NORWAY
Kingdom of Norway, a state in Northern Europe, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. It ranks second in size (after Sweden) among the Scandinavian countries. Norway is called the land of the midnight sun, since 1/3 of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle, where the sun hardly sets below the horizon from May to July. In the middle of winter, in the far north, polar night lasts almost around the clock, and in the south, daylight hours last only a few hours.

Norway. The capital is Oslo. Population - 4418 thousand people (1998). The population density is 13.6 people per 1 sq. km. km. Urban population - 73%, rural - 27%. Area (together with the polar islands) - 387 thousand square meters. km. Highest point: Mount Galldhepiggen (2469 m). Official language: Norwegian (Riksmol or Bokmål; and Lansmol or Nynoshk). State religion: Lutheranism. Administrative-territorial division: 19 counties. Currency: Norwegian krone = 100 ore. National holiday: Constitution Day - 17 May. National anthem: "Yes, we love this country."

Norway is a country of picturesque landscapes, with jagged mountain ranges, valleys carved by glaciers and narrow fjords with steep banks. The beauty of this country inspired the composer Edvard Grieg, who tried to convey in his works the mood swings inspired by the alternation of light and dark seasons of the year. Norway has long been a country of seafarers, and most of its population is concentrated on the coast. The Vikings, experienced sailors who created an extensive system of overseas trade, ventured across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the New World ca. 1000 AD In the modern era, the role of the sea in the life of the country is evidenced by the huge merchant fleet, which in 1997 occupied the sixth place in the world in terms of total tonnage, as well as the developed fish processing industry. Norway is a hereditary democratic constitutional monarchy. It received state independence only in 1905. Prior to that, it was ruled first by Denmark and then by Sweden. The union with Denmark existed from 1397 to 1814, when Norway passed to Sweden. The area of ​​the Norwegian mainland is 324 thousand square meters. km. The length of the country is 1770 km - from Cape Linnesnes in the south to the North Cape in the north, and its width ranges from 6 to 435 km. The shores of the country are washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Skagerrak in the south and the Arctic Ocean in the north. The total length of the coastline is 3,420 km, and including the fjords - 21,465 km. In the east, Norway borders on Russia (the length of the border is 196 km), Finland (720 km) and Sweden (1660 km). Overseas possessions include the Spitsbergen archipelago, consisting of nine large islands (the largest of them is Western Spitsbergen) with a total area of ​​63 thousand square meters. km in the Arctic Ocean; o.Jan Mayen with an area of ​​380 sq. km in the northern part Atlantic Ocean between Norway and Greenland; small islands of Bouvet and Peter I in Antarctica. Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.
NATURE
Surface structure. Norway occupies the western, mountainous part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. This is a large boulder, composed mainly of granites and gneisses and characterized by a rugged relief. The block is asymmetrically raised to the west, as a result, the eastern slopes (mainly in Sweden) are more gentle and long, and the western ones, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are very steep and short. In the south, within Norway, both slopes are present, and between them there is a vast upland. To the north of the border between Norway and Finland, only a few peaks rise above 1200 m, but towards the south, the heights of the mountains gradually increase, reaching maximum heights of 2469 m (Mount Gallheppigen) and 2452 m (Mount Glittertinn) in the Jotunheimen massif. Other elevated areas of the highlands are only slightly inferior in height. These include Dovrefjell, Ronnane, Hardangervidda and Finnmarksvidda. Bare rocks are often exposed there, devoid of soil and vegetation cover. Outwardly, the surface of many highlands is more like gently undulating plateaus, and such areas are called "vidda". During the great ice age, glaciation developed in the mountains of Norway, but modern glaciers are small. The largest of them are Jostedalsbre (the largest glacier in Europe) in the Jotunheimen mountains, Svartisen in northern central Norway and Folgefonni in the Hardangervidda region. The small Engabre glacier, located at 70° N, approaches the shore of the Kvenangenfjord, where small icebergs calve at the end of the glacier. However, usually the snow line in Norway is located at altitudes of 900-1500 m. Many features of the country's topography were formed during the Ice Age. Probably, there were several continental glaciations then, and each of them contributed to the development of glacial erosion, deepening and straightening of the ancient river valleys and their transformation into picturesque U-shaped steep troughs, deeply cutting through the surface of the uplands. After the melting of the continental glaciation, the lower reaches of the ancient valleys were flooded, where fjords formed. The fjord shores amaze with their extraordinary picturesqueness and are of great economic importance. Many fjords are very deep. For example, Sognefjord, located 72 km north of Bergen, reaches a depth of 1308 m in the lower part. A chain of coastal islands - the so-called. skergor (in Russian literature, the Swedish term shkhergord is more often used) protects the fjords from strong westerly winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean. Some islands are exposed rocks washed by the surf, others reach considerable sizes. Most Norwegians live on the banks of the fjords. The most significant are Oslo Fjord, Hardanger Fjord, Sognefjord, Nord Fjord, Stor Fjord and Tronnheims Fjord. The main occupations of the population are fishing in the fjords, agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry in some places along the banks of the fjords and in the mountains. In the fjord areas, industry is poorly developed, except for individual manufacturing enterprises that use rich hydropower resources. In many parts of the country, bedrock comes to the surface.

Rivers and lakes. In the east of Norway are the largest rivers, including the Glomma 591 km long. In the west of the country the rivers are short and fast. There are many picturesque lakes in southern Norway. Lake Mjesa, the largest in the country, with an area of ​​390 sq. km is located in the southeast. At the end of the 19th century Several small canals have been constructed connecting the lakes to seaports on the south coast, but these are now little used. The hydropower resources of the rivers and lakes of Norway make a significant contribution to its economic potential.
Climate. Despite the northern position, Norway has a favorable climate with cool summers and relatively mild (for the corresponding latitudes) winters - the result of the Gulf Stream. The average annual precipitation varies from 3330 mm in the west, where moisture-carrying winds are the first to arrive, to 250 mm in some isolated river valleys in the east of the country. The average January temperature of 0°C is typical for the southern and western coasts, while in the interior it drops to -4°C or less. In July, average temperatures on the coast are approx. 14 ° C, and in the interior - approx. 16 ° C, but there are higher.
Soils, flora and fauna. Fertile soils cover only 4% of the entire territory of Norway and are concentrated mainly in the vicinity of Oslo and Trondheim. Since most of the country is occupied by mountains, plateaus and glaciers, the opportunities for plant growth and development are limited. There are five geobotanical regions: a treeless coastal region with meadows and shrubs, deciduous forests to the east of it, coniferous forests further inland and to the north, a belt of dwarf birches, willows and perennial grasses higher and even further to the north; finally, at the highest altitudes - a belt of grasses, mosses and lichens. Coniferous forests are one of Norway's most important natural resources and provide a variety of export products. Reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes and eiders are commonly found in the Arctic region. Ermine, hare, elk, fox, squirrel and - in small numbers - wolf and brown bear are found in the forests to the very south of the country. The red deer is distributed along the southern coast.
POPULATION
Demography. Norway's population is small and growing at a slow pace. In 1998, 4418 thousand people lived in the country. In 1996, per 1 thousand people, the birth rate was 13.9, the death rate was 10, and the population growth was 0.52%. This figure is higher than natural population growth due to immigration, which in the 1990s reached 8-10 thousand people a year. Improvements in health and living standards have ensured a steady, albeit slow, increase in population over the last two generations. Norway, along with Sweden, is characterized by record low rates of infant mortality - 4.0 per 1,000 newborns (1995) against 7.5 in the USA. In the late 1990s, life expectancy for men was 74.8 years and for women 80.8 years. Although Norway's divorce rate was below some of its neighboring Nordic countries, after 1945 this figure increased, and in the mid-1990s, about half of all marriages ended in divorce (as in the US and Sweden). 48% of children born in Norway in 1996 are illegitimate. After the restrictions introduced in 1973, for some time immigration was sent to Norway mainly from the Scandinavian countries, but after 1978 a significant stratum of people of Asian origin appeared (about 50 thousand people). In the 1980s and 1990s, Norway accepted refugees from Pakistan, African countries and the republics of the former Yugoslavia.
Density and distribution of the population. Apart from Iceland, Norway is the least populated country in Europe. In addition, the distribution of the population is extremely uneven. Oslo, the capital, is home to 495,000 people (1997), and about a third of the country's population is concentrated in the Oslofjord area. Other large cities - Bergen (224 thousand), Trondheim (145 thousand), Stavanger (106 thousand), Berum (98 thousand), Kristiansand (70 thousand), Fredrikstad (66 thousand), Tromso (57 thousand .) and Drammen (53 thousand). The capital city is located at the top of the Oslofjord, where ocean-going ships dock close to the town hall. Bergen also occupies an advantageous position at the top of the fjord. The tomb of the kings of ancient Norway is located in Trondheim, founded in 997 AD, famous for its cathedral and Viking Age sites. It is noteworthy that almost all major cities are located either on the coast of the sea or the fjord, or close to them. The strip, confined to a winding coastline, has always been attractive for settlements due to its access to the sea and temperate climatic conditions. With the exception of large valleys in the east and some areas in the west of the central highlands, all interior highlands are sparsely populated. However, certain areas are visited in certain seasons by hunters, nomadic Sami with herds of reindeer or Norwegian farmers who graze their livestock there. After the construction of new and reconstruction of old roads, as well as with the opening of air traffic, some mountainous areas became available for permanent residence. The main occupations of the inhabitants of such remote areas are mining, servicing hydroelectric power plants and tourists. Farmers and fishermen live in small settlements scattered along the banks of the fjords or river valleys. Farming in the highlands is difficult, and many small, marginal farms have been abandoned there. Not counting Oslo and its environs, the population density ranges from 93 people per 1 sq. km in Vestfold, southwest of Oslo, up to 1.5 people per 1 sq. km. km in Finnmark in the far north of the country. Approximately every fourth inhabitant of Norway lives in a rural area.

Ethnography and language. Norwegians are an extremely homogeneous people of Germanic origin. A special ethnic group is the Saami, who number approx. 20 thousand. They have lived in the far north for at least 2 thousand years, and some of them still lead a nomadic lifestyle. Despite the ethnic homogeneity of Norway, two forms of the Norwegian language are clearly distinguished. Bokmål, or the book language (or riksmol, the state language), which is used by most Norwegians, originated from the Danish-Norwegian language, common among educated people at a time when Norway was ruled by Denmark (1397-1814). Nynoshk, or New Norwegian language (otherwise called Lansmol - rural language), received formal recognition in the 19th century. It was created by the linguist I. Osen on the basis of rural, mainly western, dialects with an admixture of elements of the medieval Old Norse language. Approximately one-fifth of all schoolchildren voluntarily choose to study as a nurse. This language is widely used in rural areas in the west of the country. At present, there is a tendency to merge both languages ​​into a single one - the so-called. Samnoshk.
Religion. The Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church, which has state status, is under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, Science and Religion and includes 11 dioceses. By law, the king and at least half of all ministers must be Lutheran, although there is discussion about changing this provision. Church councils play a very active role in the life of parishes, especially in the west and south of the country. The Norwegian church supported many public events and equipped important missions to Africa and India. In terms of the number of missionaries in relation to population, Norway probably ranks first in the world. Since 1938 women have been entitled to be priests. The first woman was appointed a priest in 1961. The vast majority of Norwegians (86%) belong to the state church. Church ceremonies such as the baptism of children, the confirmation of adolescents, and the funeral of the dead are widespread. A large audience is collected by daily radio programs on religious topics. However, only 2% of the population attend church regularly. Despite the state status of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Norwegians enjoy complete freedom of religion. Under a law passed in 1969, the state also provides financial support to other officially registered churches and religious organizations. In 1996, the most numerous of them were Pentecostals (43.7 thousand), Lutheran Free Church (20.6 thousand), United Methodist Church (42.5 thousand), Baptists (10.8 thousand), denominations of Jehovah's Witnesses (15.1 thousand) and Seventh-day Adventists (6.3 thousand), the Missionary Union (8 thousand), as well as Muslims (46.5 thousand), Catholics (36.5 thousand) and Jews (1 thousand).
STATE AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION
State device. Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The king communicates between the three branches of government. The monarchy is hereditary, and since 1990 the eldest son or daughter has passed the throne, although Princess Mertha Louise has made an exception to this rule. Officially, the King makes all political appointments, attends all ceremonies, and chairs (along with the Crown Prince) the formal weekly meetings of the State Council (government). Executive power is vested in the Prime Minister, who acts on behalf of the King. The Cabinet of Ministers consists of the Prime Minister and 16 ministers who head their respective departments. The government is collectively responsible for the policy, although each minister has the right to publicly express disagreement on a particular issue. Cabinet members are approved by the majority party or coalition in parliament - the Storting. They may participate in parliamentary debates but do not have the right to vote. The posts of civil servants are granted after passing competitive examinations.
Legislative power is vested in the Storting, which has 165 members elected for a four-year term by party lists in each of the 19 counties (counties). A deputy is elected for each member of the Storting. Thus, there is always a replacement for those who are absent and for members of the Storting who have joined the government. Voting rights in Norway are vested in all citizens who have reached the age of 18 and have lived in the country for at least five years. In order to be nominated to the Storting, citizens must have lived in Norway for at least 10 years and, by the time of the election, have had a place of residence in this constituency. After the elections, the Storting is divided into two chambers - the Lagting (41 deputies) and the Odelsting (124 deputies). Formal bills (as opposed to resolutions) must be discussed and voted on by both houses separately, but in case of disagreement, a 2/3 majority in a joint meeting of the houses must be met to pass the bill. However, most cases are decided at meetings of commissions, the composition of which is appointed depending on the representation of the parties. The Lagting also meets with the Supreme Court to discuss impeachment proceedings against any government official on the Odelsting. Minor complaints against the government are considered by a special commissioner of the Storting - the ombudsman. Amendments to the constitution require approval by a 2/3 majority at two consecutive meetings of the Storting.

