C). At an altitude of 1.5–2 km, western transport dominates. In winter, cyclones often hit the Caucasus from the Mediterranean Sea, which leads to thaws and avalanches in the mountains. When a föhn wind occurs, the temperature can rise at the foot of the mountains to +15˚C (on Elbrus up to -5˚C). The average January temperatures are from +2˚C in Novorossiysk to +6˚C in Sochi, in the mountains with altitude the temperature drops to negative values ​​(in the highlands to -15˚C). In Ciscaucasia in winter, average temperatures are also negative -2˚C-4˚C. The absolute minimum in Ciscaucasia is -35˚C, and in Sochi -15˚C. In winter, the maximum precipitation falls on the Black Sea coast (Mediterranean type), and on the rest of the territory, the maximum occurs in summer. In winter, snow cover is established on the plains, and even more so in the mountains. On the plains, it appears by the end of December, while the snow often melts in winter. On the slopes of the mountains, the thickness of the snow cover reaches 3 m. In summer, the average air temperatures range from +22˚C on the Black Sea coast to +25˚C in the east of Ciscaucasia. In the mountains, the temperature drops and at an altitude of 2500 m it is +10˚C (at Elbrus station, altitude 4250 m, temperature +1.5˚C). At the beginning of summer, cyclonic activity intensifies, and the maximum precipitation occurs in July. Droughts occur in the second half of summer. The annual amount of precipitation decreases from west to east and increases from the foothills to the mountains. In Ciscaucasia, the amount of precipitation varies from 700 mm in Stavropol to 350 mm in the east. On the Black Sea coast, precipitation increases rapidly from 700 mm in Novorossiysk to 1600 mm in the Sochi region. In the highlands of the western Caucasus, up to 2000-3000 mm of precipitation falls annually (the maximum for Russia is the Achishkho station on the southwestern slope of the Greater Caucasus - over 3700 mm), in the eastern Caucasus 1000-1500 mm falls.

The river network is well developed. Almost all rivers originate in the mountains. The largest rivers are Kuban (length 900 km) and Terek (590 km). The Caspian basin includes: Terek, Kuma, Samur; Black Sea - Mzymta, Sochi; Azovsky - Kuban. These rivers are mountainous, do not freeze in winter and carry a lot of suspended material (muddy). In Ciscaucasia there are flat rivers: Kalaus, Manych, Eya, Beisug, etc. Almost all rivers of the region have high water in summer. Food glacial, snow and rain. There are not many lakes. Near the coast of the Caspian and Azov Seas there are lagoon and estuary lakes. There are tarns in the mountains; in the limestones of the cuesta ridges there are karst lakes. There are almost 1500 glaciers in the Caucasus. The snow border lies in the western Caucasus at an altitude of about 3000 m, and in the eastern 3500-4000 m. The greatest glaciation in the Central Caucasus is the Elbrus glacial complex. The two-headed Elbrus is covered with a snow-glacier cap with a diameter of about 10 km. The largest long glacier in the Caucasus is the Bezengi glacier (more than 17 km long). In the Eastern Caucasus, due to the dryness of the climate, glaciation is less developed.

Soils, flora and fauna

The plains of Ciscaucasia are characterized by zonality, and the mountains by altitudinal zonality. Moreover, the zonality here changes not in the sublatitudinal direction, but in the submerideonal direction, from Azov to the Caspian Sea, as the climate becomes more continental. On the plains of the Western Ciscaucasia and Stavropol, chernozem soils dominate, their humus horizon is 1.5 m, and the humus content is 5-8%. In the east of the Stavropol Upland, the soils become chestnut, and further east they become light chestnut, often solonetzic. There are salt licks and solonchaks, especially in the Kumo-Manych depression. In the coastal part, the soils are meadow-chestnut, in the river deltas - alluvial. In the mountains, soils change with altitude. At the foot of the mountains - mountain chernozems, in the east - chestnut. They differ from plains soils in high rubble. Higher in the mountains, burozems and mountain forest gray are developed, even higher - mountain podzolic, then - mountain meadow. On the Black Sea coast (southeast of Tuapse), the soils of the subtropics are zheltozems.

The vegetation cover of the country is very diverse. It combines in the flora elements of European forests and steppes, Asian highlands and deserts; as well as elements of the Mediterranean flora. There are up to 550 endemic species, there are many of them, especially in the mountains. Steppes dominate in the Western and Central Ciscaucasia, most of which are now plowed up. The steppes of Ciscaucasia are a continuation of the steppes of the south of the Russian Plain, consisting of various types of feather grass, on the Stavropol Upland - turf-cereal (from fescue, feather grass, etc.). In the eastern Ciscaucasia, the steppes are replaced by semi-deserts with grass-wormwood vegetation, in places with thickets of saltwort. Closer to the foothills, the steppe is replaced by a forest-steppe of meadow forbs with patches of forests of oak, hornbeam, and ash; in the east - thickets of thorny bushes such as frigana and shilyak. With the ascent to the mountains, forest vegetation begins, at the beginning there are broad-leaved forests, higher - coniferous; subalpine and alpine meadows are even higher. Thus, altitudinal zonality is most fully expressed in the mountains of the Caucasus. At the same time, the set of altitudinal belts is different in the western part of the mountains and in the eastern part. In the west of the mountains at the foot - meadow steppes on chernozems, above the foothill forest-steppe begins on gray forest soils with the participation of oak, beech, hornbeam, ash. Higher up, the forest-steppe gives way to mountain broad-leaved forests, on brown mountain forest soils, made of beech with an admixture of chestnut, hornbeam, and ash. In the undergrowth of these forests there are Colchis subtropical elements - evergreen shrubs and lianas. With an increase in height, fir and spruce are added to the beech. Even higher, the forest becomes purely coniferous, on mountain-podzolic soils, in the undergrowth of rhododendron and a grassy cover of northern elements (oxalis, mainik, etc.). At the upper border of the forest there are birch-beech crooked forests in combination with tall grass meadows of umbrella, blueberry, blueberry bushes, etc. Even higher is a belt of subalpine meadows on mountain meadow soils, from geranium, catchment area, delphinium, bluebells and rhododendron shrubs. This belt passes into alpine meadows of undersized grasses and sedges, with brightly flowering ones: gentian, ranunculus, dandelion, forget-me-not, speedwell, primrose, saxifrage, etc. Above 3200 m - a belt of snow and ice. In the east of the mountains, the climate is drier; therefore, at the foot, there are fescue-wormwood semi-shrubs on light chestnut soils. The first altitudinal belt here is sagebrush-cereal and fescue-feather grass dry steppes on mountain chestnut soils. Above is a belt of shibleak and frigana (thorny bushes) on brown soils. The composition of shilyak includes: meadowsweet, buckthorn, ephedra, cotoneaster, shadberry, juniper, hold-tree, barberry, etc. The composition of frigana includes sage, astragalus, scabioses, etc. Above are mountain-meadow steppes on chernozem-like soils, mainly from cereals . Even higher are subalpine and alpine meadows (from cereals) passing at an altitude of 3600-4000 m into the glacial-nival belt (snow and ice). The southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus are characterized by the Colchian type of altitudinal zonality. The lower belt is represented here by relic Colchis broad-leaved forests with evergreen undergrowth on yellow soils. The basis of the forest is: chestnut, oak, beech, hornbeam; in the undergrowth - Pontic rhododendron, holly, cherry laurel, boxwood; many vines. Above, yew, pine, oak, maple, linden, ash, and beech appear on brown soils. Above is a mixed forest of beech and coniferous species, and even higher is a dark coniferous belt of fir and spruce on mountain brown soils. Above subalpine and alpine meadows (from gravel, sedge, umbrella and grasses) and above 3500 m, snow and ice begin.

The animal world is very diverse; there are many endemics here: tours (stone goats), Caucasian hamster, Caucasian black grouse and snowcock, etc. Bison lives in the reserves. Typical steppe dwellers live in the steppes of Ciscaucasia: ground squirrel, jerboa, hamster, mole voles, hare, steppe polecat, fox, etc. vole; rare saiga. There are many reptiles (steppe viper, boa constrictor, snakes, lizards, gyurza, etc.). From birds - steppe lark, quail, steppe harrier and eagle, kestrel, bustard, demoiselle crane. In the reed beds of the rivers there are: wild boar, jackal, reed cat, many waterfowl and marsh birds. The Greater Caucasus is inhabited mainly by forest and mountain views. These are deer, roe deer, wild boars, badger, squirrel, marten, dormouse, forest mice, forest cat. Of the birds - jays, finches, nuthatches, tits, woodpeckers, owls, black grouse, etc. In the highlands live: tours, chamois, Promethean mice, voles, leopard. Of the birds - snowcock, lark, snow finch, eagles, etc.

There are 4 reserves in the Caucasus (Teberdinsky and others) and 3 national parks(Sochi and others).

CRIMEA (Crimean Peninsula)

The Crimean peninsula is located south of the Russian Plain and is washed by the Black and Seas of Azov. Its area is 26 thousand square meters. km. Crimea is connected to the Russian Plain in the north by a narrow (8 km) Perekop isthmus. Crimea has two peninsulas: in the west - Tarkhankutsky, in the east - Kerch, which is separated from the mainland of Russia by the strait of the same name. In the northeast, Crimea is washed by the Sivash Bay, and in the northwest by the Karkinitsky Bay. extreme south point Crimea reaches 44 degrees north latitude.

Crimea is divided into three physical and geographical regions: the Steppe Crimea, the Mountainous Crimea and the Kerch Peninsula.

The mountainous Crimea and the Kerch Peninsula belong to the Alpine folding, and the Steppe Crimea belongs to the Scythian plate of the Paleozoic folding. The Crimean Mountains are structurally an anticline uplift consisting of shales, Mesozoic sandstones, and Permian limestones. In places there are effusive rocks. The steppe Crimea is composed of Neogene marine and Quaternary continental sediments.

The Crimean mountains consist of the main ridge - Yaila (“yaila” is translated as “summer pasture”) and two cuest ridges, gently lowering to the north of the main ridge. In the west, Yayla is a ridge with a plateau-like surface: Ai-Petri and Yalta Yayla. In the east, Yaila breaks up into a number of massifs: Chatyrdag, Dolgorukovskaya Yaila, etc. The maximum height of the Crimean Mountains reaches 1545 m (Roman-Kosh). The peaks of Yaila, with an average height of about 1000 m, are strongly leveled, because they are composed of Jurassic limestones, while the slopes are rather steep, especially along the southern coast of Crimea. Open-type karst is widespread in the mountains. In some places there are car fields. The plateau is cut by canyons.

Erosive relief is developed along the southern coast, represented by landslides and chaos - collapsed limestone blocks. The southern coast of Crimea is characterized by volcanic formations - laccoliths (the city of Ayudag - "Bear Mountain"). The northern slope of Yayla is more gentle and has a height of 500 - 750 m.

The relief of the Kerch Peninsula is hilly. The steppe Crimea is a flat plain, in places with salt lakes. The climatic conditions of the Crimean peninsula have features of a transitional climate from temperate to subtropical Mediterranean. The most pronounced subtropical climate is on the southern coast and in the foothills of Yayla. The annual rainfall here is about 600 mm, and most of it falls in the winter, when the Mediterranean cyclones dominate. The average air temperature in January is +4°C, snow rarely falls. The average temperature in July is about +24° C. For five months a year, the average daily air temperature is above +15° C. The climate of the Steppe Crimea is more consistent with temperate continental, although winters are very mild, with an average January temperature of about 0° C. Average temperatures in summer are + 23 ... + 25 ° С. The annual amount of precipitation is 250-300 mm, and most of them fall in winter. Droughts are typical in summer. Similar climatic conditions are also preserved on the Kerch Peninsula.

The Crimean peninsula is not rich in internal waters. There are no major rivers. In the Steppe Crimea, the most significant are the rivers Salgir and Alma. Feeding groundwater, rain and melt water from the mountains. Most of the rivers dry up in summer. The rivers of the southern coast of Crimea have a mountainous character and are distinguished by their short length, but somewhat higher water content. Their flood regime. Almost all lakes are salty, most large lake Sasyk.

The soils in the Steppe Crimea are chestnut, in some places there are southern chernozems. Characterized by salinity. Vegetation is mainly represented by dry steppes (fescue, feather grass, thin-legged, wormwood, saltwort); off the coast of the Sivash Bay, the steppes turn into a semi-desert.

Completely different soil and vegetation cover of the Crimean Mountains and the Black Sea coast. Soils here are dominated by brown, and on the moist slopes of the mountains - red earth, turning higher into mountain-forest brown. Mountain chernozem-like soils are developed on the upper plateaus of the Yaila. The flora of this region is rich in species (1500 plant species). On the coast and up to a height of 300 m, forest vegetation with elements of the Mediterranean flora is represented: fluffy oak, strawberry tree, pistachios, tree-like juniper, needle, boxwood, creepers - ivy, clematis, etc. To the east, the forest passes into thickets of xerophytic shrubs (shibliak) from hornbeam, sessile oak, rosewood, hawthorn, dogwood, blackthorn, tamarisk and xerophytic herbs. Above 300 m, the appearance of the forest changes, disappear subtropical species, deciduous broad-leaved species begin to dominate: beech, hornbeam, oak, ash, maple, linden, elm, wild apple and pear, poplar, willow, alder and conifers appear even higher - Crimean pine, yew, juniper. The upper border of the forest reaches a height of 900 m. On the upper Yaila plateau there are mountain meadows on chernozem-like soils. Cereals grow: fescue, feather grass, thin-legged, bonfire, as well as Crimean edelweiss, violet, grains, clover, bedstraw, cuff, etc.

At present, natural vegetation in a large area has been supplanted by cultivated and imported from other regions: cypress, laurel, cherry laurel, magnolia, eucalyptus, fan palm, holly, silk acacia (mimosa), etc. Fauna in the steppes of Crimea is represented mainly by rodents (ground squirrels , hamsters, jerboas, mouse-like rodents) and reptiles (lizards, snakes, Crimean gecko, etc.), as well as invertebrate and steppe bird species. Squirrels, dormouse, bats live in the forests of the mountainous Crimea, from predators - fox, marten, badger, from ungulates - wild boar, roe deer, and in some areas the red deer is still preserved. There are many birds in the forests - mainly European forest species. The world of invertebrates is quite diverse.

According to the Information Resistance group, after the annexation of the Crimean peninsula to Russian Federation, Vladimir Putin handed over the peninsula to the disposal of the Caucasian criminals. The journalists of the "Ukrainian News" section of the "Market Leader" publication learned more about this.

"Information resistance" indicates a surge in crime in two areas of the Crimean peninsula: Evpatoria and Saki. Rampant visiting criminals in these areas resembles the "dashing 90s."

It is worth recalling that both Evpatoria and Saki are well-known resorts with long-term traditions. Evpatoria is considered an ideal place for families with children, and Saki is famous for its therapeutic mud and sanatoriums. Now parents no longer dare to go on vacation with their children to the region, which has recently been flooded with immigrants from Dagestan and Chechnya.

According to representatives of the IP, in these areas there is an active seizure of real estate and business, in which raider methods are used. The newcomers from the Caucasus demand that the most profitable property be divided according to the 50/50 principle. Demanding half of the property, the visiting bandits, as it were, bring to life the well-known slogan "Crimea is ours."

Once calm, sometimes even sleepy Crimean resort towns are becoming unsafe. Here, natives of the Caucasus also already felt like full-fledged owners: a trip to a cafe or restaurant can end badly for an ordinary inhabitant, because there bandits have fun in the spirit of the 90s.

Local residents note with sad irony that Caucasians will soon start shooting into the air with machine guns at their solemn events, as is already happening in Moscow.

Based on the foregoing, the conclusion suggests itself: Vladimir Putin simply gave the Crimean peninsula at the mercy of the Caucasian bandits. Thus, the Russian leader can pursue several goals. For example, this is how Putin is trying to rein in the local criminals, who in one way or another control financial flows and business on the peninsula - by giving the already developed criminal schemes under the control of Chechens and Dagestanis. Such a generous gift to Caucasians can be explained by an attempt to intimidate Tatar population Crimea.