Judiciary. The Supreme Court (Hyesterett) consists of five judges who hear civil and criminal appeals from the five regional courts of appeal (Lagmannsrett). The latter, consisting of three judges each, simultaneously serve as courts of first instance in more serious criminal cases. At a lower level, there is a city or county court headed by a professional judge, assisted by two lay assistants. Each city also has an arbitration board (forliksrd), consisting of three citizens elected by the local council to mediate local disputes.
Local government. The territory of Norway is divided into 19 regions (fylke), the city of Oslo is equated to one of them. These areas are subdivided into urban and rural districts (communes). Each of them has a council whose members are elected for a term of four years. Above the county councils is the regional council, which is elected by direct vote. Local governments have large funds, having the right to self-taxation. These funds are directed to education, health and social welfare, as well as infrastructure development. However, the police are subordinate to the State Department of Justice, and some powers are concentrated at the regional level. In 1969, the Union of the Norwegian Sami was organized, and in 1989 the parliamentary assembly of this people (Sameting) was elected. The Svalbard archipelago is governed by a governor based there. Political parties play an important role in the internal affairs and foreign policy of Norway. The public prefers to seriously discuss political problems, rather than clarify the positions of various figures. The media pays a lot of attention to party platforms, and lengthy discussions often flare up, although they rarely escalate into clashes and emotionally charged conflicts. From the 1930s to 1965, the government was controlled by the Norwegian Workers' Party (NLP), which remained the largest party in the Storting well into the 1990s. The CHP formed the government from 1971-1981, 1986-1989 and 1990-1997. In 1981, Gro Harlem Bruntland became the first woman to serve as prime minister and ruled the country with several interruptions until 1996. In addition to her leading role in the political life of Norway, Bruntland also held prominent positions in world politics. She lost her post to CHP chairman Thorbjorn Jagland, who ruled from October 1996 to October 1997. In the 1997 elections, the CHP won only 65 out of 165 seats in the Storting, and its representatives did not enter the new government. The government is formed by four centrist and right-wing parties - the Christian People's Party (HNP), the conservative Heire and the liberal Venstre. The KhNP enjoys the greatest influence in the western and southern regions of the country, where the position of the Lutheran Church is especially strong. This party opposes abortion and frivolous morals and actively supports social programs. The HNP came second in the September 1997 elections with 25 seats in the Storting. HNP leader Kjell Magne Bundevik led a minority coalition centrist government in October 1997. From 1945 to 1993, Heire's party was the second most important and in the 1980s several times formed a coalition government of centrist and right parties. It defends the interests of private enterprise, supports the spirit of competition and Norway's accession to the EU, but at the same time adopts an extensive program of social improvement of the country. The party has support primarily in Oslo and other major cities. She led the center-right coalition for a short time, when in 1989-1990 its leader, Jan P. Suce, was prime minister, who then went into opposition. Heire won 23 seats in the Storting in the September 1997 elections. The Center Party strengthened its position in the 1990s by opposing Norway's accession to the EU. Traditionally, it represents the interests of wealthy farmers and those employed in the fish industry, i.e. residents of rural areas receiving significant government subsidies. This party won 11 seats in the Storting in the 1997 elections. Finally, the liberal Ventre party, founded in 1884, which introduced parliamentary democracy in Norway a hundred years ago, experienced a split after a debate on European politics in 1973 and then lost representation in parliament. In 1997, only six members of the renewed Liberal Party won the election. The right-wing populist Progress Party, which came second in the 1997 elections, advocates cuts in welfare programs and opposes immigration, high taxes, and bureaucracy. In 1997, she set a record by winning 25 seats in the Storting, but was heavily criticized by other parties for her overtly nationalist speeches and hostility towards immigrants. The influence of far-left parties waned after the collapse of the communist regimes in Eastern Europe, but the Socialist Left Party (SLP) gathered approx. 10% of votes. She advocates state control over the economy and planning, puts forward demands for the protection environment and against Norway's accession to the EU. In the 1997 elections, the SLP won nine seats in the Storting.
Armed forces. Under the long-established universal conscription law, all males between the ages of 19 and 45 are required to serve 6 to 12 months in the army or 15 months in the navy or air force. The army, which has five regional divisions, in peacetime has approx. 14 thousand military personnel and is located mainly in the north of the country. Local defense forces (83 thousand people) are trained to perform special tasks in certain areas. The navy has 4 patrol ships, 12 submarines and 28 small coastal patrol vessels. In 1997, the contingent of military sailors totaled 4.4 thousand. In the same year, there were 3.7 thousand people in the air force personnel, 80 fighters, as well as transport aircraft, helicopters, communications and training units. The Nika missile defense system has been set up in the Oslo area. The Norwegian Armed Forces take part in UN peacekeeping missions. The number of soldiers and reserve officers is 230 thousand. Defense spending is 2.3% of GDP.
Foreign policy. Norway is a small country that, due to its geographical location and dependence on world trade, actively participates in international life. From 1949 the main political parties supported Norway's participation in NATO. Scandinavian cooperation was reinforced by participation in the Nordic Council (this organization stimulates the cultural community of the Scandinavian countries and ensures mutual respect for the rights of their citizens), as well as efforts to create a Scandinavian customs union. Norway assisted in the creation of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and has been a member since 1960, and is also a member of the Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation. In 1962, the Norwegian government applied to join the European Common Market and in 1972 agreed to the conditions for admission to this organization. However, in a referendum held the same year, Norwegians voted against participation in the common market. In a referendum in 1994, the population did not agree with Norway's accession to the EU, while its neighbors and partners Finland and Sweden joined this union.
ECONOMY
In the 19th century most Norwegians were employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing. In the 20th century agriculture was replaced by new industries based on cheap hydropower and raw materials from farms and forests, seas and mines. The merchant fleet played a decisive role in the growth of the country's welfare. Starting from the 1970s, oil and gas production on the shelf of the North Sea developed rapidly, which made Norway the largest supplier of these products to the Western European market and the second place in the world (after Saudi Arabia) in terms of supplies to the world market.
Gross domestic product. In terms of per capita income, Norway is one of the richest countries in the world. In 1996, gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. the total value of market goods and services was estimated at $157.8 billion, or $36,020 per capita, and purchasing power at $11,593 per capita. In 1996, agriculture and fisheries accounted for 2.2% of GDP, compared to 2% in Sweden (1994) and 1.7% in the US (1993). The share of the extractive industry (due to oil production in the North Sea) and construction was approx. 30% of GDP compared to 25% in Sweden. Approximately 25% of GDP was directed to government spending (26% in Sweden, 25% in Denmark). In Norway, an unusually high share of GDP (20.5%) was directed to capital investment (in Sweden 15%, in the USA 18%). As in other Scandinavian countries, a relatively small share of GDP (50%) goes to personal consumption (in Denmark - 54%, in the USA - 67%).
Economical geography. There are five economic regions in Norway: East (the historical province of Estland), South (Serland), Southwest (Vestland), Central (Trennelag) and North (Nur-Norge). The Eastern region (Estland) is characterized by long river valleys, falling to the south and converging to the Oslo Fjord, and inland areas occupied by forests and tundra. The latter occupies high plateaus between large valleys. About half of the country's forest resources are concentrated in this area. Almost half of the country's population lives in the valleys and on both banks of the Oslo Fjord. This is the most economically developed part of Norway. The city of Oslo has a wide range of industrial sectors, including metallurgy, engineering, flour milling, printing, and almost the entire textile industry. Oslo is the center of shipbuilding. The Oslo region accounts for approximately 1/5 of all those employed in the country's industry. Southeast of Oslo, where the Glomma flows into the Skagerrak, lies the city of Sarpsborg, the second largest industrial center in the country. The Skagerrak is home to sawmilling and pulp and paper industries that use local raw materials. For this purpose, the forest resources of the Glomma river basin are used. On the western shore of the Oslo Fjord, southwest of Oslo, there are cities whose industries are related to the sea and seafood processing. It is the center of Tensberg shipbuilding and the former base of the Norwegian whaling fleet Sandefjord. Noshk Hydru, the country's second-largest industrial concern, produces nitrogen fertilizers and other chemical products at a huge plant in Hereia. Drammen, located on the banks of the western branch of the Oslofjord, is a processing center for wood coming from the forests of Hallingdal. The southern region (Serland), open to the Skagerrak, is the least developed economically. A third of the district is covered with forests and was once an important center for the timber trade. At the end of the 19th century there was a significant outflow of people from this area. Currently, the population is mostly concentrated in a chain of small coastal towns that are popular summer resorts. The main industrial enterprises are the metallurgical plants in Kristiansand, producing copper and nickel. About a quarter of the country's population is concentrated in the Southwestern region (Westland). Between Stavanger and Kristiansund, 12 large fjords penetrate deep into the land and the heavily indented shores are framed by thousands of islands. The development of agriculture is limited due to the mountainous terrain of fjords and rocky islands fringed by steep high banks, where glaciers have torn away loose sediments in the past. Agriculture is confined to river valleys and terraced areas along the fjords. In these places, in a maritime climate, fat pastures are common, and in some coastal areas - orchards. In terms of the length of the growing season, Westland ranks first in the country. The ports of southwestern Norway, in particular Ålesund, serve as bases for the winter herring fishery. Throughout the region, often in secluded places on the banks of the fjords, metallurgical and chemical plants are dispersed, using rich hydropower resources and not freezing. all year round ports. Bergen is the area's main manufacturing center. Machine-building, flour-grinding and textile enterprises are located in this city and neighboring villages. Since the 1970s, Stavanger, Sandnes and Sula have been the main hubs from which oil and gas production infrastructure is maintained offshore the North Sea and where oil refineries are located. The fourth most important among the major economic regions of Norway is the West-Central (Trennelag), adjacent to the Tronnheims Fjord, with its center in Trondheim. The relatively flat surface and fertile soils on maritime clays favored the development of agriculture, which proved to be competitive with that of the Oslofjord area. A quarter of the territory is covered with forests. In the area under consideration, deposits of valuable minerals are being developed, especially copper ores and pyrites (Lekken - from 1665, Folldal, etc.). The northern region (Nur-Norge) is located mostly to the north of the Arctic Circle. Although there are no large reserves of timber and hydropower, as in the north of Sweden and Finland, the shelf zone contains the richest fish resources in the Northern Hemisphere. The coastline is very long. Fishing, the oldest occupation in the north, is still widespread, but the mining industry is becoming increasingly important. In terms of the development of this industry, Northern Norway occupies a leading position in the country. Iron ore deposits are being developed, in particular in Kirkenes near the border with Russia. There are significant deposits of iron ore in the Rana near the Arctic Circle. The extraction of these ores and work at the metallurgical plant in Mo i Rana attracted immigrants from other parts of the country to this area, but the population of the entire Northern region does not exceed the population of Oslo.
Agriculture. As in other Scandinavian countries, in Norway the share of agriculture in the economy has declined due to the development of the manufacturing industry. In 1996, 5.2% of the working-age population of the country was employed in agriculture and forestry, and these industries provided only 2.2% of the total output. The natural conditions of Norway - high-latitude position and a short growing season, infertile soils, an abundance of precipitation and cool summers - greatly complicate the development of agriculture. As a result, mainly fodder crops are grown and dairy products are of great importance. In 1996, approx. 3% of the total area. 49% of agricultural land was used for hay and fodder crops, 38% for cereals or legumes and 11% for pastures. Barley, oats, potatoes and wheat are the main food crops. In addition, every fourth Norwegian family cultivates their personal plot. Agriculture in Norway is an unprofitable branch of the economy, which is in an extremely difficult situation, despite subsidies provided to support peasant farms in remote areas and expand the country's food supply from domestic resources. The country has to import most of the food it consumes. Many farmers produce only enough agricultural products to meet family needs. Additional income comes from work in fisheries or forestry. Despite the objective difficulties in Norway, wheat production increased significantly, which in 1996 reached 645 thousand tons (in 1970 - only 12 thousand tons, and in 1987 - 249 thousand tons). After 1950, many small farms were abandoned or taken over by large landowners. In the period 1949-1987, 56 thousand farms ceased to exist, and by 1995 another 15 thousand. However, despite the concentration and mechanization of agriculture, 82.6% of the peasant farms in Norway in 1995 had land plots of less than 20 hectares (the average plot was 10 .2 ha) and only 1.4% - over 50 ha. The seasonal driving of livestock, in particular sheep, to mountain pastures ceased after the Second World War. Mountain pastures and temporary settlements (seters), which were used for only a few weeks in the summer, are no longer needed, as the collection of fodder crops in the fields around the permanent settlements has increased. Fishing has long been a source of wealth for the country. In 1995, Norway ranked tenth in the world in fisheries development, while in 1975 it held fifth place. The total fish catch in 1995 was 2.81 million tons, or 15% of the total European catch. The export of fish for Norway is a source of foreign exchange earnings: in 1996, 2.5 million tons of fish, fishmeal and fish oil were exported to total amount 4.26 million dollars Coastal banks near Alesund - the main area of ​​the herring fishery. Due to overfishing, herring production decreased sharply from the late 1960s to 1979, but then began to grow again and in the late 1990s significantly exceeded the level of the 1960s. Herring is the main object of fishery. In 1996, 760.7 thousand tons of herring were harvested. In the 1970s, artificial breeding of salmon began, mainly off the southwestern coast of the country. In this new industry, Norway occupies a leading position in the world: in 1996, 330 thousand tons were mined - three times more than in the UK, which is Norway's competitor. Cod and shrimp are also valuable components of the catch. Cod fishing areas are concentrated in the north, off the coast of Finnmark, as well as in the fjords of the Lofoten Islands. In February-March, cod come to spawn in these more sheltered waters. Most fishermen fish for cod using small family boats and farm the rest of the year on farms dotted along the coast of Norway. Fishing areas for cod in the Lofoten Islands are judged according to established tradition, depending on the size of the boats, the type of nets, the location and the duration of the fishery. Most of the fresh-frozen cod catch is supplied to the Western European market. Dried and salted cod is sold mainly to West Africa, Latin America and the Mediterranean. Norway was once the world's leading whaling power. In the 1930s, its whaling fleet in Antarctic waters supplied 2/3 of the world's production to the market. However, reckless capture soon led to a sharp decline in the number of large whales. In the 1960s whaling in Antarctica was discontinued. In the mid-1970s, there were no whaling ships left in the Norwegian fishing fleet. However, fishermen still kill small whales. The annual slaughter of some 250 whales caused serious international controversy in the late 1980s, but as a member of the International Whale Commission, Norway stubbornly rejected all attempts to ban whaling. She also ignored the 1992 International Convention on the Cessation of Whaling.
Mining industry. The Norwegian sector of the North Sea contains large reserves of oil and natural gas. According to estimates in 1997, industrial oil reserves in this region were estimated at 1.5 billion tons, and gas - at 765 billion cubic meters. m. 3/4 of the total reserves and oil fields in Western Europe are concentrated here. In terms of oil reserves, Norway is ranked 11th in the world. Half of all gas reserves in Western Europe are concentrated in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, and Norway holds the 10th place in the world in this regard. Prospective oil reserves reach 16.8 billion tons, and gas - 47.7 trillion. cube m. More than 17 thousand Norwegians are engaged in oil production. The presence of large oil reserves in the waters of Norway north of the Arctic Circle has been established. Oil production in 1996 exceeded 175 million tons, and natural gas production in 1995 - 28 billion cubic meters. m. The main fields under development are Ekofisk, Sleipner and Thor-Valhall southwest of Stavanger and Troll, Oseberg, Gullfaks, Frigg, Statfjord and Murchison to the west of Bergen, as well as Dreugen and Haltenbakken further north. Oil production began at the Ekofisk field in 1971 and increased throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, the rich new deposits of Heidrun near the Arctic Circle and Baller were discovered. In 1997, oil production in the North Sea was three times higher than 10 years ago, and its further growth was only held back by reduced demand in the world market. 90% of the produced oil is exported. Norway started gas production in 1978 at the Frigg field, half of which is in British territorial waters. Pipelines have been laid from Norwegian deposits to Great Britain and Western European countries. The fields are being developed by the state company Statoil together with foreign and private Norwegian oil firms. With the exception of fuel resources, Norway has few mineral resources. The main metal resource is iron ore. In 1995, Norway produced 1.3 million tons of iron ore concentrate, mainly from the Sør-Varangegra mines in Kirkenes near the Russian border. Another large mine in the Rana region supplies the nearby large steel plant in the city of Mu. Copper is mined mainly in the far north. In 1995, 7.4 thousand tons of copper were mined. In the north there are also deposits of pyrites used to extract sulfur compounds for the chemical industry. Several hundred thousand tons of pyrites were mined annually, until this production was curtailed in the early 1990s. Europe's largest ilmenite deposit is located at Tellnes in Southern Norway. Ilmenite is a source of titanium oxide used in the manufacture of dyes and plastics. In 1996, 758.7 thousand tons of ilmenite were mined in Norway. Norway produces a significant amount of titanium (708 thousand tons), a metal whose importance is growing, zinc (41.4 thousand tons) and lead (7.2 thousand tons), as well as a small amount of gold and silver. The most important non-metallic minerals are raw cement and limestone. In Norway in 1996, 1.6 million tons of cement raw materials were produced. Building stone deposits are also being developed, including granite and marble.
Forestry. A quarter of the territory of Norway - 8.3 million hectares - is covered with forests. The densest forests are in the east, where logging is predominantly carried out. More than 9 million cubic meters are being procured. m of timber per year. Spruce and pine are of the greatest commercial importance. The logging season usually falls between November and April. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a rapid increase in mechanization, and in 1970 less than 1% of all employed in the country received income from forestry. 2/3 of the forests are privately owned, but all forested areas are under strict state supervision. As a result of unsystematic logging, the area of ​​overmature forests has increased. In 1960, an extensive reforestation program began to expand the area of ​​productive forests in the sparsely populated regions of the north and west as far as the Westland fjords.
Energy. Energy consumption in Norway in 1994 amounted to 23.1 million tons in terms of coal, or 4580 kg per capita. Hydropower accounted for 43% of all energy production, oil also 43%, natural gas 7%, coal and wood 3%. Norway's full-flowing rivers and lakes have more hydropower than any other European country. Electricity, generated almost entirely by hydroelectric power, is the cheapest in the world, and its per capita production and consumption is the highest. In 1994, 25,712 kWh of electricity was produced per person. In general, more than 100 billion kWh of electricity is generated annually