After Ruslan Baysarov, a businessman from Chechnya, was appointed "responsible for the Crimean resorts and sanatoriums," it became obvious that the Russian leader intended to place a special stake on Caucasians in Crimea in the issue of control over the peninsula. Reports about the principles of Baisarov's work in Crimea have already begun to appear in the media. Allegedly, he blackmails Ukrainian entrepreneurs on the principle of "quarters", when the owner is left with only 25 percent of his entire business, and the remaining 75 percent come under Baysarov's control. If the owner refuses to accept the proposed conditions, then he may lose his business altogether.

Crimeans who have not accepted Russian citizenship are being squeezed out of the peninsula.

According to the IC, in Crimea the process of "renunciation of Russian citizenship" has been turned into a mechanism through which residents of the peninsula who are not loyal to Moscow are identified and prosecuted. The refusal procedure itself was complicated to the limit: in order to refuse to accept Russian citizenship, it is necessary to stand in long queues at the bodies of the Federal Migration Service of the Russian Federation, sometimes it can take a week.

At the same time, Crimeans who do not want to become citizens of the Russian Federation are visited by representatives of the "self-defense of Crimea", who strongly recommend that these people leave the territory of the peninsula. Such demands are accompanied by threats of physical violence. According to representatives of the "Information Resistance", they recorded similar facts in Sudak and Simferopol.

It is obvious that these provocations are arranged with the help of the offices of the Federal Migration Service, which transfer lists of "unreliable" citizens to local bandits. It is also worth noting that the forced granting of Russian citizenship to residents of Crimea is a gross violation of Ukrainian legislation and international law.

Crimeans are starving.

After the order of Rospotrebnadzor, the import of a number of Ukrainian products was banned into the territory of Crimea. Since May 17, a difficult food situation has developed on the peninsula.

Trucks with Ukrainian products were not allowed to enter the peninsula by Russian checkpoints, which explained the ban on entry by order of Rospotrebnadzor. The result of such actions was the disappearance of Ukrainian dairy products from the Crimean shelves. Ukrainian suppliers were explained that if they want to supply their products to the Crimea in the future, then for the supply of each type of product it will be necessary to obtain an appropriate permit from the Crimean branch of Rospotrebnadzor.

It should be noted that the share of Ukrainian dairy products on the shelves of the Crimean peninsula before the ban was about 90 percent of the total volume of these products.

Representatives of Rospotrebnadzor confirmed the introduction of a ban on imports certain types products to the Crimea. According to them, a decree has already been issued, according to which most of the restrictions have been lifted, but the import of pork, including lard and offal, is still prohibited in Crimea. This decision is due to the fact that these products are not subjected to heat treatment at a temperature of +72 degrees Celsius.

The Krymskaya Kavkazskaya train schedule currently contains 2 trains, the average travel time between these stations is 5 h 9 m, and the number of stops on this route is 7. Trains on the Krymskaya Kavkazskaya route most often stop at the stations Abinskaya, Akhtyrskaya, Ilskaya, Krasnodar 1, Severskaya, the timetable for which is also available on our website. Trains in this direction depart, for example, at 17.48, 18.47 from the Krymskaya station, and they arrive at the final point Kavkazskaya, respectively, at 22.43, 00.10 local time. The small number of designated trains on the Crimean Caucasian schedule is a sign that this route is not popular with passengers. The train schedule Krymskaya - Kavkazskaya is designed so that you can leave in this direction during the day.
You can buy tickets for the Krymskaya - Kavkazskaya train at the box office of the nearest station, as well as online.

History of the North Caucasus

The North Caucasus has long attracted the attention of many neighboring countries and peoples. Back in the 10th century, Kyiv princes Igor and Svyatoslav made campaigns in these parts. Soon, the Russian Tmutarakan principality was created on Taman. Feudal fragmentation and the Mongol-Tatar yoke was suspended for a long time further development these connections.

The strengthening of the Muscovite state contributed not only to the restoration, but also to a large extent to the expansion of ties between the Russian people and the peoples of the North Caucasus in the 16th century. Many mountain peoples already then well understood that it was possible to defend their independence from the constant threats from Persia, Turkey and the Crimea subject to it only together with the Russian people. In order to strengthen its positions in the North Caucasus and protect local peoples from external enemies, the Russian government in the middle of the 16th century sent well-armed detachments of archers and Cossacks there. Soon, Russian fortified towns appeared along the banks of the Terek River, forming a chain of defensive lines. At the same time, they also served as a place for trade between settlers and mountaineers. To XVIII century many Terek fortifications are outdated. Peter I, who visited here during the Persian campaign in 1722, gave the order to tear them down. Instead, new fortifications were placed along the banks of the Terek and Sulak rivers. In 1735, the city of Kizlyar arose, which became the military-administrative center in the North Caucasus.

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Ministry of Agriculture

federal state budgetary educational institution higher education

RUSSIAN STATE AGRARIAN UNIVERSITY - Moscow Agricultural Academy named after K.A. Timiryazev

Faculty: Soil Science, Agrochemistry and Ecology

Department: Soil Science, Geology and Landscape Science

Course work

On the topic: Landscape characteristics of the Crimean-Caucasian mountain side

Completed by: 1st year student

Faculty of PAE

Groups #107

Galyukov O.P.

Checked by: Associate Professor Efimov O.E.

Physical-geographical zoning

Crimean-Caucasian mountainous country

Region of the Greater Caucasus

Region of the Colchis Lowland

Region of the Lesser Caucasus (XXI!)

Hyrcanian region

Physical-geographical zoning

geographic caucasus relief tectonic

As can be seen from all of the above, the main territorial units of the Caucasus - the Western and Middle Ciscaucasia, the Terek-Kuma lowland, the Greater Caucasus, the Colchis lowland, the Kura depression, the Lankaran lowland and the Talysh mountains, the Lesser Caucasus, the Javakheti-Armenian highlands - differ from each other throughout the range of natural features. In the future, they are considered as the main physical and geographical regions.

Western and Middle Ciscaucasia (see diagram) form a steppe foothill-zonal region, merging with the steppe zone of the Russian Plain. The Tersko-Kuma lowland is part of the semi-deserts of the Caspian lowland, its special province. The Greater Caucasus is a mountainous physical-geographical region, which includes seven provinces. The Colchis lowland and the Kura depression are provinces of subtropical intermountain lowlands and depressions in Transcaucasia. The Lankaran lowland and the Talysh mountains form a sub-province that is part of the western province of the Girkan region, the main part of which is located in Northern Iran. The Lesser Caucasus is a mountainous region with western and eastern parts of different nature, constituting special provinces. The Javakheti-Armenian Highlands is the northeastern province of the Armenian Highlands, one of the vast continental highlands of Western Asia.

In the mountains of the Caucasus, natural conditions change in accordance with the law of altitudinal zoning. Its structure is not the same in different parts of the mountains, which is taken into account when zoning them.

Scheme of the physical-geographical zoning of the Caucasus. Provinces of the mountainous region of the Greater Caucasus: 1 - North Caucasian; 2 - Dagestan; 3 - Western alpine; 4 - Eastern alpine; 5 - North Black Sea; 6 - Colchis mountain; 7 - Kakheti-Sheki. Girkan region 8 - Talysh-Lenkoran sub-province. Provinces of the Lesser Caucasus. 9 - Adjaro-Trialetskaya; 10 -- Somkhet-Karabakh

Within the Caucasus, three regions are clearly distinguished according to the characteristics of nature: the Greater Caucasus, the Western and Middle Ciscaucasia (in the aggregate) and the Terek-Kuma lowland. According to N.A. Gvozdetsky (1953-1986), the first two correspond to physical-geographical regions, and the Greater Caucasus is a mountainous region, which includes seven provinces.

The Greater Caucasus is a majestic mountain structure. Its width varies from 32 km near Novorossiysk to 180 km on the Elbrus meridian and 160 km in Dagestan. The Greater Caucasus is a large asymmetric meganticlinorium. The anticline structure is the most characteristic geological feature of the Caucasus. In its core, in the western and central parts of the mountain structure, Precambrian, Paleozoic and Triassic rocks of the lower structural stage are exposed. Colchis mountain. Such a significant number of provinces in a relatively small area is due to differences in the structure of altitudinal zonality and geological and geomorphological features of individual parts of the mountain structure.

ToRoman-Caucasian mountainous country

The Crimean-Caucasian mountainous country includes the main part of the territory of the Caucasus, namely, the folded mountain system of the Greater Caucasus, the Colchis and Kura intermountain depressions, occupied by accumulative plains and partly folded uplands and low mountains, the folded mountain system of the Lesser Caucasus and the Talysh mountains. In the west, this country includes the Mountainous Crimea with the southern coast of Crimea.

The mountain system of the Greater Caucasus in the axial part rises above 4000--5000 m above ur. m. (Mount Elbrus - 5633 m, Dykhtau - 5203 m), Lesser Caucasus - above 2500--3500 m (Mount Gyamysh - 3724 m), Talysh mountains - up to almost 2500 m (Mount Kemyurkoy - 2477 m), Crimean mountains - up to 1500 m(mountain Roman-Kosh--1545 f). The plain of the Colchis lowland in its main part lies at an altitude of up to 100 m, the main plain of the Kura depression, the Kura-Araks lowland, is mainly located up to the same height, and its middle and eastern parts fall below sea level - up to -16 m yari at the confluence of the Kura and Araks and even lower near the coast of the Caspian Sea, the level of which is now at -28 m.

The territory of the Crimean-Caucasian country belongs to the Alpine geosynclinal region, i.e., to the region of Alpine folding, or the Cenozoic folding of the Tethys, with the Greater Caucasus and Mountainous Crimea belonging to the zone of its marginal meganticlinoria, and the structures of the Lesser Caucasus and the Talysh mountains to the inner zone folded structures of the Alpine geosynclinal region (according to M. V. Muratov), ​​the general plan of the orographic division of the country coincides well with the main features of its tectonic structure: the Greater Caucasus, the Lesser Caucasus in its main part (middle and eastern segments of the mountain system) and the Crimean Mountains on the tectonic map are distinguished as anticlinal zones (in the axial part of the western half of the Greater Caucasus, the ancient core of the meganticlinorium, its pre-Jurassic folded base, comes to the surface), and the Colchis and Kura intermountain depressions, in their most sag parts, are internal depressions.

The latest tectonic movements were intense everywhere, manifesting themselves in powerful uplifts of mountain ranges (including in the synclinal zones of the Adjara-Trialeti folded system of the western part of the Lesser Caucasus, the Talysh Mountains, and also in some peripheral parts of the Greater Caucasus) and in the subsidence of depressions. The tectonic development of the territory continues at the present time, as evidenced by the data of repeated geodetic leveling and seismic phenomena. The entire territory of the Caucasian part of the country belongs to 6-7- and in some places 8-point seismicity zones (Milanovsky and Khann, 1963). Crimea is also known for its devastating earthquakes. In areas with increased seismicity (7-8-point zones), anti-seismic construction methods are required.

The border of the temperate and subtropical climatic zones passes through the territory of the country. The temperate zone includes (mainly) highland provinces, the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus, and the main part of the Crimean Mountains. The subtropical zone includes southern slope Greater Caucasus and all the rest of Transcaucasia. The southern coast of Crimea can also be attributed to the northeastern margin of the Mediterranean subtropical climate. In the subtropical zone, as well as in the temperate zone, due to the pattern of altitudinal zoning, the climate in the mountains becomes cool, and in the highlands it becomes cold. But on the lowlands and in the foothills, the features of a subtropical nature are quite clearly manifested - humid subtropics (Colchis, the low mountains of Talysh and the Lenkoran lowland), dry and semi-dry (in the Kura region), Mediterranean with dry summers and rainy winters (the northern part of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus, Southern coast of Crimea).

The typical subtropical climate of the low plains and foothills of Transcaucasia (Colchis, the Kura-Araks lowland) is indicated by the two growing seasons observed here, which in Colchis, for example, make it possible to farm not only in the warm, but also in the cold season. In the lowlands and foothills of the Transcaucasus, many heat-loving crops can be grown: tea, citrus fruits, tung, rice in the humid subtropics, cotton in the dry ones, and everywhere grapes without shelter for the winter. During all year round cattle graze on natural pastures.

The complexity of the relief structure, sharp fluctuations in absolute heights, and the different orientation of mountain ranges in relation to the western air currents that bring moisture, mainly determine large contrasts in temperatures and degrees of moisture. The sums of temperatures above 10° for the year vary from 4400° on the subtropical plains and in the foothills of Transcaucasia to 3500-2500° in the lower and middle tiers of the mountains and up to 400° or less in the highlands. The greatest amount of precipitation falls in the mountains of the western half of the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus (according to observations in places more than 2500 mm at and according to calculations up to 4000 mm in a year). More than 1600 and up to 2500 mm precipitation falls annually in the western tip of the Lesser Caucasus (Batumi region) and the adjacent part of the Colchis lowland. In the eastern part of the Greater Caucasus, precipitation is mostly less than 1500 mm at and in the middle and eastern regions of the Lesser Caucasus - less than 1200 mm. From 1200 to 1700 mm precipitation falls in the Lankaran lowland and the lower belt of the Talysh mountains, up to 1200 mm - in the Crimean Mountains. The most arid are the Kura-Araks lowland with the Apsheron Peninsula, receiving less than 300 mm precipitation per year, the coastal strip of the north-east of the lowland and the south of the Apsheron Peninsula - less than 200 mm.

The runoff increases almost everywhere with elevation to the mountains, with the exception of the Talysh Mountains, where the runoff decreases with height. In the outlying regions of the Caucasus, the runoff is higher than in the eastern ones. In the Crimean Mountains, it has an average value. In the axial part of the Greater Caucasus, where significant glaciation is developed (area 1780 km 2 ) and snow melts late, rivers fed by melted snow and glacial waters have floods in the warm part of the year. The rivers of the southern and eastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus and the rivers of the Lesser Caucasus are characterized by spring floods. In other parts of the country, the regime of rivers is flood, with floods throughout the year (the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus south of Sochi, Colchis), in the warm season (on a part of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus), in the cold half-year (the southern coast of Crimea, the western tip of the Greater Caucasus, The Talysh mountains are Mediterranean, or Crimean, according to B. D. Zaikov, the nature of the regime). The role of underground karst waters in the feeding of the rivers of the Crimean Mountains and the western half of the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus is important, which ensures the regulation of river flow and their relatively high low water level. Rivers have great importance for hydropower and irrigation of arid lands, especially in the Kura-Araksin lowland and other areas of the Kura region, as well as in the steppe and semi-steppe territories of Ciscaucasia.

Within the country, 6 main types of altitudinal zonality of landscapes are distinguished. The West Caucasian, or Kuban, type is characteristic of the western half of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus. Mountain-forest landscapes dominate there, replacing the forest-steppes of the plains and foothills. The low middle mountains with broad-leaved forests pass into the high gorges with dark coniferous forests. The mountain-meadow zone with typical mountain-glacial forms in crystalline rocks occupies a narrow vertical space. The low position of the glacial-nival zone is characteristic. The East Caucasian, or Dagestan, type is characteristic of the eastern half of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus. It differs from the previous one in the appearance of dry-steppe landscapes below, a sharp narrowing of the mountain forest zone and the absence of an integral belt of coniferous forests, the appearance of steppes and meadow-steppes in the middle mountains, the expansion of the zone of mountain meadows and their partial xerophytization, the poorer preservation of the ancient mountain glacial landforms that have been worked out here in slates, high the location of the glacial-nival zone.

The Western Transcaucasian, or Colchian, type, characteristic of the southern slope of the western half of the Greater Caucasus and the western tip of the Lesser Caucasus, is similar to the Western Caucasian, but differs in that the lower altitudinal zone is represented in it not by the forest-steppe, but by the Colchian subtropical forest landscape. The East Transcaucasian type, characteristic of the southern slope of the eastern half of the Greater Caucasus and most of the Lesser Caucasus (its northern and northeastern slopes), has lolu-steppes and arid light forests in the lower altitudinal zone, a widely developed mountain forest zone, but without a belt of coniferous forests.

In the highlands, there is a similarity with the East Caucasian type: as there, the glacial-nival zone is highly elevated, and here it is very poorly developed and only in the Greater Caucasus.

The Eastern Mediterranean type of altitudinal zonality is characteristic of the western tip of the Greater Caucasus and the Crimean Mountains. It is typical of the Mediterranean nature of the landscapes of the lower altitudinal zone with xerophytic woody and shrubby (shibliak) thickets, juniper light forests and formations such as the Mediterranean frigana, widespread distribution in the lower zone of the mountain forest zone of the Crimean pine, etc. In a peculiar Talgsh type, common in the extreme south in the east of the country, a decrease in precipitation with height is manifested: the subtropical Talysh forest landscape of the lower zone is replaced by a landscape of the middle mountains from the usual Caucasian type to broad-leaved forests, and in the ridge part of Talysh - arid basins with xerophytic shrubs, mountain steppes and upland xerophytes and, finally, on the ridge - Alpine meadow-steppe landscape.