Norway's manufacturing industry developed at a slow pace due to a shortage of coal, a narrow domestic market, and limited capital inflows. The share of manufacturing, construction and energy in 1996 accounted for 26% of gross output and 17% of all employed. In recent years, energy-intensive industries have been developed. The main industries in Norway are electrometallurgical, electrochemical, pulp and paper, radio electronics, and shipbuilding. Most high level industrialization is distinguished by the Oslofjord region, where about half of industrial enterprises countries. The leading branch of industry is electrometallurgy, which relies on the widespread use of cheap hydropower. The main product, aluminum, is made from imported aluminum oxide. In 1996, 863.3 thousand tons of aluminum were produced. Norway is the main supplier of this metal in Europe. Norway also produces zinc, nickel, copper and high-quality alloy steel. Zinc is produced at a plant in Eitrheim on the coast of the Hardangerfjord, nickel - in Kristiansand from ore brought from Canada. A large ferroalloy plant is located in Sandefjord, southwest of Oslo. Norway is Europe's largest supplier of ferroalloys. In 1996 metallurgical production was approx. 14% of the country's exports. Nitrogen fertilizers are one of the main products of the electrochemical industry. The nitrogen necessary for this is extracted from the air using a large amount of electricity. A significant part of nitrogen fertilizers is exported.
Pulp and paper industry is an important industrial sector in Norway. In 1996, 4.4 million tons of paper and pulp were produced. Paper mills are located mainly in the vicinity of the vast forests of eastern Norway, for example, at the mouth of the Glomma River (the country's largest timber-floating artery) and in Drammen. Approx. 25% of industrial workers in Norway. The most important areas of activity are shipbuilding and ship repair, production of equipment for the production and transmission of electricity. Textile, clothing and food industry supply few products for export. They meet most of Norway's own needs for food and clothing. These industries employ approx. 20% of the country's industrial workers.
Transport and communication. Despite the mountainous terrain, Norway has a well-developed internal communication. The state owns railways with a length of approx. 4 thousand km, of which more than half are electrified. However, most of the population prefers to travel by car. In 1995, the total length of highways exceeded 90.3 thousand km, but only 74% of them had a hard surface. In addition to railways and roads, there were ferries and coastal shipping. In 1946 Norway, Sweden and Denmark founded Scandinavian Airlines Systems (SAS). Norway has a developed local air service: in terms of domestic passenger traffic, it occupies one of the first places in the world. The means of communication, including telephone and telegraph, remain in the hands of the state, but the question of creating mixed enterprises with the participation of private capital is being considered. In 1996, there were 56 telephones per 1,000 people in Norway. The network of modern electronic means of communication is rapidly expanding. Broadcasting and television have a significant private sector. Norwegian Public Broadcasting (NRK) remains the dominant system despite the widespread use of satellite and cable television.
International trade. In 1997, Norway's leading trading partners in both exports and imports were the FRG, Sweden and the United Kingdom, followed by Denmark, the Netherlands and the United States. The predominant export items by value are oil and gas (55%) and finished goods (36%). Products of the oil refining and petrochemical, timber, electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries, foodstuffs are exported. The main import items are finished products (81.6%), food products and agricultural raw materials (9.1%). The country imports certain types of mineral fuels, bauxite, iron, manganese and chromium ore, and cars. With the growth of oil production and exports in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Norway had a very favorable foreign trade balance. Then world oil prices fell sharply, its exports declined, and for several years the trade balance of Norway was reduced to a deficit. However, by the mid-1990s, the balance turned positive again. In 1996, the value of Norway's exports was $46 billion, while the value of imports was only $33 billion. The trade surplus is supplemented by large receipts from the Norwegian merchant fleet with a total displacement of 21 million gross register tons, which, according to the new International Shipping Register, received significant privileges that allow it to compete with other ships flying foreign flags.
Money circulation and state budget. The unit of money circulation is the Norwegian krone. In 1997, government revenues amounted to 81.2 billion dollars, and expenditures - 71.8 billion dollars. In the budget, the main sources of income were social security contributions (19%), income and property taxes (33%), excise duties and value added tax (31%). The main expenditures were directed to social security and housing construction (39%), external debt service (12%), public education (13%) and health care (14%). In 1994, Norway's foreign debt stood at $39 billion. The government set up a special oil fund in the 1990s, using excess oil profits, to serve as a reserve for when the oil fields were depleted. It is estimated that by the year 2000 it will reach 100 billion dollars, most of it is placed abroad.
SOCIETY
Structure. The most common agricultural cell is a small family farm. With the exception of a few forest holdings, there are no large land holdings in Norway. Seasonal fishing is also often family-based and on a small scale. Motorized fishing boats are mostly small wooden boats. In 1996, about 5% of industrial firms employed more than 100 workers, and even such large enterprises sought to establish informal relations between workers and management. In the early 1970s, reforms were introduced that gave workers the right to exercise greater control over production. At some large enterprises, working groups themselves began to monitor the course of individual production processes. Norwegians have a strong sense of equality. This egalitarian approach is the cause and effect of the use of the economic levers of state power to mitigate social conflicts. There is a scale of income taxes. In 1996, approximately 37% of budget expenditures were directed to direct financing of the social sphere. Another mechanism for equalizing social differences is the strict state control over housing construction. Most of the loans are provided by the state housing bank, and the construction is carried out by companies with a cooperative form of ownership. Due to the climate and topography, construction is expensive, however, the ratio between the number of residents and the number of rooms they occupy is considered to be quite high. In 1990, on average, there were 2.5 people per dwelling, consisting of four rooms with a total area of ​​103.5 square meters. m. Approximately 80.3% of the housing stock belongs to individuals living in it.
Social Security. The National Insurance Scheme, a compulsory pension system covering all Norwegian citizens, was introduced in 1967. Health insurance and unemployment assistance were included in this system in 1971. All Norwegians, including housewives, receive a basic pension upon reaching the age of 65. Additional pension depends on income and length of service. The average pension roughly corresponds to 2/3 of earnings in the highest paid years. Pensions are paid from insurance funds (20%), employer contributions (60%) and the state budget (20%). Loss of income during illness is compensated by sickness benefits, and in case of prolonged illness - disability pensions. Medical care is paid, but all medical expenses exceeding $187 per year are paid from social insurance funds (doctors' services, stay and treatment in public hospitals, maternity hospitals and sanatoriums, purchase of medicines for certain chronic diseases, as well as full-time employment - a two-week annual allowance in case of temporary disability). Women receive free prenatal and postnatal care, and full-time working women are entitled to 42 weeks of paid maternity leave. The state guarantees all citizens, including housewives, the right to four weeks of paid leave. In addition, persons over 60 years of age have an additional week's leave. Families receive benefits of $1,620 per year for each child under age 17. Every 10 years, all workers are entitled to an annual leave with full pay for training to improve their skills.
Organizations. Many Norwegians are involved in one or more voluntary organizations that cater to different interests and are most often associated with sports and culture. Of great importance is the Sports Association, which organizes and supervises hiking and skiing routes and supports other sports. The economy is also dominated by associations. Chambers of Commerce control industry and business. The Central Organization of the Economy (Nringslivets Hovedorganisasjon) represents 27 national trade associations. It was formed in 1989 by the merger of the Federation of Industry, the Federation of Artisans and the Association of Employers. The interests of shipping are expressed by the Association of Norwegian Shipowners and the Association of Scandinavian Shipowners, the latter is involved in the conclusion of collective agreements with seafarers' unions. Small business activities are controlled mainly by the Federation of Trade and Service Industries, which in 1990 had about 100 branches. Other organizations include the Norwegian Forest Society, which deals with forestry issues; the Federation of Agriculture, which represents the interests of livestock, poultry and agricultural cooperatives, and the Norwegian Trade Council, which promotes the development of foreign trade and foreign markets. Trade unions in Norway are very influential, they unite about 40% (1.4 million) of all employees. The Central Association of Trade Unions of Norway (COPN), founded in 1899, represents 28 unions with 818.2 thousand members (1997). Employers are organized in the Norwegian Confederation of Employers, founded in 1900. It represents their interests in the conclusion of collective agreements in enterprises. Labor disputes often go to arbitration. In Norway for the period 1988-1996 there were an average of 12.5 strikes per year. They are less frequent than in many other industrialized countries. The largest number of union members is in management and manufacturing, although the highest membership rate is in the maritime sectors of the economy. Many local trade unions are affiliated with local branches of the Norwegian Workers' Party. The regional trade union associations and the OCPN allocate funds for the party press and for the election campaigns of the Norwegian Workers' Party.
local diversity. Although the integration of Norwegian society has increased with the improvement of means of communication, local customs are still alive in the country. In addition to spreading the New Norwegian language (nynoshk), each district carefully preserves its own dialects, as well as national costumes intended for ritual performances, the study of local history is supported, and local newspapers are published. Bergen and Trondheim as former capitals have cultural traditions that differ from those adopted in Oslo. Northern Norway is also developing a distinctive local culture, mainly as a result of the remoteness of its tiny settlements from the rest of the country.
A family. A close-knit family has been a specific feature of Norwegian society since Viking times. Most Norwegian surnames are of local origin, they are often associated with some natural features or with the economic development of the land that took place in the time of the Vikings or even earlier. Ownership of an ancestral farm is protected by inheritance law (odelsrett), which gives the family the right to buy the farm even if it has been recently sold. In rural areas, the family remains the most important unit of society. Family members travel from far and wide to attend weddings, christenings, confirmations, and funerals. This commonality often does not disappear even in the conditions of city life. With the onset of summer, the favorite and most economical form of spending holidays and vacations with the whole family is living in a small country house (hytte) in the mountains or on the seashore. The position of women in Norway is protected by the law and customs of the country. In 1981, Prime Minister Bruntland brought an equal number of women and men into her cabinet, and all subsequent governments have been formed on the same principle. Women are well represented in the judiciary, education, health care and administration. In 1995, approximately 77% of women aged 15 to 64 worked outside the home. Thanks to the developed system of nurseries and kindergartens, mothers can work and run the household at the same time.
CULTURE
The roots of Norwegian culture go back to the traditions of the Vikings, the medieval "age of greatness" and the sagas. Although usually the Norwegian masters of culture were influenced by Western European art and assimilated many of its styles and subjects, nevertheless, the specifics of their native country were reflected in their work. Poverty, the struggle for independence, admiration for nature - all these motifs appear in Norwegian music, literature and painting (including decorative art). Nature still plays an important role in folk culture, as evidenced by the extraordinary fondness of Norwegians for sports and life in the bosom of nature. Mass media are of great educational value. For example, the periodical press devotes a lot of space to the events of cultural life. The abundance of bookstores, museums and theaters also serves as an indicator of the keen interest of the Norwegian people in their cultural traditions.
Education. At all levels, education costs are covered by the state. The education reform launched in 1993 was supposed to improve the quality of education. The compulsory education program is divided into three stages: from preschool education up to grade 4, grades 5-7 and grades 8-10. Adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19 can receive a complete secondary education, which is necessary for admission to a trade school, high school (college) or university. Approx. 80 higher folk schools where general subjects are taught. Most of these schools receive funds from religious communities, private individuals or local authorities. Higher education institutions in Norway are represented by four universities (in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim and Tromso), six specialized higher schools (colleges) and two state art schools, 26 state colleges in the county and additional education courses for adults. In the 1995/1996 academic year, 43.7 thousand students studied at the country's universities; in other higher educational institutions- another 54.8 thousand. Education at universities is paid. Usually, loans are provided to students for education. Universities train civil servants, clergy and university professors. In addition, universities almost completely provide a cadre of doctors, dentists, engineers and scientists. Universities are also engaged in fundamental scientific research. The Oslo University Library is the largest national library. Norway has numerous research institutes, laboratories and development offices. Among them stand out the Academy of Sciences in Oslo, the Christian Michelsen Institute in Bergen and the Scientific Society in Trondheim. There are large folk museums on the island of Bygdey near Oslo and in Maiheugen near Lillehammer, in which one can trace the development of building art and various aspects of rural culture since ancient times. In a special museum on the island of Bygdey, three Viking ships are exhibited, clearly illustrating the life of Scandinavian society in the 9th century. AD, as well as two ships of modern pioneers - Fridtjof Nansen's ship "Fram" and Thor Heyerdahl's raft "Kon-Tiki". The active role of Norway in international relations is evidenced by the Nobel Institute, the Institute for Comparative Cultural Studies, the Institute for Peace Research and the International Law Society located in this country.
Literature and art. The spread of Norwegian culture was hampered by the limited audience, which was especially true for writers who wrote in the little-known Norwegian language. Therefore, the government has long been allocating subsidies to support the arts. They are included in the state budget and are used to provide grants to artists, organize exhibitions and directly purchase works of art. In addition, revenue from state-run football competitions is provided to the General Research Council, which funds cultural projects. Norway gave the world outstanding figures in all areas of culture and art: the playwright Henrik Ibsen, writers Bjornstern Bjornson (Nobel Prize 1903), Knut Hamsun (Nobel Prize 1920) and Sigrid Unset (Nobel Prize 1928), artist Edvard Munch and composer Edvard Grieg. The problematic novels of Sigurd Hul, the poetry and prose of Tarjei Vesos, and the pictures of rural life in the novels of Johan Falkberget also stand out as achievements of Norwegian literature of the 20th century. Possibly, in terms of poetic expressiveness, writers writing in the New Norwegian language stand out the most, among them the most famous is Tarja Vesos (1897-1970). Poetry is very popular in Norway. In relation to the population in Norway, several times more books are published than in the USA, and there are many women among the authors. The leading contemporary lyricist is Stein Meren. However, the poets of the previous generation are much more famous, especially Arnulf Everland (1889-1968), Nurdal Grieg (1902-1943) and Hermann Willenwey (1886-1959). In the 1990s, the Norwegian writer Jostein Gorder gained international recognition with his philosophical children's story The World of Sophia. The Norwegian government supports three theaters in Oslo, five theaters in major provincial cities and one traveling national theater company. The influence of folk traditions can also be traced in sculpture and painting. The leading Norwegian sculptor was Gustav Vigeland (1869-1943) and the most famous artist was Edvard Munch (1863-1944). The work of these masters reflects the influence of the abstract art of Germany and France. Norwegian painting showed a gravitation towards frescoes and other decorative forms, especially under the influence of Rolf Nesch, who immigrated from Germany. At the head of representatives of abstract art is Jacob Weidemann. The most famous propagandist of conditional sculpture is Dure Vaux. The search for innovative traditions in sculpture manifested itself in the work of Per Falle Storm, Per Hurum, Yusef Grimeland, Arnold Heukeland and others. The expressive school of figurative art, which played an important role in artistic life Norway in the 1980s-1990s, represented by such masters as Bjorn Carlsen (b. 1945), Kjell Erik Olsen (b. 1952), Per Inge Bjerlu (b. 1952) and Bente Stokke (b. 1952). The revival of Norwegian music in the 20th century. noticeable in the works of several composers. Harald Severud's musical drama based on Peer Gynt, the atonal compositions of Farthein Valen, the rousing folk music of Klaus Egge and the melodic interpretation of traditional folk music by Sparre Olsen testify to the life-giving tendencies in contemporary Norwegian music. In the 1990s, the Norwegian pianist and classical music performer Lars Ove Annsnes won worldwide recognition.
Mass media. With the exception of the popular illustrated weeklies, the rest of the media are serious. There are many newspapers, but their circulation is small. In 1996, 154 newspapers were published in the country, including 83 daily newspapers, the seven largest accounted for 58% of the total circulation. Radio broadcasting and television are state monopolies. The cinemas are mostly owned by the communes, sometimes the films of Norwegian production, subsidized by the state, are a success. Usually American and other foreign films are shown.
Sports, customs and holidays. Outdoor recreation plays an important role in national culture. Football and the annual international ski jumping competition at Holmenkollen near Oslo are very popular. At the Olympics, Norwegian athletes most often excel in skiing and speed skating. Swimming, sailing, orienteering, hiking, camping, boating, fishing and hunting are popular. All citizens in Norway are entitled to nearly five weeks of paid annual leave, including three weeks of summer vacation. Eight church holidays are celebrated, on these days people try to leave the city. The same applies to two national holidays- Labor Day (May 1) and Constitution Day (May 17).
STORY
Ancient period. There is evidence that primitive hunters lived in some areas on the northern and northwestern coast of Norway shortly after the retreat of the ice sheet edge. However, the naturalistic drawings on the walls of the caves along the west coast were created much later. Agriculture spread slowly in Norway after 3000 BC. During the Roman Empire, the inhabitants of Norway had contact with the Gauls, runic writing (used from the 3rd to 13th centuries AD by Germanic tribes, especially Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons for inscriptions on tombstones, as well as for magic spells), and the process of settlement territory of Norway was carried out at a rapid pace. From 400 AD the population was replenished by migrants from the south, who paved the "way to the north" (Nordwegr, from where the name of the country - Norway) came from. At that time, in order to organize local self-defense, the first tiny kingdoms were created. In particular, the Ynglings, a branch of the first Swedish royal family, founded one of the oldest feudal states west of the Oslo Fjord.
Viking Age and Middle Ages. Around 900, Harald Fairhair (son of Halfdan the Black, a minor ruler of the Yngling family) managed to establish a larger kingdom, defeating other small feudal lords in the battle of Hafsfjord together with Jarl Hladir of Trennelag. Having been defeated and having lost their independence, dissatisfied feudal lords took part in the campaigns of the Vikings. Due to population growth on the coast, some inhabitants were forced into inland marginal areas, while others began to make pirate raids, trade, or settled in overseas countries.
See also VIKINGS. The sparsely populated islands of Scotland were probably settled by people from Norway long before the first documented Viking campaign in England in 793 AD. Over the next two centuries, the Norwegian Vikings were actively engaged in plundering foreign lands. They conquered possessions in Ireland, Scotland, northeast England and northern France, and also colonized the Faroe Islands, Iceland and even Greenland. In addition to ships, the Vikings had iron tools and were skilled wood carvers. Once in overseas countries, the Vikings settled there and developed trade. In Norway itself, even before the creation of cities (they arose only in the 11th century), markets arose on the coasts of the fjords. The state, left as a legacy by Harald the Fair-Haired, was the subject of fierce disputes between pretenders to the throne for 80 years. Kings and jarls, pagan and Christian Vikings, Norwegians and Danes staged a bloody showdown. Olaf (Olav) II (c. 1016-1028), a descendant of Harald, managed to unite Norway for a short time and introduce Christianity. He was killed at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030 by the rebellious chieftains (hevdings) who made an alliance with Denmark. After his death, Olaf was almost immediately canonized and canonized in 1154. A cathedral was erected in his honor in Trondheim, and after a short period of Danish rule (1028-1035), the throne was returned to his family. The first Christian missionaries in Norway were predominantly English; Abbots of English monasteries became owners of large estates. Only the carved decorations of the new wooden churches (dragons and other pagan symbols) were reminiscent of the Viking Age. Harald the Severe was the last Norwegian king to lay claim to power in England (where he died in 1066), and his grandson Magnus III Barefoot was the last king to lay claim to power in Ireland. In 1170, by decree of the pope, an archbishopric was created in Trondheim with five vicar bishoprics in Norway and six on the western islands, in Iceland and Greenland. Norway became the spiritual center of a vast territory in the North Atlantic. Although the Catholic Church wanted the throne to pass to the king's eldest legitimate son, this succession was often broken. The most famous impostor Sverre from the Faroe Islands, who seized the throne despite being excommunicated. During the long reign of Haakon IV (1217-1263) civil wars subsided, and Norway entered a short-lived "heyday". At this time, the creation of a centralized government of the country was completed: a royal council was established, the king appointed regional governors and judicial officials. Although the regional legislative assembly (ting) inherited from the past still remained, in 1274 a national code of laws was adopted. The power of the Norwegian king was first recognized by Iceland and Greenland, and it was more firmly established than before in the Faroe, Shetland and Orkney Islands. Other Norwegian possessions in Scotland were formally returned in 1266 to the Scottish king. At that time, overseas trade flourished, and Haakon IV, whose residence was in the center of trade - Bergen, concluded the very first of the known trade agreements with the king of England. The 13th century was the last period of independence and greatness in the early history of Norway. During this century, Norwegian sagas were collected, telling about the past of the country. In Iceland, Snorri Sturluson wrote down Heimskringla and the Younger Edda, and Snorri's nephew, Sturla Thordsson, wrote down the Saga of the Icelanders, the Sturlinga Saga and the Saga of Haakon Haakonsson, which are considered the earliest works of Scandinavian literature.
Kalmar union. The decline of the role of the Norwegian merchants was outlined approx. 1250, when the Hanseatic League (which united the trading centers of northern Germany) established its office in Bergen. His agents imported grain from the Baltic countries in exchange for Norway's traditional export of dried cod. The aristocracy died out during the plague that struck the country in 1349 and carried almost half of the entire population to the grave. Huge damage was done to dairy farming, which formed the basis of agriculture in many estates. Against this background, Norway had become the weakest of the Scandinavian monarchies by the time that, due to the extinction of the royal dynasties, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were united in accordance with the Kalmar Union of 1397. Sweden left the union in 1523, but Norway was increasingly considered an appendage of the Danish crown, which ceded Orkney and Shetland to Scotland. Relations with Denmark escalated at the beginning of the Reformation, when the last Catholic archbishop of Trondheim unsuccessfully tried to oppose the introduction of a new religion in 1536. Lutheranism spread north to Bergen, the center of activity of German merchants, and then to the more northern regions of the country. Norway received the status of a Danish province, which was governed directly from Copenhagen and was forced to adopt the Lutheran Danish liturgy and the Bible. Until the middle of the 17th century. Norway didn't have prominent politicians and artists, and until 1643 few books were published. The Danish king Christian IV (1588-1648) took a keen interest in Norway. He encouraged the mining of silver, copper, and iron, and fortified the frontier in the far north. He also established a small Norwegian army and helped recruit conscripts in Norway and build ships for the Danish navy. Nevertheless, due to participation in the wars waged by Denmark, Norway was forced to permanently cede three border districts to Sweden. Around 1550, the first sawmills appeared in Norway, which contributed to the development of timber trade with Dutch and other foreign customers. Logs were floated along the rivers to the coast, where they were sawn and loaded onto ships. The revival of economic activity contributed to the growth of the population, which in 1660 amounted to approx. 450 thousand people against 400 thousand in 1350. National rise in the 17-18 centuries. After the establishment of absolutism in 1661, Denmark and Norway began to be considered "twin kingdoms"; thus, their equality was formally recognized. In the code of laws of Christian IV (1670-1699), which had a great influence on Danish law, the serf relations that existed in Denmark did not apply to Norway, where the number of free landowners was growing rapidly. The civil, ecclesiastical, and military officials who ruled Norway spoke Danish, were trained in Denmark, and carried out the politics of that country, but often belonged to families that had lived in Norway for several generations. The policy of mercantilism of that time led to the concentration of trade in cities. There, new opportunities opened up for immigrants from Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Denmark, and a class of merchant bourgeoisie developed, replacing the local nobility and Hanseatic associations (the last of these associations lost its privileges at the end of the 16th century). In the 18th century timber was sold mainly to the UK and often transported on Norwegian ships. Fish was exported from Bergen and other ports. Norwegian trade especially prospered during wars between the great powers. In an environment of increasing prosperity in the cities, the prerequisites were created for the establishment of a national Norwegian bank and a university. Despite episodic protests against excessive taxes or illegal actions of government officials, in general, the peasantry passively took a loyal position in relation to the king, who lived in distant Copenhagen. The ideas of the French Revolution had some influence on Norway, which, moreover, was greatly enriched by the expansion of trade during the Napoleonic wars. In 1807, the British subjected Copenhagen to severe shelling and took the Danish-Norwegian fleet to England so that Napoleon would not get it. The blockade of Norway by English military courts caused great damage, and the Danish king was forced to establish a temporary administration - the Government Commission. After the defeat of Napoleon, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to the Swedish king (according to the Kiel Peace Treaty, 1814). Refusing to submit, the Norwegians took advantage of the situation and convened a State (Constituent) Assembly of representatives, nominated mainly from the wealthy classes. It adopted a liberal constitution and elected the Danish heir to the throne, Viceroy of Norway, Christian Frederick, as king. However, it was not possible to defend independence because of the position of the great powers, which guaranteed Sweden the accession of Norway to it. The Swedes sent troops against Norway, and the Norwegians were forced to agree to a union with Sweden, while maintaining the constitution and independence in internal affairs. In November 1814, the first elected parliament - the Storting - recognized the power of the Swedish king.
Elite rule (1814-1884). It cost Norway dearly to lose the English timber market to Canada. The country's population, which grew from 1 million to 1.5 million in the period 1824-1853, was forced to switch to supplying its own food mainly through subsistence agriculture and fishing. At the same time, the country needed to reform the central government. Politicians advocating the interests of the peasantry demanded tax cuts, but less than 1/10 of the citizens had the right to vote, and the population as a whole continued to rely on ruling class officials. The king (or his representative - the statholder) appointed the Norwegian government, some of whose members visited the monarch in Stockholm. The Storting met every three years to check the financial statements, respond to complaints, and ward off any Swedish attempts to renegotiate the 1814 agreement. The king had the power to veto the decisions of the Storting, and about one in eight bills were rejected in this way. In the middle of the 19th century the rise of the national economy. In 1849, Norway provided most of the UK's shipping. The free trade tendencies that prevailed in Great Britain, in turn, favored the expansion of Norwegian exports and opened the way for the import of British machinery, as well as the creation of textile and other small enterprises in Norway. The government promoted the development of transport by providing subsidies for the organization of regular postal steamboat trips along the coast of the country. Roads were laid to previously inaccessible areas, and in 1854 traffic was opened on the first railway. The revolutions of 1848 that swept through Europe evoked an immediate response in Norway, where a movement arose to defend the interests of industrial workers, small landowners and tenants. It was poorly prepared and quickly suppressed. Despite the intensified integration processes in the economy, living standards rose at a slow pace and, in general, life remained difficult. In the following decades, many Norwegians found a way out of this situation in exile. Between 1850 and 1920, 800,000 Norwegians emigrated, mainly to the USA. In 1837 the Storting introduced a democratic system of local self-government, which gave new impetus to political activity in places. As education became more accessible, a readiness for long-term political activity reappeared among the peasantry. In the 1860s, stationary primary schools, replacing mobile ones, when one rural teacher moved from one settlement to another. At the same time, the organization of secondary public schools began. The first political parties began to function in the Storting in the 1870s and 1880s. One group, conservative in character, supported the ruling bureaucratic government. The opposition was led by Johan Sverdrup, who rallied peasant representatives around a small group of urban radicals who wanted to make the government accountable to the Storting. The reformers sought to amend the constitution by requiring that the royal ministers participate in the meetings of the Storting without the right to vote. The government invoked the king's right to veto any constitutional bill. After fierce political discussions, the Supreme Court of Norway in 1884 issued a ruling depriving almost all cabinet members of their portfolios. After considering the possible consequences of a decision by force, King Oscar II considered it good not to take risks and appointed Sverdrup head of the first government, responsible to Parliament.
Transition to a constitutional-parliamentary monarchy (1884-1905). Sverdrup's liberal-democratic government extended suffrage and gave equal status to New Norwegian (Nynoshk) and Rixmol. However, on issues of religious tolerance, it split into radical liberals and puritans: the first of them had support in the capital, and the latter on the west coast since the time of Heuge (late 18th century). This split is described in the works famous writers- Ibsen, Bjornson, Hjellan and Jonas Lee, who criticized the traditional limitations of Norwegian society from different angles. However, the Conservative Party (Heire) did not benefit from the situation, as it received its main support from the uneasy alliance of the disadvantaged bureaucracy and the slowly growing middle industrial class. Cabinets of ministers quickly changed, each of them was unable to solve the main problem: how to reform the union with Sweden. In 1895, the idea arose to take over foreign policy, which was the prerogative of the king and his foreign minister (also a Swede). However, the Storting usually intervened in intra-Scandinavian affairs concerning the world and the economy, although such a system seemed unfair to many Norwegians. Them minimum requirement came down to the establishment in Norway of an independent consular service, which the king and his Swedish advisers did not want to establish, given the size and importance of the Norwegian merchant fleet. After 1895, various compromise solutions to this issue were discussed. Since no solution could be reached, the Storting was forced to resort to the veiled threat of opening direct action against Sweden. At the same time, Sweden was spending money on strengthening Norway's defenses. After the introduction of universal conscription in 1897, it became difficult for conservatives to ignore calls for Norway's independence. Finally, in 1905, the union with Sweden was broken under a coalition government headed by the leader of the liberal party (Venstre), shipowner Christian Mikkelsen. When King Oscar refused to approve the law on the Norwegian consular service and accept the resignation of the Norwegian cabinet, the Storting voted to dissolve the union. This revolutionary action could lead to war with Sweden, but this was prevented by the Great Powers and the Social Democratic Party of Sweden, which opposed the use of force. Two plebiscites showed that the Norwegian electorate was almost unanimous in favor of the secession of Norway and that 3/4 of the electorate voted in favor of retaining the monarchy. On this basis, the Storting offered the Danish prince Karl, son of Frederick VIII, to take the Norwegian throne, and on November 18, 1905 he was elected king under the name of Haakon VII. His wife Queen Maud was the daughter of the English king Edward VII, which strengthened Norway's ties with Great Britain. Their son, heir to the throne, later became King Olaf V of Norway.
Period of peaceful development (1905-1940). The achievement of full political independence coincided with the beginning of accelerated industrial development. At the beginning of the 20th century the Norwegian merchant fleet was replenished by steamships, and whaling ships began to hunt in the waters of the Antarctic. For a long period, the liberal party Venstre was in power, which carried out a number of social reforms, including the full enfranchisement of women in 1913 (Norway was a pioneer among European states in this respect) and the adoption of laws to limit foreign investment. During the First World War, Norway remained neutral, although Norwegian sailors sailed on Allied ships that broke through the blockade organized by German submarines. In 1920, Norway was granted sovereignty over the Svalbard (Svalbard) archipelago as a token of gratitude for supporting the Entente country. Wartime anxiety helped bring about reconciliation with Sweden, and Norway subsequently played a more active role in international life through the League of Nations. The first and last presidents of this organization were Norwegians. In domestic politics, the interwar period was marked by the growing influence of the Norwegian Workers' Party (NLP), which originated among the fishermen and tenants of the far north, and then received the support of industrial workers. Under the influence of the revolution in Russia, the revolutionary wing of this party gained the upper hand in 1918, and for some time the party was part of the Communist International. However, after the breakaway of the Social Democrats in 1921, the ILP broke off relations with the Comintern (1923). In the same year, the independent Communist Party of Norway (CPN) was formed, and in 1927 the Social Democrats again merged with the CHP. In 1935, a government of moderate representatives of the CHP was in power with the support of the Peasant Party, which gave its votes in exchange for subsidies to agriculture and fisheries. Despite the unsuccessful experiment with Prohibition (abolished in 1927) and the mass unemployment generated by the crisis, Norway has made progress in health care, housing, social welfare and cultural development.
The Second World War. April 9, 1940 Germany unexpectedly attacked Norway. The country was taken by surprise. Only in the Oslofjord area were the Norwegians able to put up stubborn resistance to the enemy thanks to reliable defensive fortifications. Within three weeks, the German troops dispersed throughout the interior of the country, preventing individual formations of the Norwegian army from uniting. The port city of Narvik in the far north was recaptured from the Germans a few days later, but Allied support proved insufficient, and when Germany launched offensive operations in Western Europe, Allied forces had to be evacuated. The king and government fled to Great Britain, where they continued to lead the merchant fleet, small infantry units, naval and air forces. The Storting gave the king and government the authority to lead the country from abroad. In addition to the ruling CHP, members of other parties were introduced into the government to strengthen it. A puppet government headed by Vidkun Quisling was created in Norway. In addition to acts of sabotage and active underground propaganda, the leaders of the Resistance secretly organized military training and sent many young people to Sweden, where permission was obtained to train "police formations". The king and government returned to the country on June 7, 1945. Approx. 90 thousand cases on charges of high treason and other offences. Quisling, along with 24 traitors, was shot, 20 thousand people were sentenced to prison.
Norway after 1945. In the 1945 elections, the CHP won the majority of votes for the first time and remained in power for 20 years. During this period, the electoral system was transformed by abolishing the article of the constitution on granting 2/3 of the seats in the Storting to deputies from rural areas of the country. The regulatory role of the state has been extended to national planning. State control over the prices of goods and services was introduced. The financial and credit policy of the government helped to maintain a fairly high growth rate of economic indicators even during the global recession in the 1970s. The necessary funds for the expansion of production were obtained through large foreign loans against future income from oil and gas production on the shelf of the North Sea. In the early post-war years, Norway showed the same commitment to the UN that it had shown to the League of Nations before the war. However, the atmosphere cold war put the Scandinavian defense treaty on the agenda. Norway joined NATO from the very beginning of its founding in 1949. Since 1961, the ILP remained one of the largest parties in the Storting, although it did not have a majority of seats there. In 1965, a coalition of non-socialist parties came to power with a slight majority. In 1971, the CHP again won the elections, and the government was headed by Trygve Brateli. In the 1960s, Norway established strong ties with the countries of the EEC, especially with the FRG. However, many Norwegians opposed joining the common market, fearing competition from European countries in fishing, shipbuilding and other sectors of the economy. In 1972, at a general referendum, the question of Norway's participation in the EEC was decided in the negative, and the Brateli government resigned. It was replaced by a non-socialist government led by Lars Korvall of the Christian People's Party. In 1973, it entered into a free trade agreement with the EEC, which created great advantages for the export of a number of Norwegian goods. After the 1973 elections, the government was again headed by Brateli, although the CHP did not win a majority of the seats in the Storting. In 1976, Odvar Nurli came to power. As a result of the 1976 elections, the CHP again formed a minority government. In February 1981, citing deteriorating health, Nurli resigned, and Gro Harlem Bruntland was appointed prime minister. The center-right parties increased their influence in the elections in September 1981, and the leader of the Conservative Party (Heire) Kore Willock formed the first government since 1928 from members of this party. At this time, the Norwegian economy was on the rise due to the rapid growth of oil production and high prices in the world market. In the 1980s, an important role was played by environmental problems. In particular, the forests of Norway have been hit hard by acid rain caused by the release of pollutants into the atmosphere by UK industries. As a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986, significant damage was caused to the Norwegian reindeer herding. After the 1985 elections, negotiations between the socialists and their opponents stalled. The fall in oil prices gave rise to inflation, there were problems with the financing of social security programs. Willock resigned and Bruntland returned to power. The results of the 1989 elections made it difficult to form a coalition government. The non-socialist minority conservative government led by Jan Suce resorted to unpopular measures that stimulated unemployment. A year later, it resigned due to disagreements over the creation of the European Economic Area. The Labor Party, led by Brutland, re-formed a minority government, which in 1992 resumed negotiations on Norway's accession to the EU. In the 1993 elections, the Workers' Party remained in power, but did not win a majority of seats in parliament. Conservatives - from the very right (Party of Progress) to the very left (People's Socialist Party) - were increasingly losing their positions. The center party, opposed to joining the EU, won three times as many seats and moved into second place in terms of influence in parliament. The new government has again raised the issue of Norway's accession to the EU. This proposal was strongly supported by voters from three parties - the Workers' Party, the Conservative Party and the Progress Party, living in cities in the south of the country. The Center Party, representing the interests of the rural population and farmers, mostly opposed to the EU, led the opposition, gaining support from the extreme left and Christian Democrats. In a popular referendum in November 1994, Norwegian voters, despite the positive results of voting in Sweden and Finland a few weeks earlier, again rejected Norway's participation in the EU. A record number of voters participated in the voting (86.6%), of which 52.2% were against EU membership, and 47.8% were in favor of joining this organization.
In October 1996 Gro Harlem Bruntland
resigned and was replaced by CHP leader Thorbjørn Jagland. Despite the strengthening of the economy, the reduction of unemployment and the stabilization of inflation, the new leadership of the country could not ensure the victory of the CHP in the elections in September 1997. The Jagland government resigned in October 1997. The center-right parties still did not have a common position on the issue of participation in the EU. The Progress Party, opposed to immigration and for the rational use of the country's oil resources, this time gained more seats in the Storting (25 to 10). Moderate centre-right parties refused any collaboration with the Progress Party. HPP leader Kjell Magne Bundevik, a former Lutheran pastor, formed a coalition of three centrist parties (CHP, Center Party and Venstre), representing only 42 of the 165 deputies of the Storting. On this basis, a minority government was formed. In the early 1990s, Norway achieved wealth growth through large-scale oil and gas exports. The sharp drop in world oil prices in 1998 had a severe impact on the country's budget, and there was such a strong discord in the government that Prime Minister Bundevik was forced to take a month's vacation to "restore mental balance." In the 1990s The Royal Family attracted media attention. In 1994, unmarried Princess Mertha Louise became involved in divorce proceedings in the UK. In 1998, the king and queen were criticized for overspending public funds on their apartments. Norway actively participates in international cooperation, in particular in the settlement of the situation in the Middle East. In 1998, Bruntland was appointed Director General of the World Health Organization. Jens Stoltenberg served as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Norway continues to be criticized by environmentalists for ignoring agreements to limit the fishing of marine mammals - whales and seals.
LITERATURE
Eramov R.A. Norway. M., 1950 Yakub V.L. Norwegian. M., 1962 Andreev Yu.V. Economy of Norway. M., 1977 History of Norway. M., 1980