On the plains of the Transcaucasian intermountain depressions and in their foothills, natural landscapes have been mainly transformed by the agricultural activities of the population. To a greater extent, the semi-desert landscapes of the Kura depression, as well as areas of marshy alder forests of the Colchis lowland, are still preserved. Non-marshy lowland forests, which once covered vast areas in Western Transcaucasia, have mostly been replaced by fields and plantations of subtropical crops.

The natural resources of the Crimean-Caucasian country are rich and diverse: oil and gas deposits of the Kura depression and the Apsheron Peninsula, various ore deposits of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus, coal (in the western half of the Greater Caucasus), building materials, including cement raw materials, rich water resources, forests and pastures, a variety of soil and climatic resources that allow the cultivation of various agricultural crops, including subtropical, moisture-loving and requiring a lot of sun - are the basis for the development of the economy of the republics and regions located here, and many of them are of all-Union significance.

On the territory of the country there are the main areas of Georgia and Azerbaijan, the northern part of Armenia, the autonomous republics belonging to the RSFSR (Dagestan, Chechen-Ingush, North Ossetian, Kabardino-Balkarian) and the regions of the North Caucasus. Mountainous Crimea belongs to the Ukrainian SSR.

Region of the Greater Caucasus

The Greater Caucasus is a mountain system with altitudes up to 4500 m, with a number of vertices more than 5000 m(Mount Elbrus -- 5633 m, Mount Kazbek --5047 m and etc.). It stands apart as a physical-geographical region with the unity of the tectonic structure formed in the Alpine orogeny, unique types of structure of the altitudinal zonality of landscapes.

The Greater Caucasus is a meganticlinorium with an asymmetric structure, composed of sedimentary rocks of the Paleogene, Neogene, Cretaceous, Jurassic age. In the axial zone, in the west, Paleozoic crystalline rocks come to the surface.

The asymmetric structure of the meganticlinorium determines the asymmetry of the slopes of the Greater Caucasus: the northern slope is gentler and longer (up to 160-180 km), the southern one is short and steep. The relief of the region is dominated by folded-structural-erosion ridges. Cuesta ridges are pronounced on the northern slope. In limestones, especially on the southwestern slope, karst landforms are widely developed. In the highlands, mainly in the western half, glacial landforms are pronounced. Clay shales are characterized by drIIcis and modern landslides.

The Greater Caucasus region is located in two climatic zones: moderate - northern slope, subtropical - southern, due to the complexity of the mountainous terrain, climatic conditions are heterogeneous. Omi change from west to east towards greater continentality and dryness and with a rise up the slopes; temperatures decrease and rainfall increases. In most of the region the climate is temperate continental, on the southwestern slope - humid subtropical, in the highland zone - cold. The average temperature in January varies from 4.0° to -14.0, -15.0 e, in July - from 24.0 to 10.0° and below. Precipitation falls from 500-600 to 2000-2500 mm and more per year.

Glaciers occupying an area of ​​about 1780 km 2 . Glaciers are an important source of food for the rivers of the Greater Caucasus. The rivers belong to the basins of the Kuban, Terek, Sulak, Rioni, Kura, etc. They differ in nutrition and regime. Rivers flowing from glaciers are of the Alpine type and have a maximum flow at the end of summer. On the northern slope, rivers of the North Caucasian type stand out, fed by snow and rain waters, with floods in the warm season. The rivers flowing from the low mountains of the southwestern slope are fed mainly by rainfall and their runoff is more or less uniform throughout the year. Large rivers, whose sources are in glaciers, and whose tributaries are in other zones, are distinguished by extended floods and large flows. The runoff module in the mountains of the Greater Caucasus increases with height from 5–10 to 50–100 l/s from 1 km 2 . The region is rich in mineral springs of various chemical composition, especially in the area of ​​Kislovodsk, Sochi (Matsesta), Tskhaltubo, etc.

The largest areas of the Greater Caucasus are occupied by the mid-mountain forest zone. The slopes of the mountains are covered with oak, oak-hornbeam, beech-hornbeam and beech forests on mountain forest brown soils. The upper belt of the forest zone is formed by spruce-fir forests on brown podzolized soils in the west and pine forests on podzolic soils in the east.

Above 2000 m(up to 2800 m) the mountain-meadow zone rises. The vegetation of the slopes is dominated by grass-forb, forb-grass subalpine and alpine meadows on mountain meadow soils. In this zone, summer pastures occupying about 18,400 thousand ha. ha area.

The forest-steppe zone prevails in the foothills and low mountains. Here, oak-hornbeam forests on gray forest and mountain forest brown soils alternate with thickets of shrubs on brown soils and grass-forb, grass steppes and meadow steppes on chernozem and chestnut soils.

On the southwestern slope in the foothills and low mountains up to 1000 m the forest zone of humid subtropics rises. broadleaf forests with evergreen shrubs and vines grow on yellow earth and red earth soils. Forests in the region occupy about 4500 thousand hectares. ha.

On the northeastern slope with a drier climate, a mid-mountain steppe zone with upland xerophytes is expressed.

Different combinations of the aforementioned zones, which have different features in different parts of the mountainous area and consist of different altitudinal belts, give the main types of structure of altitudinal zonality of landscapes, which were discussed in general characteristics Crimean-

Caucasian country. The difference in the structure of altitudinal zoning served as one of the important signs of the division of the mountainous region of the Greater Caucasus into provinces.

The North Caucasian province occupies the western and central parts of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus up to a height of 2000-2200 m. Three cuesta ridges are expressed in the relief, which correspond to the Labinsko-Malkinskaya zone of a gently sloping monocline, the Ossetian and western parts of the Dagestan zones with a series of simply constructed folds. The cuestas are separated by longitudinal valleys, which consist of individual basins and transverse erosional ridges. The transverse valleys are narrow at the intersection of the ridges and wide in the longitudinal basins. In the limestones of the Cretaceous and Jurassic age, especially in the Valanginian limestones, as well as in the Tithonian gypsum, karst landforms are developed - dips, funnels, carr fields, niches, caves. Landslides form in clay shales. The province belongs to the seismicity zone of 6 points.

The climate of the province is temperate continental, formed mainly under the influence of warm and humid western and northwestern air masses. The ridges, elongated from the northwest to the southeast, form a barrier to air masses moving perpendicular to them, as a result of which the northern slopes are more moistened, the southern slopes and longitudinal valleys are drier. The average temperature in January is -2.0, -5.2°, in July 22.0--24.0°, the temperatures decrease up the slopes. The minimum temperature is 31.0°, the maximum 35.0°. The sum of temperatures above 10° drops upward from 3200 to 2200°. Frost-free period-- 180--200 days. Precipitation falls 450--900 mm per year, least of all in the longitudinal valleys. The maximum precipitation occurs in late spring and summer. The snow cover is stable, its thickness is 15--35 cm. In winter, with the invasion of northern cold air masses, fogs, frost, and ice are formed. In summer, in some years, there are showers that cause catastrophic floods and large soil erosion.

The province is rich in rivers belonging to the Kuban and Terek basins. Large rivers are transit, their sources are in the highland zone of the Greater Caucasus. Rivers are fed by snow, rain and groundwater, large rivers additionally receive water from melting glaciers. The greatest runoff is near rivers in spring and summer. Drain module increases with height from 5--6 to 25--27 l/s from 1 km 2 . The province has many mineral springs with carbonic, hydrocarbonate-sulfate, nitrogen-methane, sulfate thermal, hydrogen sulfide sulfate and other waters. They are used for medicinal purposes in many resorts (Kislovodsk, Nalchik, Tamisk, etc.).

The foothills are occupied by the forest-steppe zone. The foothill ridge, called in the east the Black Mountains, up to 500-600 m composed of Paleogene and Neogene conchoidal limestones, conglomerates, sandstones, and clays. It has gentle slopes, rounded peaks, and is dissected by transit rivers into separate ridges and massifs. The vegetation of the slopes is dominated by oak and oak-hornbeam forests with shrub undergrowth, under which mountain forest brown soils are developed, and gray forest soils in the foothills in the west. Forests are interrupted by grass-forb meadow steppes with meadow chernozem soils. Soils have a capacity of up to 150 cm, granular structure, humus 4--14%.