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Kingdom of Norway, a state in Northern Europe, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Territory area - 385.2 thousand square meters. km. It ranks second in size (after Sweden) among the Scandinavian countries. The length of the border with Russia is 196 km, with Finland - 727 km, with Sweden - 1619 km. The length of the coastline is 2650 km, and taking into account the fjords and small islands - 25 148 km.

Norway is called the land of the midnight sun, since 1/3 of the country lies north of the Arctic Circle, where the sun hardly sets below the horizon from May to July. In the middle of winter, in the far north, polar night lasts almost around the clock, and in the south, daylight hours last only a few hours.
Norway is a country of picturesque landscapes, with jagged mountain ranges, glacier-carved valleys, and narrow, steep-sided fjords. The beauty of this country inspired the composer Edvard Grieg, who tried to convey in his works the mood swings inspired by the alternation of light and dark seasons of the year.

Norway has long been a country of seafarers, and most of its population is concentrated on the coast. The Vikings, experienced sailors who created an extensive system of overseas trade, ventured across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the New World ca. 1000 AD In the modern era, the role of the sea in the life of the country is evidenced by the huge merchant fleet, which in 1997 occupied the sixth place in the world in terms of total tonnage, as well as the developed fish processing industry.

Norway is a hereditary democratic constitutional monarchy. It received state independence only in 1905. Prior to that, it was ruled first by Denmark and then by Sweden. The union with Denmark existed from 1397 to 1814, when Norway passed to Sweden.
The area of ​​the Norwegian mainland is 324 thousand square meters. km. The length of the country is 1770 km - from Cape Linnesnes in the south to the North Cape in the north, and its width ranges from 6 to 435 km. The shores of the country are washed by the Atlantic Ocean in the west, the Skagerrak in the south and the Arctic Ocean in the north. The total length of the coastline is 3,420 km, and including the fjords - 21,465 km. In the east, Norway borders on Russia (the length of the border is 196 km), Finland (720 km) and Sweden (1660 km).

Overseas possessions include the Spitsbergen archipelago, consisting of nine large islands (the largest of them is Western Spitsbergen) with a total area of ​​63 thousand square meters. km in the Arctic Ocean; o.Jan Mayen with an area of ​​380 sq. km in the North Atlantic Ocean between Norway and Greenland; small islands of Bouvet and Peter I in Antarctica. Norway claims Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.

NATURE

Terrain relief.

Norway occupies the western, mountainous part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. This is a large boulder, composed mainly of granites and gneisses and characterized by a rugged relief. The block is asymmetrically raised to the west, as a result, the eastern slopes (mainly in Sweden) are more gentle and long, and the western ones, facing the Atlantic Ocean, are very steep and short. In the south, within Norway, both slopes are present, and between them there is a vast upland.

To the north of the border between Norway and Finland, only a few peaks rise above 1200 m, but towards the south the heights of the mountains gradually increase, reaching maximum heights of 2469 m (Mount Gallhöppigen) and 2452 m (Mount Glittertinn) in the Jutunheimen massif. Other elevated areas of the highlands are only slightly inferior in height. These include Dovrefjell, Ronnane, Hardangervidda and Finnmarksvidda. Bare rocks are often exposed there, devoid of soil and vegetation cover. Outwardly, the surface of many highlands is more like gently undulating plateaus, and such areas are called "vidda".

During the great ice age, glaciation developed in the mountains of Norway, but modern glaciers are small. The largest of them are Jostedalsbre (the largest glacier in Europe) in the Jotunheimen mountains, Svartisen in northern central Norway and Folgefonni in the Hardangervidda region. The small Engabre glacier, located at 70° N, approaches the shore of the Kvenangenfjord, where small icebergs calve at the end of the glacier. However, usually the snow line in Norway is located at altitudes of 900-1500 m. Many features of the country's topography were formed during the Ice Age. Probably, there were several continental glaciations then, and each of them contributed to the development of glacial erosion, deepening and straightening of the ancient river valleys and their transformation into picturesque U-shaped steep troughs, deeply cutting through the surface of the uplands.

After the melting of the continental glaciation, the lower reaches of the ancient valleys were flooded, where fjords formed. The fjord shores amaze with their extraordinary picturesqueness and are of great economic importance. Many fjords are very deep. For example, Sognefjord, located 72 km north of Bergen, reaches a depth of 1308 m in the lower part. A chain of coastal islands - the so-called. skergor (in Russian literature, the Swedish term shkhergord is more often used) protects the fjords from strong westerly winds blowing from the Atlantic Ocean. Some islands are exposed rocks washed by the surf, others reach considerable sizes.

Most Norwegians live on the banks of the fjords. The most significant are Oslo Fjord, Hardanger Fjord, Sognefjord, Nord Fjord, Stor Fjord and Tronnheims Fjord. The main occupations of the population are fishing in the fjords, agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry in some places along the banks of the fjords and in the mountains. In the fjord areas, industry is poorly developed, except for individual manufacturing enterprises that use rich hydropower resources. In many parts of the country, bedrock comes to the surface.

Water resources.

In the east of Norway are the largest rivers, including the Glomma 591 km long. In the west of the country the rivers are short and fast. There are many picturesque lakes in southern Norway. Lake Mjosa, the largest in the country, with an area of ​​390 sq. km is located in the southeast. At the end of the 19th century Several small canals have been constructed connecting the lakes to seaports on the south coast, but these are now little used. The hydropower resources of the rivers and lakes of Norway make a significant contribution to its economic potential.

Climate.

Despite the northern position, Norway has a favorable climate with cool summers and relatively mild (for the corresponding latitudes) winters - the result of the Gulf Stream. The average annual precipitation varies from 3330 mm in the west, where moisture-carrying winds are the first to arrive, to 250 mm in some isolated river valleys in the east of the country. The average January temperature of 0°C is typical for the southern and western coasts, while in the interior it drops to -4°C or less. In July, average temperatures on the coast are approx. 14 ° C, and in the interior - approx. 16 ° C, but there are higher.

Soils, flora and fauna.

Fertile soils cover only 4% of the entire territory of Norway and are concentrated mainly in the vicinity of Oslo and Trondheim. Since most of the country is covered by mountains, plateaus and glaciers, the opportunities for plant growth and development are limited. There are five geobotanical regions: a treeless coastal region with meadows and shrubs, deciduous forests to the east of it, coniferous forests further inland and to the north, a belt of dwarf birches, willows and perennial grasses higher and even further to the north; finally, at the highest altitudes - a belt of grasses, mosses and lichens. Coniferous forests are one of Norway's most important natural resources and provide a variety of export products. Reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes and eiders are commonly found in the Arctic region. Ermine, hare, elk, fox, squirrel and - in small numbers - wolf and brown bear are found in the forests to the very south of the country. The red deer is distributed along the southern coast.

POPULATION

Demography.

Norway's population is small and growing at a slow pace. In 2004, 4574 thousand people lived in the country. In 2004, per 1 thousand people, the birth rate was 11.89, the death rate was 9.51, and the population growth was 0.41%. This figure is higher than natural population growth due to immigration, which in the 1990s reached 8-10 thousand people a year. Improvements in health and living standards have ensured a steady, albeit slow, increase in population over the last two generations. Norway, along with Sweden, is characterized by record low rates of infant mortality - 3.73 per 1000 newborns (2004) against 7.5 in the USA. In 2004 life expectancy for men was 76.64 years and for women 82.01 years. Although Norway's divorce rate was below some of its neighboring Nordic countries, after 1945 this figure increased, and in the mid-1990s, about half of all marriages ended in divorce (as in the US and Sweden). 48% of children born in Norway in 1996 are illegitimate. After the restrictions introduced in 1973, for some time immigration was sent to Norway mainly from the Scandinavian countries, but after 1978 a significant stratum of people of Asian origin appeared (about 50 thousand people). In the 1980s and 1990s, Norway accepted refugees from Pakistan, African countries and the republics of the former Yugoslavia.

In July 2005, 4.59 million people lived in the country. 19.5% of residents were under the age of 15, 65.7% were between the ages of 15 and 64, and 14.8% were 65 or older. The average age of a resident of Norway is 38.17 years. In 2005, per 1,000 people, the birth rate was 11.67, the death rate was 9.45, and the population growth was 0.4%. Immigration in 2005 - 1.73 per 1000 people. Infant mortality - 3.7 per 1000 newborns. The average life expectancy is 79.4 years.

Density and distribution of the population.

Apart from Iceland, Norway is the least populated country in Europe. In addition, the distribution of the population is extremely uneven. Oslo, the capital, is home to 495,000 people (1997), and about a third of the country's population is concentrated in the Oslofjord area. Other large cities - Bergen (224 thousand), Trondheim (145 thousand), Stavanger (106 thousand), Berum (98 thousand), Kristiansand (70 thousand), Fredrikstad (66 thousand), Tromsø (57 thousand .) and Drammen (53 thousand). The capital city is located at the top of the Oslofjord, where ocean-going ships dock close to the town hall. Bergen also occupies an advantageous position at the top of the fjord. The tomb of the kings of ancient Norway is located in Trondheim, founded in 997 AD, famous for its cathedral and Viking Age sites.

It is noteworthy that almost all major cities are located either on the coast of the sea or the fjord, or close to them. The strip, confined to a winding coastline, has always been attractive for settlements due to its access to the sea and temperate climatic conditions. With the exception of large valleys in the east and some areas in the west of the central highlands, all interior highlands are sparsely populated. However, certain areas are visited in certain seasons by hunters, nomadic Sami with herds of reindeer or Norwegian farmers who graze their livestock there. After the construction of new and reconstruction of old roads, as well as with the opening of air traffic, some mountainous areas became available for permanent residence. The main occupations of the inhabitants of such remote areas are mining, servicing hydroelectric power plants and tourists.

Farmers and fishermen live in small settlements scattered along the banks of the fjords or river valleys. Farming in the highlands is difficult, and many small, marginal farms have been abandoned there. Not counting Oslo and its environs, the population density ranges from 93 people per 1 sq. km in Vestfold, southwest of Oslo, up to 1.5 people per 1 sq. km. km in Finnmark in the far north of the country. Approximately every fourth inhabitant of Norway lives in a rural area.

Ethnography and language.

Norwegians are an extremely homogeneous people of Germanic origin. A special ethnic group is the Saami, who number approx. 20 thousand. They have lived in the far north for at least 2 thousand years, and some of them still lead a nomadic lifestyle.
Despite the ethnic homogeneity of Norway, two forms of the Norwegian language are clearly distinguished. Bokmål, or the book language (or riksmol, the state language), which is used by most Norwegians, originated from the Danish-Norwegian language, common among educated people at a time when Norway was ruled by Denmark (1397-1814). Nynoshk, or New Norwegian language (otherwise called Lansmol - rural language), received formal recognition in the 19th century. It was created by the linguist I. Osen on the basis of rural, mainly western, dialects with an admixture of elements of the medieval Old Norse language. Approximately one-fifth of all schoolchildren voluntarily choose to study as a nurse. This language is widely used in rural areas in the west of the country. At present, there is a tendency to merge both languages ​​into a single one - the so-called. Samnoshk.

Religion.

The Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church, which has state status, is under the supervision of the Ministry of Education, Science and Religion and includes 11 dioceses. By law, the king and at least half of all ministers must be Lutheran, although there is discussion about changing this provision. Church councils play a very active role in the life of parishes, especially in the west and south of the country. The Norwegian church supported many public events and equipped important missions to Africa and India. In terms of the number of missionaries in relation to population, Norway probably ranks first in the world. Since 1938 women have been entitled to be priests. The first woman was appointed a priest in 1961. The vast majority of Norwegians (86%) belong to the state church. Church ceremonies such as the baptism of children, the confirmation of adolescents, and the funeral of the dead are widespread. A large audience is collected by daily radio programs on religious topics. However, only 2% of the population attend church regularly.

Despite the state status of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, Norwegians enjoy complete freedom of religion. Under a law passed in 1969, the state also provides financial support to other officially registered churches and religious organizations. In 1996, the most numerous of them were Pentecostals (43.7 thousand), Lutheran Free Church (20.6 thousand), United Methodist Church (42.5 thousand), Baptists (10.8 thousand), denominations of Jehovah's Witnesses (15.1 thousand) and Seventh-day Adventists (6.3 thousand), the Missionary Union (8 thousand), as well as Muslims (46.5 thousand), Catholics (36.5 thousand) and Jews (1 thousand).

The religious composition of the population in 2004: parishioners of the Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church - 85.7%, Pentecostals - 1%, Catholics - 1%, other Christians - 2.4%, Muslims - 1.8%, others - 8.1%.

STATE AND POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

State device.

Norway is a constitutional monarchy. Norway has a constitution of 1814 with numerous subsequent amendments and additions. King of Norway (since January 17, 1991) - Harald V. The king communicates between the three branches of government. The monarchy is hereditary, and since 1990 the eldest son or daughter has passed the throne, although Princess Mertha Louise has made an exception to this rule. Officially, the King makes all political appointments, attends all ceremonies, and chairs (along with the Crown Prince) the formal weekly meetings of the State Council (government). Executive power is vested in the Prime Minister, who acts on behalf of the King. The Cabinet of Ministers consists of the Prime Minister and 16 ministers who head their respective departments. Since October 2005, the post of Prime Minister of Norway has been occupied by the leader of the Norwegian Workers' Party, Jens Stoltenberg. Legislative power belongs to the Storting (parliament), since 2005 it consists of 169 deputies (previously -165).

The government is collectively responsible for the policy, although each minister has the right to publicly express disagreement on a particular issue. Cabinet members are approved by the majority party or coalition in parliament - the Storting. They may participate in parliamentary debates but do not have the right to vote. The posts of civil servants are granted after passing competitive examinations.

Legislative power is vested in the Storting, which has 165 members elected for a four-year term by party lists in each of the 19 counties (counties). A deputy is elected for each member of the Storting. Thus, there is always a replacement for those who are absent and for members of the Storting who have joined the government. Voting rights in Norway are vested in all citizens who have reached the age of 18 and have lived in the country for at least five years. In order to be nominated to the Storting, citizens must have lived in Norway for at least 10 years and, by the time of the election, have had a place of residence in this constituency. After the elections, the Storting is divided into two chambers - the Lagting (41 deputies) and the Odelsting (124 deputies). Formal bills (as opposed to resolutions) must be discussed and voted on by both houses separately, but in case of disagreement, a 2/3 majority in a joint meeting of the houses must be met to pass the bill. However, most cases are decided at meetings of commissions, the composition of which is appointed depending on the representation of the parties. The Lagting also meets with the Supreme Court to discuss impeachment proceedings against any government official on the Odelsting. Minor complaints against the government are considered by a special commissioner of the Storting - the ombudsman. Amendments to the constitution require approval by a 2/3 majority at two consecutive meetings of the Storting.

Judiciary.
The Supreme Court (Høyesterett) consists of five judges who hear civil and criminal appeals from the five regional courts of appeal (Lagmannsrett). The latter, consisting of three judges each, simultaneously serve as courts of first instance in more serious criminal cases. At a lower level, there is a city or county court headed by a professional judge, assisted by two lay assistants. Each city also has an arbitration board (forliksråd) consisting of three citizens elected by the local council to mediate local disputes.
Local government.
The territory of Norway is divided into 19 regions (fylke), the city of Oslo is equated to one of them. These areas are subdivided into urban and rural districts (communes). Each of them has a council whose members are elected for a term of four years. Above the county councils is the regional council, which is elected by direct vote. Local governments have large funds, having the right to self-taxation. These funds are directed to education, health and social welfare, as well as infrastructure development. However, the police are subordinate to the State Department of Justice, and some powers are concentrated at the regional level. In 1969, the Union of the Norwegian Sami was organized, and in 1989 the parliamentary assembly of this people (Sameting) was elected. The Svalbard archipelago is governed by a governor based there.

Political parties Norway has a multi-party system. In the elections held in September 2005, the center-left coalition, which included the Norwegian Workers' Party, the Socialist Left Party and the Center Party, won.

The Norwegian Workers' Party (NRP) is a social democratic, part of the Socialist International and proclaims the principles of democratic socialism. Founded in 1887, it claimed to be a radical alternative to the political establishment. In 1919 she joined the Communist International, but left it in 1923. In the elections of 1927 the ILP became the largest party and in 1928 for the first time formed a government that lasted only 2 weeks in power. In the beginning. In the 1930s, the party officially abandoned revolutionary rhetoric and proclaimed a reformist political course. In 1935 the CHP came back to power and retained it until 1965 (with the exception of the period of German occupation in 1940-1945 and one month in 1963). The cabinets were headed by ILP leaders J. Nygorsvoll (1935-1940), Einar Gerhardsen (1945-1951, 1955-1963 and 1963-1965) and Oskar Thorp (1951-1955). During this period, the party advocated the expansion of state regulation of the economy and the social sphere, the provision of full employment, the reduction of working hours, the reduction of taxes on people with low and medium incomes, and the development of industrial democracy. Having ceded power to a coalition of bourgeois parties in 1965, the CHP was again the ruling party in 1971-1972, 1973-1981, 1986-1989, 1990-1997 and 2000-2001 -1981, Gro Harlem Brundtland in 1981, 1986-1989 and 1990-1997), Thorbjørn Jagland in 1997 and Jens Stoltenberg in 2000-2001). In the 1980s and 1990s, CHP governments pursued austerity policies, privatized parts of the public and service sectors, and reduced tax progressivity. This was the reason for the party's defeat in the 2001 elections. In 2005, by proposing a more active social policy in favor of people with low and middle incomes, the CHP collected 32.7% of the vote and received 61 seats in the Storting. Party leader - Jens Stoltenberg (Prime Minister).
The Socialist Left Party (SLP) was formed in 1975 on the basis of the merger of the Socialist People's Party (created by opponents of NATO and supporters of Norway's neutrality, who broke away from the CHP in 1961) and a number of other leftist parties that created the Socialist Electoral Union in 1973. The SLP advocated for a policy of peace and disarmament, for reducing economic inequality and reducing unemployment, limiting large private enterprise, developing and democratizing the public sector, active social policy and expanding the powers of local government. In recent decades, it has given priority to education, as well as environmental protection, and calls itself a "left-green" party. Opposes Norway's membership of the European Union (EU), denounced the shipment Western troops to Afghanistan in 2001 and the US-led military intervention in Iraq in 2003. In the 2005 elections, the SLP won 8.8% of the vote and won 15 seats in the Storting. Leader - Kristin Halvorsen.

The Center Party (PC) was founded in 1920 as the political wing of the farmers' movement. Until 1959 it was called the "Peasant Party". Currently seeks to rely on all segments of the population. The LC advocates the decentralization of political and economic power and capital, the expansion of local government and the protection of the environment. In the 1930s, the extreme right sentiment was strong in the party, but subsequently its policy was distinguished by pragmatism. Participated in the bourgeois coalition governments in 1963, 1965-1971 (this cabinet was headed by the leader of the PC Per Borten), 1972-1973, 1983-1986, 1989-1990 and 1997-2000. Strongly opposed to Norway joining the EU. In the 2005 elections, she acted in a bloc with leftist parties, collected 6.5% of the vote and has 11 seats in parliament. Leader - Oslaug Haga.

Opposition parties:

The Progress Party is a right-wing nationalist party founded in 1973 by politician Anders Lange, who put forward the slogan of radical tax cuts. The party calls for cuts in government spending, incl. for social needs, to limit government bureaucracy, privatization and to reduce immigration to Norway. Other right-wing and centre-right parties avoid a formal coalition with the Progress Party, but sometimes enjoy the support of its MPs in parliament. In the 2005 elections, it became the second most powerful political party in the country, receiving 22% of the vote and 38 seats in the Storting. Leader - Carl Ivar Hagen.

The Høire (Right) Party is Norway's traditional conservative party. It exists since the 1860s, officially took shape in 1884. The party advocates the development of private property and private enterprise (the so-called "democracy of owners"), tax cuts, social spending, state regulation of the economy and accession to the EU. In the field of rights and freedoms, he occupies rather liberal positions (supports granting homosexuals the right to adopt children). The party has repeatedly headed the country's governments (Jon Leung in 1963, Kore Willok in 1981-1986, Jan Per Suce in 1989-1990), and also participated in coalition cabinets in 1965-1971, 1972-1973 and 2001-2005. In the 2005 elections, she won 14.1% of the vote and won 23 seats in the Storting. Leader - Erna Solberg.

"Christian People's Party" (HPP) - formed in 1933 former members country's liberal party. It is based on the traditional values ​​of the Lutheran Church, advocates for the protection of the family, against abortion and the expansion of gay rights, as well as against the development of biotechnology. In the socio-economic field, the HNP recognizes the need for state care for citizens, but calls for limiting the participation of the state in economic life. Its representatives led coalition governments in 1972-1973 (Lars Korvald), 1997-2000 and 2001-2005 (Kjell Magne Bondevik); The HNP also took part in the ruling coalitions in 1963, 1965-1971, 1983-1986 and 1989-1990. In the 2005 elections, the party won 6.5% of the vote and has 11 seats in the Storting. Leader - Dagfinn Heybroten.

The Venstre (Left) party is a traditional liberal party that took shape in 1884 and played a leading role in the struggle for Norway to gain independence from Sweden. The party advocates from the positions of social liberalism: it stands up for the development of private initiative, but recognizes the need for state regulation in the social sphere, in education, environmental protection, etc. In 1963, 1965-1971 and 1972-1973 the Liberals participated in coalition governments. However, an active campaign for Norway's accession to the European Economic Community in the beginning. The 1970s led to a sharp drop in the popularity of Venstre: its representation in parliament was reduced to 2 deputies in 1973, and in 1985 it did not achieve the election of any of its candidates at all. Returning to the Storting in 1993, the Liberals served in coalition governments in 1997-2000 and 2001-2005. In the 2005 elections, the party received 5.9% of the vote and has 10 seats in parliament. Leader - Lars Sponheim.

"Red Electoral Alliance" - formed in 1973 as an election front led by the Maoist "Workers' Communist Party (Marxist-Leninist)", in 1991 it turned into a separate party advocating revolutionary Marxism. From the beginning In the 1990s, the alliance partly broke with Stalinism and Maoism. In 1993-1997 he was represented in the Storting. In the 2005 elections, he collected 1.2% of the vote; no deputies in parliament. Leader - Thorsten Dale.
"Coastal Party" - protects the interests of fishermen and whalers. In 1997, not yet a party, it acted as an electoral list and won 1st seat in parliament, in 1999 it took shape in a political party. In 2001, she also held 1 deputy in the Storting. In the 2005 elections, she collected only 0.8% of the vote and lost her parliamentary representation. Leader - Roy Waage.

The country also has an ecological party "The Greens", "Liberal People's Party", "Workers' Communist Party", "Norwegian Communist Party", the "Democrats" party, "Christian Unity Party", "Fatherland Party", "Sami People's Party", Trotskyist organizations (the Internationalist League, the International Socialists, the Internationale), the anarcho-syndicalist Norwegian Syndicalist Federation (founded in 1916), and others.

Armed forces.

The armed forces of Norway consist of the army (ground forces), the royal navy (including coast rangers and coast guards), the royal air force and the home guard. Under the long-established universal conscription law, all males between the ages of 19 and 45 are required to serve 6 to 12 months in the army or 15 months in the navy or air force. The army, which has five regional divisions, in peacetime has approx. 14 thousand military personnel and is located mainly in the north of the country. Local defense forces (83 thousand people) are trained to perform special tasks in certain areas. The navy has 4 patrol ships, 12 submarines and 28 small coastal patrol vessels. In 1997, the contingent of military sailors numbered 4.4 thousand. In the same year, the air force included 3.7 thousand personnel, 80 fighters, as well as transport aircraft, helicopters, communications equipment and training units. The Nika missile defense system has been set up in the Oslo area. The Norwegian Armed Forces take part in UN peacekeeping missions. The number of soldiers and reserve officers is 230 thousand. In 2003, military spending amounted to 1.9% of GDP ..

Foreign policy.

Norway is a small country that, due to its geographical location and dependence on world trade, actively participates in international life. Norway is a member of the UN and its specialized organizations (Norwegian Trygve Lie was in 1946-1953 the first Secretary General of the UN). From 1949 the main political parties supported Norway's participation in NATO. Scandinavian cooperation was reinforced by participation in the Nordic Council (this organization stimulates the cultural community of the Scandinavian countries and ensures mutual respect for the rights of their citizens), as well as efforts to create a Scandinavian customs union. Norway assisted in the creation of the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) and has been a member since 1960, and is also a member of the Organization for Economic Development and Cooperation. In 1962, the Norwegian government applied to join the European Common Market and in 1972 agreed to the conditions for admission to this organization. However, in a referendum held the same year, Norwegians voted against participation in the common market. In a referendum in 1994, the population did not agree with Norway's accession to the EU, while its neighbors and partners Finland and Sweden joined this union. In 2003, Norway sent troops to Iraq as part of the US-led coalition.

ECONOMY

In the 19th century most Norwegians were employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing. In the 20th century agriculture was replaced by new industries based on cheap hydropower and raw materials from farms and forests, seas and mines. The merchant fleet played a decisive role in the growth of the country's welfare. Starting from the 1970s, oil and gas production on the shelf of the North Sea developed rapidly, which made Norway the largest supplier of these products to the Western European market and the second place in the world (after Saudi Arabia) in terms of supplies to the world market.

Gross domestic product.

In terms of per capita income, Norway is one of the richest countries in the world. In 2005, gross domestic product (GDP), i.e. the total value of market goods and services was estimated at $194.7 billion, or $42.4 thousand per capita. Real GDP growth - 3.8%. In 2005, agriculture and fisheries accounted for 2.2% of GDP, industry - 37.2%, services - 60.6%. Unemployment 4.2% (2005)
The share of extractive industry (due to oil production in the North Sea) and construction in 2003 was approx. 36.2% of GDP compared to 25% in Sweden. Approximately 25% of GDP was directed to government spending (26% in Sweden, 25% in Denmark). In Norway, an unusually high share of GDP (20.5%) was directed to capital investment (in Sweden 15%, in the USA 18%). As in other Scandinavian countries, a relatively small share of GDP (50%) goes to personal consumption (in Denmark - 54%, in the USA - 67%).

Economical geography.

There are five economic regions in Norway: East (the historical province of Estland), South (Sørland), Southwest (Vestland), Central (Trönnelag) and North (Nur-Norge).

The Eastern region (Estland) is characterized by long river valleys, falling to the south and converging to the Oslo Fjord, and inland areas occupied by forests and tundra. The latter occupies high plateaus between large valleys. About half of the country's forest resources are concentrated in this area. Almost half of the country's population lives in the valleys and on both banks of the Oslo Fjord. This is the most economically developed part of Norway. The city of Oslo has a wide range of industrial sectors, including metallurgy, engineering, flour milling, printing, and almost the entire textile industry. Oslo is the center of shipbuilding. The Oslo region accounts for approximately 1/5 of all those employed in the country's industry.

Southeast of Oslo, where the Glomma flows into the Skagerrak, lies the city of Sarpsborg, the second largest industrial center in the country. The Skagerrak is home to sawmilling and pulp and paper industries that use local raw materials. For this purpose, the forest resources of the Glomma river basin are used. On the western shore of the Oslo Fjord, southwest of Oslo, there are cities whose industries are related to the sea and seafood processing. This is the center of shipbuilding Tønsberg and the former base of the Norwegian whaling fleet Sandefjord. Noshk Hydru, the country's second largest industrial concern, produces nitrogen fertilizers and other chemical products at a huge plant in Herøya. Drammen, located on the banks of the western branch of the Oslofjord, is a processing center for wood coming from the forests of Hallingdal.

The southern region (Sørland), open to the Skagerrak, is the least developed economically. A third of the district is covered with forests and was once an important center for the timber trade. At the end of the 19th century there was a significant outflow of people from this area. Currently, the population is mostly concentrated in a chain of small coastal towns that are popular summer resorts. The main industrial enterprises are the metallurgical plants in Kristiansand, producing copper and nickel.

About a quarter of the country's population is concentrated in the Southwestern region (Westland). Between Stavanger and Kristiansund, 12 large fjords penetrate deep into the land and the heavily indented shores are framed by thousands of islands. The development of agriculture is limited due to the mountainous terrain of fjords and rocky islands fringed by steep high banks, where glaciers have torn away loose sediments in the past. Agriculture is confined to river valleys and terraced areas along the fjords. In these places, in a maritime climate, fat pastures are common, and in some coastal areas - orchards. In terms of the length of the growing season, Westland ranks first in the country. The ports of southwestern Norway, in particular Ålesund, serve as bases for the winter herring fishery. Throughout the region, often in secluded places on the banks of the fjords, metallurgical and chemical plants are dispersed, using rich hydropower resources and ports that do not freeze all year round. Bergen is the area's main manufacturing center. Machine-building, flour-grinding and textile enterprises are located in this city and neighboring villages. Since the 1970s, Stavanger, Sandnes and Sula have been the main hubs from which oil and gas production infrastructure is maintained offshore the North Sea and where oil refineries are located.

The fourth most important among the major economic regions of Norway is West-Central (Trönnelag), adjacent to the Tronnheims Fjord, with its center in Trondheim. The relatively flat surface and fertile soils on maritime clays favored the development of agriculture, which proved to be competitive with that of the Oslofjord area. A quarter of the territory is covered with forests. In the area under consideration, deposits of valuable minerals are being developed, especially copper ores and pyrites (Löcken - from 1665, Folldal, etc.).
The northern region (Nur-Norge) is located mostly to the north of the Arctic Circle. Although there are no large reserves of timber and hydropower, as in the north of Sweden and Finland, the shelf zone contains the richest fish resources in the Northern Hemisphere. The coastline is very long. Fishing, the oldest occupation in the north, is still widespread, but the mining industry is becoming increasingly important. In terms of the development of this industry, Northern Norway occupies a leading position in the country. Iron ore deposits are being developed, in particular in Kirkenes near the border with Russia. There are significant deposits of iron ore in the Rana near the Arctic Circle. The extraction of these ores and work at the metallurgical plant in Mo i Rana attracted immigrants from other parts of the country to this area, but the population of the entire Northern region does not exceed the population of Oslo.

Agriculture.

As in other Scandinavian countries, in Norway the share of agriculture in the economy has declined due to the development of the manufacturing industry. In 1996, 5.2% of the working-age population of the country was employed in agriculture and forestry, and these industries provided only 2.2% of the total output. The natural conditions of Norway - high-latitude position and a short growing season, infertile soils, an abundance of precipitation and cool summers - greatly complicate the development of agriculture. As a result, mainly fodder crops are grown and dairy products are of great importance. In 1996, approx. 3% of the total area. 49% of agricultural land was used for hay and fodder crops, 38% for cereals or legumes and 11% for pastures. Barley, oats, potatoes and wheat are the main food crops. In addition, every fourth Norwegian family cultivates their personal plot.

Agriculture in Norway is an unprofitable branch of the economy, which is in an extremely difficult situation, despite subsidies provided to support peasant farms in remote areas and expand the country's food supply from domestic resources. The country has to import most of the food it consumes. Many farmers produce only enough agricultural products to meet family needs. Additional income comes from work in fisheries or forestry. Despite the objective difficulties in Norway, wheat production increased significantly, which in 1996 reached 645 thousand tons (in 1970 - only 12 thousand tons, and in 1987 - 249 thousand tons).