The mid-mountain forest zone rises to 2000 m along the slopes of the Cretaceous Cuesta and the Rocky Ridge, composed of Cretaceous and Upper Jurassic limestones, clayey-gypsum-bearing, sandy-clayey rocks, marls, sandstones, etc. On the northern slopes, where 700-900 mm rainfall per year, broad-leaved beech, beech-hornbeam forests grow, which have large reserves of timber. So, in beech forests you can get from 400 to 800 m 3 wood from 1 ha. Mountain-forest brown soils are developed under the forests, as well as humus-calcareous soils on limestones.

On the southern steep, often rocky slopes of the cuestas, stony and gravelly screes are common. Oak forests and thickets of shrubs dominate here on thin mountain forest brown soils.

In the longitudinal valleys - basins with the driest climate in the province, talus cones are widely developed. Grass and grass-forb steppe and meadow-steppe groups predominate on gravel thin steppe and meadow-steppe soils, among which there are spots of upland xerophytes.

On the tops of the Cretaceous Cuesta and the Rocky Range above 1800-- 2000 m there is a mid-mountain meadow zone. The mountains are covered with subalpine grass-forb and mixed-herb meadows with dense, high herbage. Mountain-meadow soils are developed under the meadows. Grass productivity is 12--15 c/ha dry mass.

Significant areas of the province are occupied by rocks, steep slopes, and scree, especially along the southern slopes of the cuestas and in deep transverse valleys.

The wealth of the province is forests. Timber harvesting is underway, which should be limited on steep slopes, where soil erosion is intensive and landslides are formed. The province is rich in building materials - limestone, marl, gypsum, dolomite, etc. Meadows and steppes are used for summer pastures and hayfields. In the foothills and intermountain basins, part of the land is plowed up, but there is not so much arable land, up to 850 thousand hectares. ha\ they are occupied by grain and vegetable crops, partly by orchards.

Dagestan province differs from the North Caucasus in a more complex orographic structure, a drier and continental climate, a very small forest area - 8--9% of the total area of ​​​​the province, and the dominance of forest-steppe and steppe landscapes.

The relief of the province is low-mountain and mid-mountain. Ridges rise up to 1500--1900 m. supreme mountain-- Gunib -- 2351 m. Foothills and low mountains compose Paleogene, Neogene and Cretaceous sandstones, clays, shell and other limestones, crumpled into gentle anticlinal folds, elongated from the northwest to the southeast. Plateau-like and gently sloping structural-erosion ridges are complicated by erosional troughs of temporary watercourses, dry valleys, the incision depth of which reaches 400 m, ravines, gullies, and sometimes clayey pseudo-karst.

The ridges and plateaus of the Middle Mountain Dagestan are composed of a thick layer of Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous limestones, sandstones and shales of the Middle Jurassic. Rocks are folded into simply built anticlines and synclinals, having a chest structure, i.e., characterized by gentle arches and steep wings. The relief is characterized by deep incision of valleys (up to 1000 m), alternation of anticlinal and synclinal plateaus, synclinal and anticlinal basins with steep, rocky slopes. Landslides form in clay shales. Mud-stone mudflows, landslides, screes are often observed. Most of the territory is located in a seismic zone of 6 points, but to the west of Makhachkala, seismicity reaches 7-8 points.

Located in the east of the northern slope of the Greater Caucasus, the province is remote from humid western air masses, so there is a small amount of precipitation. The climate is temperate continental, but heterogeneous due to the complexity of the relief. The average January temperature in the foothills is -2.5, -2.9°, on high plateaus and in basins up to -6.0°. Summer is hot in the foothills and in the basins, where the average July temperature is 22.0--23.0°, warm on the plateau, the average July is 16.0--15.0°. The minimum temperature is 26.0°, the maximum 39.0°. The sum of temperatures above 10.0° reaches 3600° in the foothills, above 1600 - up to 1200°. The frost-free period lasts 210-150 days. Precipitation falls annually from 400 to 630 mm, there are fewer of them in the foothills and basins. The maximum precipitation is observed in late spring - early summer. Sometimes in the summer there are showers that cause large floods on the rivers and the formation of mudflows. The snow cover lies 45-60 days, its thickness is 6-15 cm.

The province is not so rich in rivers with permanent streams. It is crossed by the Andean, Avar, Kazikumukh Koisu and Kara-Koisu, which, merging, form the river. Sulak. In the mid-mountain part, the runoff module is 10--12 l/s from 1 km 2 , on large rivers up to 17 l/s from 1 km 2 . The number of permanent streams decreases sharply in the foothills, where the runoff module reaches 0.5--5 l/s from 1 km 2 . The maximum flow is in spring and early summer. Small rivers dry up in summer. There are few groundwater outlets in the province, especially in the foothills, where there is not enough water for water supply and irrigation. There are mineral springs (Talgi, Kayakent, Rychalsu, Makhachkala).

This province has a more complex structure of altitudinal zonality of landscapes than that of the North Caucasus. Up to a height of 300-400 meters on the plateau-like foothills there is a dry steppe zone with thickets of shrubs. The plateau and slopes of the southern exposure are occupied by sagebrush-fescue, fescue-bearded, grass-forb groups. Under them, chestnut soils with a thickness of up to 60-80 cm.

In the foothills up to a height of 600-700 m with somewhat greater moisture, oak and oak-hornbeam sparse forests on mountain forest brown soils alternate with couch grass-feather grass steppe groups on dark chestnut soils along the southern slopes and forb-grass meadow-steppe groups on chernozem soils. Grass stand productivity 7--8 c/ha dry mass.

The northern and eastern slopes of the Salatau, Gimrinsky, Shamkhaldag, and other ranges up to a height of 1300-1400 m are covered with beech-hornbeam forests, under which mountain forest brown soils are developed.

The largest areas are occupied by the mid-mountain steppe zone. There are rocky slopes, deep valleys, dry climate. The vegetation is dominated by bearded, couch grass, fescue-feather grass groups on mountain-chernozem soils. Soils are thin (up to 60-80 cm), crushed stone. They are carbonate. In chernozems, humus is 4–7%. Grass productivity ranges from 4--5 to 10 c/ha dry mass. In the basins and valleys, upland xerophytic vegetation of dry-loving herbs and semi-shrubs is characteristic.

Above 1500 m there is a meadow-steppe zone. Plateaus and slopes are covered with grass-forb groups with a large proportion of

fescue, thin-footed, timed to meadow chernozem soils. Grass stand productivity up to 15-- 17 c/ha dry mass.

The Dagestan province differs from other provinces of the Greater Caucasus by the intensive development of mountain farming and horticulture on artificially terraced slopes with cultivated soils. Arable land occupies about 260 thousand hectares, orchards - up to 13,120 ha, vineyards -- over 6550 ha. Part of the land is irrigated, land with an irrigation network is about 147,100 ha.

Large areas, more than 655 thousand sq. ha, set aside for summer pastures. About 8 thousand ha meadows and steppes are used for haymaking.

The province is poor in minerals. There is oil and gas in the foothills. Building materials are being developed - clay, limestone, shell limestone, etc. In the village. Dagestan Lights on the basis of glass sands and natural gas, a glass factory was built. The large rivers of the Sulak basin have significant reserves of hydropower.

Western Highlands Province located at altitudes above 2000 m and stretches from Mount Fisht to the river. Terek. It includes the Dividing and Lateral Ranges, rising to 3500-4500 m, individual peaks -- more than 5000 m. The province is dominated by mountain-meadow and subnival-glacial landscapes.

The ridges correspond to anticlinoria separated by a longitudinal depression, the synclinorium. They are composed of crystalline schists, marble-like limestones, Precambrian and Paleozoic conglomerates, and Lower Jurassic shales. In the northwest, Lower Paleozoic metamorphosed rocks come to the surface, forming a horst-like ledge. Lower and Middle Jurassic sandstones and tuff breccias are common on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus within the province. There are also outcrops of granitoids of different ages, but mostly Paleozoic. Deposits of many ores are associated with granitoids: polymetallic (Sadon, Buron, etc.), tungsten-molybdenum (Tyrny-Auz), copper pyrite (Beskes-Urup), on the southern slope - barite-polymetallic ores (Racha, South Ossetia).