After 1950, many small farms were abandoned or taken over by large landowners. In the period 1949-1987, 56 thousand farms ceased to exist, and by 1995 another 15 thousand. However, despite the concentration and mechanization of agriculture, 82.6% of the peasant farms in Norway in 1995 had land plots of less than 20 hectares (the average plot was 10 .2 ha) and only 1.4% - over 50 ha.

The seasonal driving of livestock, in particular sheep, to mountain pastures ceased after the Second World War. Mountain pastures and temporary settlements (seters), which were used for only a few weeks in the summer, are no longer needed, as the collection of fodder crops in the fields around the permanent settlements has increased.

Fishing has long been a source of wealth for the country. In 1995, Norway ranked tenth in the world in fisheries development, while in 1975 it held fifth place. The total fish catch in 1995 was 2.81 million tons, or 15% of the total European catch. The export of fish for Norway is a source of foreign exchange earnings: in 1996, 2.5 million tons of fish, fishmeal and fish oil were exported for a total of 4.26 million dollars.

Coastal banks near Ålesund are the main herring fishing area. Due to overfishing, herring production decreased sharply from the late 1960s to 1979, but then began to grow again and in the late 1990s significantly exceeded the level of the 1960s. Herring is the main object of fishery. In 1996, 760.7 thousand tons of herring were harvested. In the 1970s, artificial breeding of salmon began, mainly off the southwestern coast of the country. In this new industry, Norway occupies a leading position in the world: in 1996, 330 thousand tons were mined - three times more than in the UK, which is Norway's competitor. Cod and shrimp are also valuable components of the catch.
Cod fishing areas are concentrated in the north, off the coast of Finnmark, as well as in the fjords of the Lofoten Islands. In February-March, cod come to spawn in these more sheltered waters. Most fishermen fish for cod using small family boats and farm the rest of the year on farms dotted along the coast of Norway. Fishing areas for cod in the Lofoten Islands are judged according to established tradition, depending on the size of the boats, the type of nets, the location and the duration of the fishery. Most of the fresh-frozen cod is sold to the Western European market. Dried and salted cod is sold mainly to West Africa, Latin America and the Mediterranean.

Norway was once the world's leading whaling power. In the 1930s, its whaling fleet in Antarctic waters supplied 2/3 of the world's production to the market. However, reckless capture soon led to a sharp decline in the number of large whales. In the 1960s whaling in Antarctica was discontinued. In the mid-1970s, there were no whaling ships left in the Norwegian fishing fleet. However, fishermen still kill small whales. The annual slaughter of some 250 whales caused serious international controversy in the late 1980s, but as a member of the International Whale Commission, Norway stubbornly rejected all attempts to ban whaling. She also ignored the 1992 International Convention on the Cessation of Whaling.

Mining industry.

The Norwegian sector of the North Sea contains large reserves of oil and natural gas. According to estimates in 1997, industrial oil reserves in this region were estimated at 1.5 billion tons, and gas - at 765 billion cubic meters. m. 3/4 of the total reserves and oil fields in Western Europe are concentrated here. In terms of oil reserves, Norway is ranked 11th in the world. Half of all gas reserves in Western Europe are concentrated in the Norwegian sector of the North Sea, and Norway holds the 10th place in the world in this regard. Prospective oil reserves reach 16.8 billion tons, and gas - 47.7 trillion. cube m. More than 17 thousand Norwegians are engaged in oil production. The presence of large oil reserves in the waters of Norway north of the Arctic Circle has been established. Oil production in 1996 exceeded 175 million tons, and natural gas production in 1995 - 28 billion cubic meters. m. The main fields under development are Ekofisk, Sleipner and Thor-Valhall southwest of Stavanger and Troll, Oseberg, Gullfaks, Frigg, Statfjord and Murchison west of Bergen, as well as Dreugen and Haltenbakken further north. Oil production began at the Ekofisk field in 1971 and increased throughout the 1980s and 1990s. In the late 1990s, the rich new deposits of Heidrun near the Arctic Circle and Baller were discovered. In 1997, oil production in the North Sea was three times higher than 10 years ago, and its further growth was only held back by reduced demand in the world market. 90% of the produced oil is exported. Norway started gas production in 1978 at the Frigg field, half of which is in British territorial waters. Pipelines have been laid from Norwegian deposits to Great Britain and Western European countries. The fields are being developed by the state company Statoil together with foreign and private Norwegian oil firms.

Explored oil reserves for 2002 - 9.9 billion barrels, gas - 1.7 trillion cubic meters. m. Oil production in 2005 amounted to 3.22 million barrels per day, gas in 2001 - 54.6 billion cubic meters. m.

With the exception of fuel resources, Norway has few mineral resources. The main metal resource is iron ore. In 1995, Norway produced 1.3 million tons of iron ore concentrate, mainly from the Sør-Varangergra mines in Kirkenes near the Russian border. Another large mine in the Rana region supplies the nearby large steel plant in the city of Mu.

Copper is mined mainly in the far north. In 1995, 7.4 thousand tons of copper were mined. In the north there are also deposits of pyrites used to extract sulfur compounds for the chemical industry. Several hundred thousand tons of pyrites were mined annually, until this production was curtailed in the early 1990s. Europe's largest ilmenite deposit is located at Tellnes in Southern Norway. Ilmenite is a source of titanium oxide used in the manufacture of dyes and plastics. In 1996, 758.7 thousand tons of ilmenite were mined in Norway. Norway produces a significant amount of titanium (708 thousand tons), a metal whose importance is growing, zinc (41.4 thousand tons) and lead (7.2 thousand tons), as well as a small amount of gold and silver.
The most important non-metallic minerals are raw cement and limestone. In Norway in 1996, 1.6 million tons of cement raw materials were produced. Building stone deposits are also being developed, including granite and marble.

Forestry.

A quarter of the territory of Norway - 8.3 million hectares - is covered with forests. The densest forests are in the east, where logging is predominantly carried out. More than 9 million cubic meters are being procured. m of timber per year. Spruce and pine are of the greatest commercial importance. The logging season usually falls between November and April. In the 1950s and 1960s there was a rapid increase in mechanization, and in 1970 less than 1% of all employed in the country received income from forestry. 2/3 of the forests are privately owned, but all forested areas are under strict state supervision. As a result of unsystematic logging, the area of ​​overmature forests has increased. In 1960, an extensive reforestation program began to expand the area of ​​productive forests in the sparsely populated regions of the north and west as far as the Westland fjords.

Energy.

Energy consumption in Norway in 1994 amounted to 23.1 million tons in terms of coal, or 4580 kg per capita. Hydropower accounted for 43% of all energy production, oil also 43%, natural gas 7%, coal and wood 3%. Norway's full-flowing rivers and lakes have more hydropower than any other European country. Electricity, generated almost entirely by hydroelectric power, is the cheapest in the world, and its per capita production and consumption is the highest. In 1994, 25,712 kWh of electricity was produced per person. In general, more than 100 billion kWh of electricity is generated annually.

Electricity production in 2003 - 105.6 billion kilowatt-hours.

Manufacturing industry Norway developed at a slow pace due to a shortage of coal, a narrow domestic market, and limited capital inflows. The share of manufacturing, construction and energy in 1996 accounted for 26% of gross output and 17% of all employed. In recent years, energy-intensive industries have been developed. The main industries in Norway are electrometallurgical, electrochemical, pulp and paper, radio-electronic, shipbuilding. The Oslofjord region is characterized by the highest level of industrialization, where about half of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated.

The leading branch of industry is electrometallurgy, which relies on the widespread use of cheap hydropower. The main product, aluminum, is made from imported aluminum oxide. In 1996, 863.3 thousand tons of aluminum were produced. Norway is the main supplier of this metal in Europe. Norway also produces zinc, nickel, copper and high-quality alloy steel. Zinc is produced at a plant in Eitrheim on the coast of the Hardangerfjord, nickel - in Kristiansand from ore brought from Canada. A large ferroalloy plant is located in Sandefjord, southwest of Oslo. Norway is Europe's largest supplier of ferroalloys. In 1996 metallurgical production was approx. 14% of the country's exports.

Nitrogen fertilizers are one of the main products of the electrochemical industry. The nitrogen necessary for this is extracted from the air using a large amount of electricity. A significant part of nitrogen fertilizers is exported.

The pulp and paper industry is an important industrial sector in Norway. In 1996, 4.4 million tons of paper and pulp were produced. Paper mills are located mainly in the vicinity of the vast forests of eastern Norway, for example, at the mouth of the Glomma River (the country's largest timber-floating artery) and in Drammen.

Approx. 25% of industrial workers in Norway. The most important areas of activity are shipbuilding and ship repair, production of equipment for the production and transmission of electricity.
The textile, clothing and food industries provide few products for export. They provide most of Norway's own needs for food and clothing. These industries employ approx. 20% of the country's industrial workers.

Transport and communication.

Despite the mountainous terrain, Norway has a well-developed internal communication. The state owns railways with a length of approx. 4 thousand km, of which more than half are electrified. However, most of the population prefers to travel by car. In 1995, the total length of highways exceeded 90.3 thousand km, but only 74% of them had a hard surface. In addition to railways and roads, there were ferries and coastal shipping. In 1946, Norway, Sweden and Denmark founded Scandinavian Airlines Systems (SAS). Norway has a developed local air service: in terms of domestic passenger traffic, it occupies one of the first places in the world. Length railways in 2004 - 4077 km, of which 2518 km are electrified. The total length of motor roads is 91.85 thousand km, of which 71.19 km are paved (2002). The merchant fleet in 2005 consisted of 740 ships with a displacement of St. 1 thousand tons each. There are 101 airports in the country (including 67 airstrips sedimentary belts have a hard surface) - 2005.

The means of communication, including telephone and telegraph, remain in the hands of the state, but the question of creating mixed enterprises with the participation of private capital is being considered. In 1996, there were 56 telephones per 1,000 people in Norway. The network of modern electronic means of communication is rapidly expanding. There is a significant private sector in broadcasting and television. Norwegian Public Broadcasting (NRK) remains the dominant system despite the widespread use of satellite and cable television. In 2002 there were 3.3 million subscribers of telephone lines, in 2003 there were 4.16 million mobile phones.

In 2002, there were 2.3 million Internet users.

International trade.

In 1997, Norway's leading trading partners in both exports and imports were the FRG, Sweden and the United Kingdom, followed by Denmark, the Netherlands and the United States. The predominant export items by value are oil and gas (55%) and finished goods (36%). Products of the oil refining and petrochemical, timber, electrochemical and electrometallurgical industries, foodstuffs are exported. The main import items are finished products (81.6%), food products and agricultural raw materials (9.1%). The country imports certain types of mineral fuels, bauxite, iron, manganese and chromium ore, and cars. With the growth of oil production and exports in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Norway had a very favorable foreign trade balance. Then world oil prices fell sharply, its exports declined, and for several years the trade balance of Norway was reduced to a deficit. However, by the mid-1990s, the balance turned positive again. In 1996, the value of Norwegian exports was $46 billion, while the value of imports was only $33 billion. The trade surplus is supplemented by large receipts from the Norwegian merchant fleet with a total displacement of 21 million gross register tons, which, according to the new International Register of Shipping, received substantial privileges allowing it to compete with other ships flying foreign flags.

In 2005, exports were estimated at $111.2 billion, imports at $58.12 billion. Leading export partners: UK (22%), Germany (13%), Netherlands (10%), France (10 %), USA (8%) and Sweden (7%), imports - Sweden (16%), Germany (14%), Denmark (7%), UK (7%), China (5%), USA ( 5%) and the Netherlands (4%).
Money circulation and state budget.
The unit of money circulation is the Norwegian krone. The exchange rate of the Norwegian krone in 2005 is 6.33 kroner per 1 US dollar.

In the budget, the main sources of income were social security contributions (19%), income and property taxes (33%), excise duties and value added tax (31%). The main expenditures were directed to social security and housing construction (39%), external debt service (12%), public education (13%) and health care (14%).

In 1997, government revenues amounted to 81.2 billion dollars, and expenditures - 71.8 billion dollars. In 2004, state budget revenues amounted to 134 billion dollars, expenditures - 117 billion.

The government set up a special oil fund in the 1990s, using windfall profits from the sale of oil, intended as a reserve for when the oil fields were depleted. It is estimated that by the year 2000 it will reach $100 billion, most of it is located abroad.

In 1994, Norway's external debt was $39 billion. In 2003, the country had no external debt. The size of the total public debt - 33.1% of GDP.

SOCIETY

Structure.

The most common agricultural cell is a small family farm. With the exception of a few forest holdings, there are no large land holdings in Norway. Seasonal fishing is also often family-based and on a small scale. Motorized fishing boats are mostly small wooden boats. In 1996, about 5% of industrial firms employed more than 100 workers, and even such large enterprises sought to establish informal relations between workers and management. In the early 1970s, reforms were introduced that gave workers the right to exercise greater control over production. At some large enterprises, working groups themselves began to monitor the course of individual production processes.

Norwegians have a strong sense of equality. This egalitarian approach is the cause and effect of the use of the economic levers of state power to mitigate social conflicts. There is a scale of income taxes. In 1996, approximately 37% of budget expenditures were directed to direct financing of the social sphere.

Another mechanism for equalizing social differences is the strict state control over housing construction. Most of the loans are provided by the state housing bank, and the construction is carried out by companies with cooperative ownership. Due to the climate and topography, construction is expensive, however, the ratio between the number of residents and the number of rooms they occupy is considered to be quite high. In 1990, on average, there were 2.5 people per dwelling, consisting of four rooms with a total area of ​​103.5 square meters. m. Approximately 80.3% of the housing stock belongs to individuals living in it.

Social Security.

The National Insurance Scheme, a compulsory pension system covering all Norwegian citizens, was introduced in 1967. Health insurance and unemployment assistance were included in this system in 1971. All Norwegians, including housewives, receive a basic pension upon reaching the age of 65. Additional pension depends on income and length of service. The average pension roughly corresponds to 2/3 of earnings in the highest paid years. Pensions are paid from insurance funds (20%), employer contributions (60%) and the state budget (20%). Loss of income during illness is compensated by sickness benefits, and in case of prolonged illness - disability pensions. Medical care is paid, but all medical expenses exceeding $187 per year are paid from social insurance funds (doctors' services, stay and treatment in public hospitals, maternity hospitals and sanatoriums, purchase of medicines for certain chronic diseases, as well as full-time employment - a two-week annual allowance in case of temporary disability). Women receive free prenatal and postnatal care, and full-time working women are entitled to 42 weeks of paid maternity leave. The state guarantees all citizens, including housewives, the right to four weeks of paid leave. In addition, persons over 60 years of age have an additional week's leave. Families receive benefits of $1,620 per year for each child under age 17. Every 10 years, all workers are entitled to an annual leave with full pay for training to improve their skills.

Organizations.

Many Norwegians are involved in one or more voluntary organizations that cater to different interests and are most often associated with sports and culture. Of great importance is the Sports Association, which organizes and supervises hiking and skiing routes and supports other sports.

The economy is also dominated by associations. Chambers of Commerce control industry and business. The Central Economic Organization (Nøringslivets Hovedorganisasjon) represents 27 national trade associations. It was formed in 1989 by the merger of the Federation of Industry, the Federation of Artisans and the Association of Employers. The interests of shipping are expressed by the Association of Norwegian Shipowners and the Association of Scandinavian Shipowners, the latter is involved in the conclusion of collective agreements with seafarers' unions. Small business activities are controlled mainly by the Federation of Trade and Service Industries, which in 1990 had about 100 branches. Other organizations include the Norwegian Forest Society, which deals with forestry issues; the Federation of Agriculture, which represents the interests of livestock, poultry and agricultural cooperatives, and the Norwegian Trade Council, which promotes the development of foreign trade and foreign markets.

Trade unions in Norway are very influential, they unite about 40% (1.4 million) of all employees. The Central Association of Trade Unions of Norway (COPN), founded in 1899, represents 28 unions with 818.2 thousand members (1997). Employers are organized in the Norwegian Confederation of Employers, founded in 1900. It represents their interests in the conclusion of collective agreements in enterprises. Labor disputes often go to arbitration. In Norway for the period 1988-1996 there were an average of 12.5 strikes per year. They are less frequent than in many other industrialized countries. The largest number of union members is in management and manufacturing, although the highest membership rate is in the maritime sectors of the economy. Many local trade unions are affiliated with local branches of the Norwegian Workers' Party. The regional trade union associations and the OCPN allocate funds for the party press and for the election campaigns of the Norwegian Workers' Party.

Local color.

Although the integration of Norwegian society has increased with the improvement of means of communication, local customs are still alive in the country. In addition to spreading the New Norwegian language (nynoshk), each district carefully preserves its own dialects, as well as national costumes intended for ritual performances, the study of local history is supported, and local newspapers are published. Bergen and Trondheim as former capitals have cultural traditions that differ from those adopted in Oslo. Northern Norway is also developing a distinctive local culture, mainly as a result of the remoteness of its tiny settlements from the rest of the country.

A family.

A close-knit family has been a specific feature of Norwegian society since Viking times. Most Norwegian surnames are of local origin, often associated with some natural feature or with economic development of the land that took place during the Viking Age or even earlier. Ownership of an ancestral farm is protected by inheritance law (odelsrett), which gives the family the right to buy the farm even if it has been recently sold. In rural areas, the family remains the most important unit of society. Family members travel from far and wide to attend weddings, christenings, confirmations, and funerals. This commonality often does not disappear even in the conditions of city life. With the onset of summer, the favorite and most economical form of spending holidays and vacations with the whole family is living in a small country house (hytte) in the mountains or on the seashore.

Status of women in Norway is protected by the laws and customs of the country. In 1981, Prime Minister Bruntland brought an equal number of women and men into her cabinet, and all subsequent governments have been formed on the same principle. Women are well represented in the judiciary, education, health care and administration. In 1995, approximately 77% of women aged 15 to 64 worked outside the home. Thanks to the developed system of nurseries and kindergartens, mothers can work and run the household at the same time.

CULTURE

The roots of Norwegian culture go back to the traditions of the Vikings, the medieval "age of greatness" and the sagas. Although usually the Norwegian masters of culture were influenced by Western European art and assimilated many of its styles and subjects, nevertheless, the specifics of their native country were reflected in their work. Poverty, the struggle for independence, admiration for nature - all these motifs appear in Norwegian music, literature and painting (including decorative art). Nature still plays an important role in folk culture, as evidenced by the extraordinary fondness of Norwegians for sports and life in the bosom of nature. Mass media are of great educational value. For example, the periodical press devotes a lot of space to the events of cultural life. The abundance of bookstores, museums and theaters also serves as an indicator of the keen interest of the Norwegian people in their cultural traditions.

Education.

At all levels, education costs are covered by the state. The education reform launched in 1993 was supposed to improve the quality of education. The compulsory education program is divided into three levels: from preschool to grade 4, grades 5-7 and grades 8-10. Adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19 can receive a complete secondary education, which is necessary for admission to a trade school, high school (college) or university. Approx. 80 higher folk schools where general subjects are taught. Most of these schools receive funds from religious communities, private individuals or local authorities.

Higher education institutions in Norway are represented by four universities (in Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim and Tromsø), six specialized higher schools (colleges) and two state art schools, 26 state colleges in the county and additional education courses for adults. In the 1995/1996 academic year, 43.7 thousand students studied at the country's universities; in other higher educational institutions - another 54.8 thousand.

Tuition at universities is paid. Usually, loans are provided to students for education. Universities train civil servants, clergy and university professors. In addition, universities almost completely provide a cadre of doctors, dentists, engineers and scientists. Universities are also engaged in fundamental scientific research. The Oslo University Library is the largest national library.
Norway has numerous research institutes, laboratories and development offices. Among them stand out the Academy of Sciences in Oslo, the Christian Michelsen Institute in Bergen and the Scientific Society in Trondheim. There are large folk museums on the island of Bygdøy near Oslo and in Maihäugen near Lillehammer, in which one can trace the development of building art and various aspects of rural culture since ancient times. In a special museum on the island of Bygdøy, three Viking ships are exhibited, clearly illustrating the life of Scandinavian society in the 9th century. AD, as well as two ships of modern pioneers - Fridtjof Nansen's ship "Fram" and Thor Heyerdahl's raft "Kon-Tiki". The active role of Norway in international relations is evidenced by the Nobel Institute, the Institute for Comparative Cultural Studies, the Institute for Peace Research and the International Law Society located in this country.