In the sources of Tskhenis-Tskali (Tsana) and Rioni (Karobi), molybdenum and arsenopyrite ores are associated with granites and dacites.

The main orographic elements correspond to the folded structure. The ridge zone is dominated by alpine steep, rocky, hard-to-reach peaks. On the ridges, glacial forms are clearly expressed: troughs, kars, in the valleys - ancient moraines. The slopes of the ridges are dissected by deep valleys (up to 1000-1500 m), the bottoms of which lie at altitudes of 1200-1500 m above ur. The peaks of Elbrus and Kazbek are volcanic cones planted on ancient crystalline and sedimentary rocks.

In the east, mudflows are formed in shales, especially in the Terek basin. Stone screes, landslides, rockfalls are characteristic.

The climate is formed under the influence of the western circulation of air masses in the free atmosphere. On the northern slope to the river. Kuban, in the south to

R. Aragvi is dominated by occluded Mediterranean cyclones, to the east - occluded Western European cyclones. With cyclones comes a large amount of precipitation, which falls 2500--2000 mm in the west, 1600-1200 mm in the east of the province. In deep valleys, hollows, the amount of precipitation decreases to 600 mm in year. The climate in the province is cool, in summer above 4000 m the temperature rarely rises above 0°. The average August temperature is up to 14.0° (in the valleys), 10.0-8.0° (at altitudes of 2000-2800 l). The average temperature in January decreases accordingly from -6.0 to -10.0, -15.0°. The frost-free period is 150--80 days, above 3000 m there is no such period. In winter, a stable snow cover is formed with a thickness of up to 1--2 m in depressions, on gentle slopes - up to 50-60 cm. Snow avalanches are often observed in the mountains of the province, especially dangerous in spring. Avalanche-prone landforms are karts and trough valleys.

The province is characterized by a large amount of runoff. Drain modulus is 60--100 l/s from 1 km 2 - the highest in the Caucasus. The sources of the large rivers Terek, Kuban, Rioni, Inguri and their other tributaries, originating in the province, are predominantly glacier-snow fed and extended floods (up to 6 months). The maximum runoff is observed in August on the northern slope and in July on the southern slope.

In the west of the province there are many lakes, small in area and depth. They are predominantly of glacial origin - cirque, moraine, but there are also ponds. In a number of valleys, Rioni, Ardon, Terek, and others, there are outcrops of mineral springs of the Narzan type, etc.

The largest area in the province is occupied by the mountain-meadow zone. Here, the folded-erosion ridges are complicated by glacial landforms. In vegetation up to a height of 2300--2400 m subalpine grass-forb, forb-grass meadows with dense and high herbage predominate. The productivity of the herbage on hayfields reaches 20--25 c/ha dry mass. Mountain-meadow subalpine soils have formed under these meadows. Depending on the steepness of the slopes, their thickness ranges from 50 to 100 cm. They contain up to 12% humus. Among the meadows on rubble deluvium with peaty soils, thickets of shrubs are common with a predominance of the Caucasian rhododendron.

Above subalpine meadows (up to 2600-3000 m) alpine meadows from short grass small-grass-sedge-forb groups dominate on rubble deluvium. Thin peaty or soddy mountain-meadow soils containing up to 12-20% humus are developed here. Alpine meadows are interrupted by rocks, screes with sparse rocky vegetation of cereals and herbs.

The mountain-meadow zone is a zone of summer pastures, occupying about 1290 thousand hectares. ha. In river valleys, on gentle slopes, meadows are used for haymaking.

The upper zone of the mountains, above 2600--3000 m, occupies the nival-glacial zone. Large areas are occupied by glaciers (about 1600 km 2 ), perennial snows. There are up to 1100 glaciers here. More glaciers are located on the northern slope, where the largest ones lie, up to 10-14 km length. The largest centers of glaciation: Mount Elbrus - 144 km 2 , Mount Kazbek-- 135 km 2 .

In deeply incised valleys, along mountain slopes up to a height of 2000 m spruce-fir, spruce-fir-beech forests grow, replaced east of the Kuban and Aragvi by beech and pine forests. Mountain forest brown soils with signs of podzolization are developed under beech and dark coniferous forests, and podzolic soils are developed under pine forests. Spruce-fir forests are rich in wood. Fir wood stocks range from 400 to 1000 m G/ha, ate - from 300 to 900 m 3 / ha. Forestry work is underway. Climatic health resorts (Teberda, Arkhyz, Tsei, Shovi, and others) have been created in deep valleys with a dry, warm climate. Picturesque nature, the presence of glaciers, rocks attract here a huge number of tourists and climbers, for whom many tourist and climbing bases and camps have been created.

Eastern Highlands Province occupies the eastern half of the axial zone of the Greater Caucasus with altitudes from 2000 to 3200 m. A number of peaks rise above 4000 m: Mount Tebulos-Mta -- 4494 m, Mount Bazar-Dyuzi -- 4480 m and others. The bottoms of the valleys sometimes lie at a height of 600 m above ur. m.

The watershed, shifted to the south, and the Lateral ranges are anticlinoria with strongly compressed folds, complicated by faults on the southern slope of the Greater Caucasus. Between the ridges there is a longitudinal valley - a synclinorium, consisting of separate basins separated by ridges. In the province, a thick layer of clayey shales and sandstones of the Lower and Middle Jurassic is crumpled into folds. In addition to tectonics, erosion played an important role in the formation of the relief, as a result of which the Side Range consists of a system of ridges elongated in a northeasterly direction and separated by deep river valleys. Intense processes of physical weathering cause the formation of rubble screes and coarse stony deluvium. Mudflow fans and fans of lateral tributaries of rivers are widespread in the province, where the thickness of alluvial-deluvial deposits reaches 40 m. On the slopes of the ridges there are ancient landslide landforms; landslides are still being formed, which hinders the construction of roads. There is no overpass here.

The eastern position of the province determines the formation of climate under the influence of occluded West European cyclones and partly cyclones of the Iranian front in the free atmosphere.

In the province, with movement to the east, the dryness and continentality of the climate increase, especially in the valleys. Temperatures drop with altitude. Summers are warm in the valleys, cool in the upper zone. The average temperature in July-August is up to 20.0° (in the valleys), up to 5.0° (above 2900 jk). The average January temperature in the valleys is up to -4.0°, in the highlands up to -12.0°. The frost-free period decreases with altitude from 220 to 80 days, but above 3000 m there is no frost-free period. Precipitation increases with altitude from 400 to 1000 mm per year, with a maximum in the summer. Summer heavy rains cause high floods on the rivers, the formation of mudflows, landslides. The snow cover is stable and lies from 100 to 180 days. Its power is from 15 to 50 cm. In spring, snow avalanches fall from the slopes, especially frequent in the western half of the province. There are few glaciers here - the area of ​​glaciation is up to 150 km 2 .

Decrease in the amount of precipitation, small area of ​​glaciers cause a small runoff compared to the western high-mountainous province. The drain module increases with height from 10-15 to 40-50 l!sec from 1 km 2 . The rivers belonging to the basins of the Terek, Sulak, Samur are fed mainly by snow and rain waters and their maximum flow is in late spring and summer. There are not so many outlets of underground spring waters.

The province is dominated by a mountain-meadow landscape zone rising to 2800-3000 At. Slopes of ridges and valleys up to 2500 m covered with subalpine meadows dominated by fescue-forb, variegated-bonfire-reed grass, reed grass-forb, and cereal groups. The productivity of herbage in virgin areas is up to 18--20 c/ha dry mass. The meadows are confined to mountain-meadow soddy subalpine soils. Soils have a capacity of up to 50-80 s At, a lot of crushed stone, humus from 5 to 13%.

Above the subalpine meadows there are alpine small-grass-sedge-forb, cereal, cobresia and other meadows. Under alpine meadows, soddy and peaty, thin

(up to 50 cm), Crushed, often skeletal, mountain-meadow alpine soils. They contain a lot of humus (from 6 to 20%). The productivity of the herbage of alpine meadows is up to 10--12 c/ha dry mass. Among the meadows, large areas are occupied by scree with rocky-scree herbaceous vegetation, mosses and lichens, bare rocks. In the etched areas of the meadows, the herbage is formed by hard grasses - variegated fescue and white-bearded.