Literature and art.

The spread of Norwegian culture was hampered by the limited audience, which was especially true for writers who wrote in the little-known Norwegian language. Therefore, the government has long been allocating subsidies to support the arts. They are included in the state budget and are used to provide grants to artists, organize exhibitions and directly purchase works of art. In addition, revenue from state-run football competitions is provided to the General Research Council, which funds cultural projects.

Norway gave the world outstanding figures in all areas of culture and art: the playwright Henrik Ibsen, the writers Bjornstern Bjornson (Nobel Prize 1903), Knut Hamsun (Nobel Prize 1920) and Sigrid Unset (Nobel Prize 1928), the artist Edvard Munch and the composer Edvard Grieg. The problematic novels of Sigurd Hul, the poetry and prose of Tarjei Vesos, and the pictures of rural life in the novels of Johan Falkberget also stand out as achievements of Norwegian literature of the 20th century. Possibly, in terms of poetic expressiveness, writers writing in the New Norwegian language stand out the most, among them the most famous is Tarja Vesos (1897-1970). Poetry is very popular in Norway. In relation to the population in Norway, several times more books are published than in the USA, and there are many women among the authors. The leading contemporary lyricist is Stein Meren. However, the poets of the previous generation are much more famous, especially Arnulf Everland (1889-1968), Nurdal Grieg (1902-1943) and Hermann Willenwey (1886-1959). In the 1990s, the Norwegian writer Jostein Gorder gained international recognition with his philosophical children's story The World of Sophia.

The Norwegian government supports three theaters in Oslo, five theaters in major provincial cities and one traveling national theater company.

The influence of folk traditions can also be traced in sculpture and painting. The leading Norwegian sculptor was Gustav Vigeland (1869-1943) and the most famous artist was Edvard Munch (1863-1944). The work of these masters reflects the influence of the abstract art of Germany and France. Norwegian painting showed a gravitation towards frescoes and other decorative forms, especially under the influence of Rolf Nesch, who immigrated from Germany. At the head of representatives of abstract art is Jacob Weidemann. The most famous propagandist of conditional sculpture is Dure Vaux. The search for innovative traditions in sculpture manifested itself in the work of Per Falle Storm, Per Hurum, Yousef Grimeland, Arnold Haukeland and others. The expressive school of figurative art, which played an important role in the artistic life of Norway in the 1980s-1990s, is represented by such masters as Bjorn Carlsen (b. 1945), Kjell Erik Olsen (b. 1952), Per Inge Björlu (b. 1952) and Bente Stokke (b. 1952).

The revival of Norwegian music in the 20th century. noticeable in the works of several composers. Harald Severud's musical drama based on Peer Gynt, the atonal compositions of Farthein Valen, the rousing folk music of Klaus Egge and the melodic interpretation of traditional folk music by Sparre Olsen testify to the life-giving tendencies in contemporary Norwegian music. In the 1990s, the Norwegian pianist and classical music performer Lars Ove Annsnes won worldwide recognition.

Mass media.

With the exception of the popular illustrated weeklies, the rest of the media are serious. There are many newspapers, but their circulation is small. In 1996, 154 newspapers were published in the country, including 83 daily newspapers, the seven largest accounted for 58% of the total circulation. Radio broadcasting and television are state monopolies. The cinemas are mostly owned by the communes, sometimes the films of Norwegian production, subsidized by the state, are a success. Usually American and other foreign films are shown.

In con. In the 1990s, more than 650 radio stations and 360 television stations operated in the country. The population had over 4 million radios and 2 million televisions. Among the largest newspapers are the daily Verdens Gang, Aftenposten, Dagbladet and others.

Sports, customs and holidays.

Outdoor recreation plays an important role in national culture. Football and the annual international ski jumping competition at Holmenkollen near Oslo are very popular. At the Olympics, Norwegian athletes most often excel in skiing and speed skating. Swimming, sailing, orienteering, hiking, camping, boating, fishing and hunting are popular.

All citizens in Norway are entitled to nearly five weeks of paid annual leave, including three weeks of summer vacation. Eight church holidays are celebrated, on these days people try to leave the city. The same applies to two national holidays - Labor Day (May 1) and Constitution Day (May 17).

STORIES

Ancient period.

There is evidence that primitive hunters lived in some areas on the northern and northwestern coast of Norway shortly after the retreat of the ice sheet edge. However, the naturalistic drawings on the walls of the caves along the west coast were created much later. Agriculture spread slowly in Norway after 3000 BC. During the Roman Empire, the inhabitants of Norway had contact with the Gauls, runic writing (used from the 3rd to 13th centuries AD by Germanic tribes, especially Scandinavians and Anglo-Saxons for inscriptions on tombstones, as well as for magic spells), and the process of settlement territory of Norway was carried out at a rapid pace. From 400 AD the population was replenished by migrants from the south, who paved the "way to the north" (Nordwegr, from where the name of the country came from - Norway). At that time, in order to organize local self-defense, the first tiny kingdoms were created. In particular, the Ynglings, a branch of the first Swedish royal family, founded one of the oldest feudal states west of the Oslo Fjord.

Viking Age and Middle Ages.

Around 900, Harald Fairhair (son of Halfdan the Black, a minor ruler of the Yngling family) managed to establish a larger kingdom, defeating other petty feudal lords at the Battle of Hafsfjord together with Jarl Hladir of Trønnelag. Having been defeated and having lost their independence, dissatisfied feudal lords took part in the campaigns of the Vikings. Due to population growth on the coast, some inhabitants were forced into inland marginal areas, while others began to make pirate raids, trade, or settled in overseas countries. See also VIKINGS

The sparsely populated islands of Scotland were probably settled by people from Norway long before the first documented Viking campaign in England in 793 AD. Over the next two centuries, the Norwegian Vikings were actively engaged in plundering foreign lands. They conquered possessions in Ireland, Scotland, northeast England and northern France, and also colonized the Faroe Islands, Iceland and even Greenland. In addition to ships, the Vikings had iron tools and were skilled wood carvers. Once in overseas countries, the Vikings settled there and developed trade. In Norway itself, even before the creation of cities (they arose only in the 11th century), markets arose on the coasts of the fjords.

The state, left as a legacy by Harald the Fair-Haired, was the subject of fierce disputes between pretenders to the throne for 80 years. Kings and jarls, pagan and Christian Vikings, Norwegians and Danes staged a bloody showdown. Olaf (Olav) II (c. 1016-1028), a descendant of Harald, managed to unite Norway for a short time and introduce Christianity. He was killed at the Battle of Stiklestad in 1030 by rebellious chieftains (hövdings) who made an alliance with Denmark. After his death, Olaf was almost immediately canonized and canonized in 1154. A cathedral was erected in his honor in Trondheim, and after a short period of Danish rule (1028-1035), the throne was returned to his family.
The first Christian missionaries in Norway were predominantly English; Abbots of English monasteries became owners of large estates. Only the carved decorations of the new wooden churches (dragons and other pagan symbols) were reminiscent of the Viking Age. Harald the Severe was the last Norwegian king to lay claim to power in England (where he died in 1066), and his grandson Magnus III Barefoot was the last king to lay claim to power in Ireland. In 1170, by decree of the pope, an archbishopric was created in Trondheim with five vicar bishoprics in Norway and six on the western islands, in Iceland and Greenland. Norway became the spiritual center of a vast territory in the North Atlantic.

Although the Catholic Church wanted the throne to pass to the king's eldest legitimate son, this succession was often broken. The most famous impostor Sverre from the Faroe Islands, who seized the throne despite being excommunicated. During the long reign of Haakon IV (1217-1263), civil wars subsided, and Norway entered a short-lived "heyday". At this time, the creation of a centralized government of the country was completed: a royal council was established, the king appointed regional governors and judicial officials. Although the regional legislative assembly (ting) inherited from the past still remained, in 1274 a national code of laws was adopted. The power of the Norwegian king was first recognized by Iceland and Greenland, and it was more firmly established than before in the Faroe, Shetland and Orkney Islands. Other Norwegian possessions in Scotland were formally returned in 1266 to the Scottish king. At that time, overseas trade flourished, and Haakon IV, whose residence was in the center of trade - Bergen, concluded the very first of the known trade agreements with the king of England.

The 13th century was the last period of independence and greatness in the early history of Norway. During this century, Norwegian sagas were collected, telling about the past of the country. In Iceland, Snorri Sturluson wrote down Heimskringla and the Younger Edda, and Snorri's nephew, Sturla Thordsson, wrote down the Saga of the Icelanders, the Sturlinga Saga and the Saga of Haakon Haakonsson, which are considered the earliest works of Scandinavian literature.

Kalmar union.

The decline of the role of the Norwegian merchants was outlined approx. 1250, when the Hanseatic League (which united the trading centers of northern Germany) established its office in Bergen. His agents imported grain from the Baltic countries in exchange for Norway's traditional export of dried cod. The aristocracy died out during the plague that struck the country in 1349 and carried almost half of the entire population to the grave. Huge damage was done to dairy farming, which formed the basis of agriculture in many estates. Against this background, Norway had become the weakest of the Scandinavian monarchies by the time that, due to the extinction of the royal dynasties, Denmark, Sweden and Norway were united in accordance with the Kalmar Union of 1397.

Sweden withdrew from the union in 1523, but Norway was increasingly seen as an appendage of the Danish crown, which ceded Orkney and Shetland to Scotland. Relations with Denmark escalated at the beginning of the Reformation, when the last Catholic archbishop of Trondheim unsuccessfully tried to oppose the introduction of a new religion in 1536. Lutheranism spread north to Bergen, the center of activity of German merchants, and then to the more northern regions of the country. Norway received the status of a Danish province, which was governed directly from Copenhagen and was forced to adopt the Lutheran Danish liturgy and the Bible.

Until the middle of the 17th century. there were no outstanding politicians and artists in Norway, and until 1643 few books were published. The Danish king Christian IV (1588-1648) took a keen interest in Norway. He encouraged the mining of silver, copper, and iron, and fortified the frontier in the far north. He also established a small Norwegian army and helped recruit conscripts in Norway and build ships for the Danish navy. Nevertheless, due to participation in the wars waged by Denmark, Norway was forced to permanently cede three border districts to Sweden. Around 1550, the first sawmills appeared in Norway, which contributed to the development of timber trade with Dutch and other foreign customers. Logs were floated along the rivers to the coast, where they were sawn and loaded onto ships. The revival of economic activity contributed to the growth of the population, which in 1660 amounted to approx. 450 thousand people against 400 thousand in 1350.

National rise in the 17-18 centuries.

After the establishment of absolutism in 1661, Denmark and Norway began to be considered "twin kingdoms"; thus, their equality was formally recognized. In the code of laws of Christian IV (1670-1699), which had a great influence on Danish law, the serf relations that existed in Denmark did not apply to Norway, where the number of free landowners was growing rapidly. The civil, ecclesiastical, and military officials who ruled Norway spoke Danish, were trained in Denmark, and carried out the politics of that country, but often belonged to families that had lived in Norway for several generations. The policy of mercantilism of that time led to the concentration of trade in cities. There, new opportunities opened up for immigrants from Germany, the Netherlands, Great Britain and Denmark, and a class of merchant bourgeoisie developed, replacing the local nobility and Hanseatic associations (the last of these associations lost its privileges at the end of the 16th century).

In the 18th century timber was sold mainly to the UK and often transported on Norwegian ships. Fish was exported from Bergen and other ports. Norwegian trade especially prospered during wars between the great powers. In an environment of increasing prosperity in the cities, the prerequisites were created for the establishment of a national Norwegian bank and a university. Despite episodic protests against excessive taxes or illegal actions of government officials, in general, the peasantry passively took a loyal position in relation to the king, who lived in distant Copenhagen.

The ideas of the French Revolution had some influence on Norway, which, moreover, was greatly enriched by the expansion of trade during the Napoleonic wars. In 1807, the British subjected Copenhagen to severe shelling and took the Danish-Norwegian fleet to England so that Napoleon would not get it. The blockade of Norway by English military courts caused great damage, and the Danish king was forced to establish a temporary administration - the Government Commission. After the defeat of Napoleon, Denmark was forced to cede Norway to the Swedish king (according to the Kiel Peace Treaty, 1814).

Refusing to submit, the Norwegians took advantage of the situation and convened a State (Constituent) Assembly of representatives, nominated mainly from the wealthy classes. It adopted a liberal constitution and elected the Danish heir to the throne, Viceroy of Norway, Christian Frederick, as king. However, it was not possible to defend independence because of the position of the great powers, which guaranteed Sweden the accession of Norway to it. The Swedes sent troops against Norway, and the Norwegians were forced to agree to a union with Sweden, while maintaining the constitution and independence in internal affairs. In November 1814, the first elected parliament - the Storting - recognized the power of the Swedish king.
Elite rule (1814-1884). It cost Norway dearly to lose the English timber market to Canada. The country's population, which grew from 1 million to 1.5 million in the period 1824-1853, was forced to switch to supplying its own food mainly through subsistence agriculture and fishing. At the same time, the country needed to reform the central government. Politicians advocating the interests of the peasantry demanded tax cuts, but less than 1/10 of the citizens had the right to vote, and the population as a whole continued to rely on the ruling class of officials. The king (or his representative - the statholder) appointed the Norwegian government, some of whose members visited the monarch in Stockholm. The Storting met every three years to check the financial statements, respond to complaints, and ward off any Swedish attempts to renegotiate the 1814 agreement. The king had the power to veto the decisions of the Storting, and about one in eight bills were rejected in this way.

In the middle of the 19th century the rise of the national economy. In 1849, Norway provided most of the UK's shipping. The free trade tendencies that prevailed in Great Britain, in turn, favored the expansion of Norwegian exports and opened the way for the import of British machinery, as well as the creation of textile and other small enterprises in Norway. The government promoted the development of transport by providing subsidies for the organization of regular postal steamboat trips along the coast of the country. Roads were laid to previously inaccessible areas, and in 1854 traffic was opened on the first railway. The revolutions of 1848 that swept through Europe evoked an immediate response in Norway, where a movement arose to defend the interests of industrial workers, small landowners and tenants. It was poorly prepared and quickly suppressed. Despite the intensified integration processes in the economy, living standards rose at a slow pace and, in general, life remained difficult. In the following decades, many Norwegians found a way out of this situation in exile. Between 1850 and 1920, 800,000 Norwegians emigrated, mainly to the USA.

In 1837 the Storting introduced a democratic system of local self-government, which gave new impetus to local political activity. As education became more accessible, a readiness for long-term political activity reappeared among the peasantry. In the 1860s, stationary elementary schools were established, replacing mobile ones when one rural teacher moved from one locality to another. At the same time, the organization of secondary public schools began.

The first political parties began to function in the Storting in the 1870s and 1880s. One group, conservative in character, supported the ruling bureaucratic government. The opposition was led by Johan Sverdrup, who rallied peasant representatives around a small group of urban radicals who wanted to make the government accountable to the Storting. The reformers sought to amend the constitution by requiring that the royal ministers participate in the meetings of the Storting without the right to vote. The government invoked the king's right to veto any constitutional bill. After fierce political discussions, the Supreme Court of Norway in 1884 issued a ruling depriving almost all cabinet members of their portfolios. After considering the possible consequences of a decision by force, King Oscar II considered it good not to take risks and appointed Sverdrup head of the first government, responsible to Parliament.
Transition to a constitutional-parliamentary monarchy (1884-1905). Sverdrup's liberal-democratic government extended suffrage and gave equal status to New Norwegian (Nynoshk) and Rixmol. However, on issues of religious tolerance, it split into radical liberals and puritans: the first of them had support in the capital, and the latter on the west coast since the time of Hauge (late 18th century). This split is described in the works of famous writers - Ibsen, Bjornson, Hjellan and Jonas Lee, who criticized the traditional narrow-mindedness of Norwegian society from different angles. However, the conservative party (Høire) did not benefit from the situation, as it received its main support from the uneasy alliance of the disadvantaged bureaucracy and the slowly growing middle industrial class.

Cabinets of ministers quickly changed, each of them was unable to solve the main problem: how to reform the union with Sweden. In 1895, the idea arose to take over foreign policy, which was the prerogative of the king and his foreign minister (also a Swede). However, the Storting usually intervened in intra-Scandinavian affairs concerning the world and the economy, although such a system seemed unfair to many Norwegians. Their minimum demand was for the establishment of an independent consular office in Norway, which the King and his Swedish advisers were unwilling to establish, given the size and importance of the Norwegian merchant marine. After 1895, various compromise solutions to this issue were discussed. Since no solution could be reached, the Storting was forced to resort to the veiled threat of opening direct action against Sweden. At the same time, Sweden was spending money on strengthening Norway's defenses. After the introduction of universal conscription in 1897, it became difficult for conservatives to ignore calls for Norway's independence.

Finally, in 1905, the union with Sweden was broken under a coalition government headed by the leader of the liberal party (Venstre), shipowner Christian Mikkelsen. When King Oscar refused to approve the law on the Norwegian consular service and accept the resignation of the Norwegian cabinet, the Storting voted to dissolve the union. This revolutionary action could lead to war with Sweden, but this was prevented by the Great Powers and the Social Democratic Party of Sweden, which opposed the use of force. Two plebiscites showed that the Norwegian electorate was almost unanimous in favor of the secession of Norway and that 3/4 of the electorate voted in favor of retaining the monarchy. On this basis, the Storting offered the Danish prince Karl, son of Frederick VIII, to take the Norwegian throne, and on November 18, 1905 he was elected king under the name of Haakon VII. His wife Queen Maud was the daughter of the English king Edward VII, which strengthened Norway's ties with Great Britain. Their son, heir to the throne, later became King Olaf V of Norway.
Period of peaceful development (1905-1940). The achievement of full political independence coincided with the beginning of accelerated industrial development. At the beginning of the 20th century the Norwegian merchant fleet was replenished by steamships, and whaling ships began to hunt in the waters of the Antarctic. For a long period, the liberal party Venstre was in power, which carried out a number of social reforms, including the full enfranchisement of women in 1913 (Norway was a pioneer among European states in this respect) and the adoption of laws to limit foreign investment.

During the First World War, Norway remained neutral, although Norwegian sailors sailed on Allied ships that broke through the blockade organized by German submarines. In 1920, Norway was granted sovereignty over the Svalbard (Svalbard) archipelago as a token of gratitude for supporting the Entente country. Wartime anxiety helped bring about reconciliation with Sweden, and Norway subsequently played a more active role in international life through the League of Nations. The first and last presidents of this organization were Norwegians.

In domestic politics, the interwar period was marked by the growing influence of the Norwegian Workers' Party (NLP), which originated among the fishermen and tenants of the far north, and then received the support of industrial workers. Under the influence of the revolution in Russia, the revolutionary wing of this party gained the upper hand in 1918, and for some time the party was part of the Communist International. However, after the breakaway of the Social Democrats in 1921, the ILP broke off relations with the Comintern (1923). In the same year, the independent Communist Party of Norway (CPN) was formed, and in 1927 the Social Democrats again merged with the CHP. In 1935, a government of moderate representatives of the CHP was in power with the support of the Peasant Party, which gave its votes in exchange for subsidies to agriculture and fisheries. Despite the unsuccessful experiment with Prohibition (abolished in 1927) and the mass unemployment generated by the crisis, Norway has made progress in health care, housing, social welfare and cultural development.

The Second World War.

April 9, 1940 Germany unexpectedly attacked Norway. The country was taken by surprise. Only in the Oslofjord area were the Norwegians able to put up stubborn resistance to the enemy thanks to reliable defensive fortifications. Within three weeks, the German troops dispersed throughout the interior of the country, preventing individual formations of the Norwegian army from uniting. The port city of Narvik in the far north was recaptured from the Germans a few days later, but Allied support proved insufficient, and when Germany launched offensive operations in Western Europe, Allied forces had to be evacuated. The king and government fled to Great Britain, where they continued to lead the merchant fleet, small infantry units, naval and air forces. The Storting gave the king and government the authority to lead the country from abroad. In addition to the ruling CHP, members of other parties were introduced into the government to strengthen it.