On the slopes of southern exposure and in river valleys up to a height of 2000 m there is a mountainous zone. It is characterized by couch grass, couch grass-fescue, wormwood-cereal-steppe groups, upland xerophytes on mountain steppe, thin, gravel soils. On the slopes of the northern, western exposures, which receive somewhat more moisture, grow, mainly in the western half of the province, beech-hornbeam, oak and pine forests, which do not form an entire zone.

Above 3000 m a narrow strip of mountains is occupied by a subnival zone, characterized by the severity of natural conditions, the absence of a continuous grass cover and soils.

The main wealth of the province is mountain meadows used for grazing in the summer. Summer pastures occupy up to 1235 thousand hectares.

Further improvement of pastures is required. In the river valleys, mainly in the east, with a warmer climate, there are arable lands (up to 60 thousand ha). ha), occupied by crops of barley, vegetable crops.

North- Black Seaprovinces occupies the northern part of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. The eastern border runs east of Tuapse. Mediterranean landscapes dominate here.

The low-mountain relief was formed on the site of the flysch zone northwestern Caucasus. Anticlinal ridges rising to 600-800 m, separated by longitudinal synclinal valleys. Cretaceous and Lower Paleogene limestones, marls, clay shales, sandstones are crumpled into folds. Upper Cretaceous marls are used to produce high quality cement. The relief is dominated by gentle rounded shapes. The mountains drop steeply to the sea and are separated from it by a narrow strip of pebble beach. The coastline is complicated by a number of ingressive bays, convenient for mooring ships (Novorossiyskaya, Gelendzhikskaya). The coastline is being washed away and destroyed sea ​​waters. The transverse valleys crossing the ridges are deep and narrow.

The province has a Mediterranean-type climate characterized by hot and dry sunny summers and relatively warm and humid winters. The average temperature in January is 4.0, -2.0°, in July 24.0--22.4°. Absolute minimum -26.0, -30.0°, maximum 35.0--37.0°. The frost-free period lasts 200-230 days. The sum of temperatures above 10° is 3600-3200°. Precipitation falls 400--800 mm per year, their maximum at the end of autumn - in winter, at least - in summer. In winter, precipitation falls mainly in the form of showers, causing intense soil erosion, especially in treeless areas. With the invasion of cold northeastern air masses in winter, bora winds are formed, blowing at high speed (up to 20 m/s) and sharply lowering temperatures (up to -25.0°). Boras are more often observed in the region of Novorossiysk - the most windy region in the Caucasus. The warm dry climate of the province, the presence of beautiful beaches and the sea favored the construction of sanatoriums and rest houses, especially for children.

Insufficient atmospheric moisture and the presence of permeable rocks cause the poor development of the river network. The rivers are of the Mediterranean type and have a flood regime. They feed mainly on the waters of heavy rains. Maximum

the flow near the rivers is observed in winter, the minimum - in summer. Many small rivers dry up in summer. Drain module in the province before \Ъl!sec from 1 km 2 .

The Cretaceous flysch deposits are associated with hydrocarbonate-sodium waters carbonated with nitrogen and methane, which come to the surface in the form of springs in the areas of Gelendzhik, Novorossiysk, and others.

The dryness of the climate during the warm period of the year determines the xerophytic nature of the vegetation with a large participation of Mediterranean plant species. The lower slopes of the mountains are covered with thickets of shrubs - derzhitree, skumpia, needles, juniper, under which mountain brown soils are developed. The soils were formed on carbonate rocks. They have a heavy loamy mechanical composition, a lumpy structure, humus up to 8--10%. Their power is up to 75 cm.

Significant areas (up to 20%) of the province are occupied by forests of the Crimean type of calcareous and downy oak, pine (Pallas pine), juniper tree. Forests grow on humus-calcareous soils. Soil power up to 50--60 cm. Humus in them up to 11%. On dry stony slopes, especially in southern exposure, frigana-type vegetation of dry-loving semi-shrubs and herbs (siderites, sage, asphedolin, mad cucumber, etc.) growing on gravel soils is widespread.

Significant areas of the province have been plowed up. There are about 120,000 arable lands here. ha. Of these, about 15 thousand ha occupied by vineyards 2000 ha- gardens. The rest of the land is reserved for tobacco and tea plantations, grain and vegetable crops. About 34 thousand ha land is used for pasture.

Colchis mountainprovinces. On the southwestern slope of the Greater Caucasus from the Black Sea to a height of 2000-2200 m the Colchis province is located, in which humid mountain forest landscapes predominate. The province includes the Gagra, Bzybskhi, Racha, Lechkhu.msky ridges, the southern slope of the Megrelian ridge, the spurs of the Svaneti and Kodori ridges, the vast plateaus of Ashi, Na Kerala, and others.

The province has a complex folded structure, including the Abkhaz-Racha folded zone, the Racha-Lechkhum trough, and the Sukhum-Mingrelian subzone of the Rion intermountain depression extending to the south. In the west, a flysch folded zone enters here. Wide and flat synclines and narrow anticlines complicated by ruptures are characteristic (Milanovsky and Hann, 1963). Sedimentary rocks of different ages are crumpled into folds. Paleogene and Neogene molasse deposits of shale clays, sandstones, marls prevail in the foothills, flysch and conglomerates in the west. Upper Cretaceous limestones up to 2000 m. In the vaults of anticlines, Lower and Middle Jurassic sandstones and shales come to the surface. Jurassic deposits are confined to coal (Tkibuli, Tkvarcheli). The Lower Oligocene rocks contain the largest deposit of manganese (Chiatura). In the Rioni basin, in the Zugdidi region, there are deposits of barite. The province is rich in natural building materials - dolomites, limestones, marls, refractory and ceramic clays, roofing slates. Fluorite clays are being developed near Kutaisi.

In the Colchis province, seismicity reaches 6 points, but increases in the vicinity of Sochi to 7 points.

The relief of the province is dominated by folded-erosion ridges corresponding to the folded structure. In some cases, the relief does not match the structure, for example, the anticline Tkibulskaya

basin, etc. A feature of the province is the intensive development of karst landforms in limestone. There is surface and underground karst. Funnels, wells, karrovy fields, caves with stalactites and stalagmites, karst oares are widespread. In the foothills, where conglomerates are underlain by clay, landslides are observed.

The southern position, the openness of the province to the Mediterranean cyclones, southwestern humid air masses determine the formation of a humid and warm climate. In the foothills and low mountains up to a height of 800-1000 m The climate is humid subtropical with positive average monthly temperatures almost throughout the year. Above the climate is temperate continental, humid. The average January temperature in the foothills is up to 4.0 °, above 1500 m-6.0 °, July - respectively 24.0 - 16.0 °. Absolute minimum -13.0, -25.0°, maximum up to 33.0°. The sum of temperatures above 10° decreases with altitude from 4500 to 2000°. The frost-free period lasts from 280 to 200 days. Precipitation falls from 1000 to 1800 mm in year. In the foothills, precipitation is distributed more or less evenly throughout the year, with a maximum at the end of autumn - in winter. Steady snow cover is above 1000 m, where its power reaches 15--30 cm. In some years, cold air masses from the northwest penetrate the province, lowering temperatures and causing death subtropical cultures. In the east, hair dryers often blow, raising temperatures and lowering air humidity.

Despite the predominance of limestones, in which the underground runoff somewhat exceeds the surface, and many rivers flow underground and come to the surface in the lower reaches, the province is rich in river waters due to large transit rivers - Rioni, Kodori, Bzybi, Tskhenis-Tskali, Inguri and others, originating in the glaciers of the high-mountain zone of the Greater Caucasus and having an extended flood.

Rivers originating from the mountains of the province are fed by snow, rain and groundwater. They have high water in spring and summer. Drain module increases with height from 25 to 50 l!sec from 1 km 2 . The Colchis province is one of the richest in the Caucasus in terms of hydropower resources. So, in the Rioni basin - about 30.5 billion, ket* h, Enguri - up to 21 billion, ket * h etc. Projects have been developed for cascades of hydroelectric stations on the Inguri and Rioni rivers. There are karst lakes in the province. Here is the most beautiful lake of the Caucasus - Lake. Ritsa.

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