A puppet government headed by Vidkun Quisling was created in Norway. In addition to acts of sabotage and active underground propaganda, the leaders of the Resistance secretly organized military training and sent many young people to Sweden, where permission was obtained to train "police formations". The king and government returned to the country on June 7, 1945. Approx. 90 thousand cases on charges of high treason and other offences. Quisling, along with 24 traitors, was shot, 20 thousand people were sentenced to prison.

Norway after 1945.

In the 1945 elections, the CHP won the majority of votes for the first time and remained in power for 20 years. During this period, the electoral system was transformed by abolishing the article of the constitution on granting 2/3 of the seats in the Storting to deputies from rural areas of the country. The regulatory role of the state has been extended to national planning. State control over the prices of goods and services was introduced.

The financial and credit policy of the government helped to maintain a fairly high growth rate of economic indicators even during the global recession in the 1970s. The necessary funds for the expansion of production were obtained through large foreign loans against future income from oil and gas production on the shelf of the North Sea.

Norway has become an active member of the UN. The Norwegian Trygve Lie, a former leader of the CHP, served as general secretary of this international organization from 1946-1952. With the onset of the Cold War, Norway made its choice in favor of the Western Alliance. In 1949 the country joined NATO.
Until 1963, the Norwegian Workers' Party firmly held power in the country, although already in 1961 it lost its absolute majority in the Storting. The opposition, dissatisfied with the expansion of the public sector, was waiting for the right opportunity to remove the CHP government. Taking advantage of the scandal associated with the investigation of the disaster at the coal mine in Svalbard (21 people died), she managed to form the government of J. Lynge from representatives of the "non-socialist" parties, but it lasted only about a month. After returning to office, the Social Democratic Prime Minister Gerhardsen took a number of popular measures: the transition to equal pay for men and women, an increase in public spending on social security. Introduction of monthly paid leave. But this did not prevent the defeat of the CHP in the elections of 1965. The new government of representatives of the parties of the Center, Höyre, Venstre, and the Christian People's Party was headed by the leader of the centrists, the agronomist Per Borten. The Cabinet as a whole continued social reforms (introduced a unified social security system, including a universal old-age pension, child benefits, etc.), but at the same time carried out a new version of the tax reform in favor of entrepreneurs. At the same time, disagreements in the ruling coalition on the question of relations with the EEC escalated. Centrists and part of the liberals objected to plans to join the EEC, and their position was shared by many residents of the country, fearing that European competition and coordination would deal a blow to Norwegian fishing and shipbuilding. However, the minority Social Democratic government that came to power in 1971, headed by Trygve Bratteli, sought to join the European Community and held a referendum on this issue in 1972. After a majority of Norwegians voted no, Bratteli resigned and gave way to a minority government of three centrist parties (HPP, PC and Venstre) led by Lars Korvald. It has concluded a free trade agreement with the EEC.

Having won the 1973 elections, the CHP returned to power. Minority cabinets were formed by its leaders Bratteli (1973-1976). Odvar Nurdli (1976-1981) and Gro Harlem Bruntland (since 1981) - the first female prime minister in the history of the country.

The center-right parties increased their influence in the elections in September 1981, and the leader of the Conservative Party (Høire) Kore Willok formed the first government since 1928 from members of this party. At this time, the Norwegian economy was on the rise due to the rapid growth of oil production and high prices in the world market.

In the 1980s, environmental issues took on an important role. In particular, the forests of Norway have been hit hard by acid rain caused by the release of pollutants into the atmosphere by UK industries. As a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in 1986, significant damage was caused to the Norwegian reindeer herding.

After the 1985 elections, negotiations between the socialists and their opponents stalled. The fall in oil prices gave rise to inflation, there were problems with the financing of social security programs. Willock resigned and Bruntland returned to power. The results of the 1989 elections made it difficult to form a coalition government. The non-socialist minority conservative government led by Jan Suce resorted to unpopular measures that stimulated unemployment. A year later, it resigned due to disagreements over the creation of the European Economic Area. The Labor Party, led by Brutland, re-formed a minority government, which in 1992 resumed negotiations on Norway's accession to the EU.

In the 1993 elections, the Workers' Party remained in power, but did not win a majority of seats in parliament. Conservatives - from the very right (Party of Progress) to the very left (People's Socialist Party) - were increasingly losing their positions. The center party, opposed to joining the EU, won three times as many seats and moved into second place in terms of influence in parliament.

The new government has again raised the issue of Norway's accession to the EU. This proposal was strongly supported by voters from three parties - the Workers' Party, the Conservative Party and the Progress Party, living in cities in the south of the country. The Center Party, representing the interests of the rural population and farmers, mostly opposed to the EU, led the opposition, gaining support from the extreme left and Christian Democrats. In a popular referendum in November 1994, Norwegian voters, despite the positive results of voting in Sweden and Finland a few weeks earlier, again rejected Norway's participation in the EU. A record number of voters participated in the voting (86.6%), of which 52.2% were against EU membership, and 47.8% were in favor of joining this organization.
In the 1990s, Norway came under increasing international criticism for its refusal to stop commercial whale slaughter. In 1996, the International Fisheries Commission confirmed the ban on the export of whaling products from Norway.

In May 1996, the largest recent times labor conflict in shipbuilding and metallurgy. After a strike that swept the entire industry, the unions succeeded in lowering the retirement age from 64 to 62 years.

In October 1996, Prime Minister Bruntland resigned in the hope of giving her party a better chance in the upcoming parliamentary elections. The new cabinet was headed by CHP chairman Thorbjørn Jagland. But this did not help the CHP win the election, despite the strengthening of the economy, the reduction of unemployment and the reduction of inflation. The prestige of the ruling party was undermined by internal scandals. Resigned were the planning secretary, who was accused of previous financial manipulation during her tenure as trade manager, the energy secretary (she sanctioned illegal surveillance practices during her tenure as justice minister), and the justice secretary, who was criticized for her stance on granting asylum for foreign citizens. Having suffered a defeat in the elections in September 1997, Jagland's cabinet resigned.

In the 1990s, the royal family received media attention. In 1994, unmarried Princess Mertha Louise became involved in divorce proceedings in the UK. In 1998, the king and queen were criticized for overspending public funds on their apartments.

Norway actively participates in international cooperation, in particular in the settlement of the situation in the Middle East. In 1998, Bruntland was appointed Director General of the World Health Organization. Jens Stoltenberg served as the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees.

Norway continues to be criticized by environmentalists for ignoring agreements to limit the fishing of marine mammals - whales and seals.
The parliamentary elections of 1997 did not reveal a clear winner. Prime Minister Jagland resigned as his CHP lost 2 seats in the Storting compared to 1993. The far-right Progress Party increased its representation in the legislature from 10 to 25 deputies: since the rest of the bourgeois parties did not want to enter into a coalition with it , this forced her to create a minority government. In October 1997, HNP leader Kjell Magne Bondevik formed a three-party cabinet with the participation of the Center Party and the Liberals. Government parties had only 42 mandates. The government managed to hold on to power until March 2000 and collapsed when Prime Minister Bondevik opposed a gas-fired power plant project that he believed could have an adverse environmental impact. The new minority government was formed by CHP leader Jens Stoltenberg. In 2000, the authorities continued privatization by selling a third of the shares in the state oil company.

The government of Stoltenberg was also destined for a short life. In the new parliamentary elections held in September 2001, the Social Democrats suffered a heavy defeat: they lost 15% of the vote, showing the worst result since the Second World War.

After the 2001 elections, Bondevik returned to power, who formed a coalition government with the participation of conservatives and liberals. Government parties had only 62 seats out of 165 in parliament. Representatives of the "Party of Progress" were not included in the cabinet, but supported him in the Storting. However, this alliance was not sustainable. In November 2004, the Party of Progress withdrew support from the cabinet, accusing it of insufficient funding for hospitals and hospitals. The crisis was averted as a result of intensive negotiations. The Bondevik government has also been criticized for its handling of the devastating earthquake and tsunami in Southeast Asia that claimed the lives of many Norwegian tourists. In 2005, the leftist opposition intensified its anti-government agitation by condemning the private school development project.

In the beginning. In the 2000s, Norway experienced an economic boom associated with the oil boom. During the entire period (except 2001) a steady economic growth was observed, at the expense of oil revenues, a reserve fund in the amount of 181.5 billion US dollars was accumulated, the funds of which were placed abroad. The opposition called for part of the funds to be used to increase spending on social needs, promised to reduce taxes on people with low and middle incomes, and so on.

The arguments of the left were supported by the Norwegians. The parliamentary elections in September 2005 were won by an opposition left-wing coalition consisting of the CHP, the Socialist Left Party and the Center Party. CHP leader Stoltenberg took over as prime minister in October 2005. Differences remain between the winning parties on EU accession (the CHP supports such a move, the SLP and the LC oppose), NATO membership, increased oil production and the construction of a gas power plant.

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Federal Agency for Education

State educational institution of higher professional education

"Tula State University"

Department of Tourism and Hospitality Industry

CONTROLO-COURSEWORK

by discipline "Socio-economic geography"

on the topic: « NORWAY»

Student of the group Kuznetsova N.Yu.

Tula, 2009

• Introduction
• 1. Geographical location of Norway
• 1.1 Geographic characteristics Norway
• 1.2 Climate of Norway
• 1.3 Norwegian water resources
• 1.4 Flora and fauna of Norway
• 1.5 Natural resources and minerals in Norway
• 1.6 Nature conservation in Norway
• 2. Population of Norway
• 2.1 Ethnic composition
• 2.2 Religious composition of the population
• 2.3 Population structure in Norway
• 2.4 Demographic situation in Norway
• 2.5 Standard of living in Norway
• 3. State structure
• 4. Foreign and domestic policy of Norway
• 5. Administrative - territorial division of Norway
• 6. Economy of Norway
• 6.1 General information
• 6.2 Oil and gas industry in Norway
• 6.3 Energy industry in Norway
• 6.4 Other industries in Norway
• 6.5 Agriculture in Norway
• 6.6 Transport system Norway
• 6.7 Tourism industry in the Norwegian economy
• 6.8 Norway's external economy
• Conclusion
• Bibliographic list

Introduction

Norway- one of the largest countries in Europe, located in Northern Europe, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula and on a large number of adjacent small islands. The name of the country comes from the Old Norse "Norrvegr" - "the way to the north."

The official name is the Kingdom of Norway.

The capital is Oslo.

The official language is Norwegian.

The form of government is a constitutional monarchy.

The population is 4.68 million people.

The national currency is the Norwegian krone.

Country Internet Domain - .no

The telephone code is +47.

In this paper, a study of Norway will be carried out from the point of view of socio-economic geography and its socio-economic characteristics will be given.

1. Geographical location of Norway

Norway is located between 59°57"N and 10°43"E (Figure 1.1). Norway's time zone is +1 GMT. Time in Norway is 2 hours behind Moscow time.

1.1 Geographic characteristics of Norway

The territory of the country is stretched in the form of a narrow strip along the northwestern coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula from the southwest to the northeast. The largest width of the country is 430 km, the smallest (in the Narvik region) is about 7 km. The length of the country from north to south is 1700 km.

From the east and southeast, Norway borders on Sweden (over 1,630 km), Finland (760 km) and Russia (196 km). From the northwest it is washed by the Norwegian Sea, from the northeast by the Barents Sea, and in the south by the Skagerrak Strait. The Gulf Stream runs along the entire coast.

Near the coast of Norway there are a large number of large islands (Lofoten, Vesterolen, Senja, Magere, Sere), numerous small islands and skerries - St. 150 thousand. Some of them are located at a great distance from the Scandinavian Peninsula:

The Svalbard archipelago (Svalbard and nearby islands) in the eastern part of the Norwegian Sea;

Jan Mayen between the Greenland and Norwegian seas;

Bouvet Island off the coast of Antarctica;

Norway also claims territories that fall under the 1961 Atlantic Convention:

Peter I Island off the coast of Antarctica;

Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.

Rice. 1.1 Map of Norway

The territory of Norway is about 386,960 km², it extends beyond the Arctic Circle to the northernmost point of Europe - the North Cape (1/3 of the territory is located beyond the Arctic Circle). 62.1% of the area falls on mountains and plateaus, 4.8% - on rivers and lakes, 1.4% - on eternal snows and glaciers. 21.3% of the territory is covered with forests. The length of the outer coast is 2650 km. The coast of Norway is deeply indented by narrow sea bays called fjords. They form natural harbors, protected from the raging sea by chains of islands. Taking into account the fjords, bays and islands, the length of the coastline is almost 56 thousand km. . norway resource gas production policy

Norway is a mountainous country (Figure 1.2). Almost all of its territory is occupied by the Scandinavian mountains, heavily dissected by fjords and cut through by deep valleys. Of the total area occupied by the country, 39,000 sq. km lie above 1000 m above sea level, 91000 sq. km - at an altitude of 500 to 1000 m. The average height above the sea surface of the entire space of Norway reaches about 490 m. Therefore, the amount of land cultivated or generally suitable for agriculture represents a very small part of the entire space: only 2400 sq. km is occupied by arable land. 235000 sq. km are occupied by uninhabited mountains, swamps, etc., and 7000 sq. km. km - glaciers (glaciers).

In the southern and northern parts of the country there are high plateaus (fjelds), off the coast there are many islands. The highest and most extensive plateaus are located in the southern part of the country. In some places they are crowned with ridges and sharp peaks - nunataks. The most powerful and highest fields are Yutunheimen, Yuste-dalsbrs, Telemark. It is here, on the Yutunheimen massif, that the highest peak of the Scandinavian Highlands - Galhepyggen (2470 m) is located.

The western steep slopes of the mountains break off either directly into the sea, or to a narrow coastal lowland - the country flat. This lowland emerged from under sea level in the post-glacial era, when the continental platform, freed from the glacier, rose again. The width of the country flat is from 5 to 60 km. Is not absolute plain, there are also hills, but they do not exceed 40 m above sea level. seas. Most of the population of the coast lives on the country flat and many cities of the country are located.

The steep western slopes of the Scandinavian Mountains are replete with fjords, which were formed along the lines of tectonic faults. Fjords are like huge corridors with a smooth surface of transparent waters. The deepest of all go into the land and the most branched fjords of Iestland. The longest of them are Sognefjord (204 km) and Hardangerfjord (179 km).

There are more than 150 thousand islands along the coast of the country. They are located both separately and in whole archipelagos. The largest archipelago is Lofoten and their northern part is Nesterolen. Their close formation protects the country flat from the destructive waves of the ocean. Between the islands and the coast, the sea is always calm.

Rapids rivers - the largest among them Glomma - in places form waterfalls. The slopes of the mountains are covered with taiga forests, which, closer to the peaks, give way to birch sparse forests, meadows, and then mountain tundra. In the northern part of the peninsula, the forest-tundra extends. In total, forests occupy about 1/3 of the territory of the state. The mountains are covered with vast glaciers with a total area of ​​almost 3,000 sq. km. In addition, on about. Svalbard glaciers occupy 36.6 thousand square meters. km.

Rice. 1.2 Satellite view of Norway (GoogleEarth)

1. 2 Climate of Norway

The climate of Norway is different from the climate of other Scandinavian countries. The high mountain range that separates the mainland of Norway protects a significant area of ​​the eastern part of the country from precipitation, providing this territory with a continental climate, in the Far North - subarctic. Due to the warm North Atlantic Gulf Stream, the climate of the coastal regions is much milder than in the northern latitudes (the average January temperature in the north is -2-4°C, in the south +2°C). For the same reason, the coast almost always remains free of ice.

The influence of warm air masses coming from the sea explains the surprising phenomenon: winter temperatures in Norway decrease faster from west to east than from south to north, as happens elsewhere in the northern hemisphere. Summer on the coast is rainy, windy and cool (the average July temperature in the north of the coast is +10°С, and in the south +15°С) with frequent rains and strong winds.

In the mountainous regions of Norway, the climate is much more severe. The average January temperature there is from - 10 to - 12 °, and in July from 6 to 10 °. The winter is most severe in the interior of northern Norway, where the January temperature can drop to -40 °. In the highlands of Norway, where the climate is most severe, the fjelds are covered with huge glacier caps. The largest of them, not only in Norway, but also in all of Europe abroad, is Yustedalsbre, whose area reaches 487 square meters. km. The total number of all ice caps and firn fields in Norway is 2081. Their total area is 2770 sq. km. km, which is 1% of the entire territory of Norway. It is the largest glacial region in mainland Northern Europe.

Norway is called the country of the Midnight Sun, because the polar day - the period when the sun does not set below the horizon, in the northern regions lasts from May to July. In the middle of winter, the polar night reigns almost continuously there, and even in the south the daylight hours last only a few hours. However, despite the northern position of the country, a variety of fruit crops ripen in its numerous gardens, and grains are also grown here (mainly oats and barley).

In the most important agricultural areas of the country, the annual rainfall is between 500 and 1000 mm, most of which occurs in July and August. In the inland regions of the country there are about 100 rainy days, and in the coastal regions their number reaches 150 - 200 days. Compared to the eastern regions of Norway, where the annual rainfall is less than 300 mm, the areas of the coast and the western slopes of the Scandinavian mountains receive much more precipitation. On the western coast, in the strip from Stavanger to Alesun, 3000 mm falls, and south of Cape Stud, precipitation reaches its maximum - 5000 mm per year.

The strength and direction of the wind in Norway varies greatly as a result of rapidly moving atmospheric fronts, and therefore, the winds in the coastal and mountainous regions of the country are quite strong.

1.3 Norwegian water resources

There are a lot of rivers in the country, they are all high-water, but short. Especially short and stormy are the rivers that rush down from the western steep slopes of the Scandinavian mountains. They feed on melt water from snow, mountain glaciers and rainwater. These rivers never freeze. They are of great energy importance for the Norwegian economy.

In the east of the country, the rivers are longer - up to 200-300 km, their channels are very young, not developed, so there are many rapids and waterfalls. These rivers are frozen for a long time - in the southern regions up to 4 months, and in the north - up to 6. They feed on rain and melt snow waters. In summer, they are flooded due to the melting of snow in the mountains.

The largest river in Norway is the Glomma, which is 611 km long. It originates from Lake Eursunden in the southeastern part of the Scandinavian Mountains, near the border with Sweden, and flows into the Oslo Fjord. The Glomma, with tributaries, has a drainage basin that occupies about a third of the country's area. A waterfall 22 m high falls 12 km from the mouth of the Glomma. Therefore, despite the existence of a bypass canal, there is no navigation upstream. Glomma is used for timber rafting.

In central and northern Norway, the most significant rivers are the Tana (360 km) and Alta (200 km), originating in the Manselkä upland. The rivers of this part of the country are used not only as sources of hydropower, but also for timber rafting.

Due to the abundance of rapids and waterfalls, the rivers of Norway are navigable only in their lower reaches, but serve as rich sources of energy. In terms of water resources, Norway is the richest country in all of Europe abroad. The largest waterfalls are located in Vestlann, of which the largest is Vetti, which falls from a height of 275 m into the Sognefjord, and the most beautiful is the Seven Sisters, which falls in seven narrow jets along a stepped cliff into the Geirangerfjord.

River runoff is often naturally regulated by lakes. There are 200 thousand lakes in Norway, and they occupy 4.7% of the country's area. True, there are few large ones among them. The largest - Mjøsa has an area of ​​​​only 369 square meters. km. Most of the lakes in Norway were formed in tectonic basins processed by the glacier. They often have an elongated shape, corresponding to the direction of tectonic cracks and the movement of the glacier. In the southern part of the country, many lakes were formed as a result of damming of rivers by glacial deposits or in depressions between moraine hills.

1.4 Flora and fauna of Norway

Fertile soils cover only 4% of the entire territory of Norway and are concentrated mainly in the vicinity of Oslo and Trondheim. Since most of the country is occupied by mountains, plateaus and glaciers, the opportunities for plant growth and development are limited. There are five geobotanical regions in Norway : treeless coastal with meadows and shrubs, deciduous forests to the east of it, coniferous forests further inland and to the north, a belt of dwarf birches, willows and perennial grasses higher and even further to the north; finally, at the highest altitudes - a belt of grasses, mosses and lichens.

The vegetation cover of Norway is dominated by mountain coniferous forests, which in the far north are replaced by moss-shrub tundra. Forests occupy 23% of the territory of Norway, the main forest-forming species are spruce, pine and birch. In the extreme south, on brown soils, there are small tracts of beech and oak forests. Coniferous forests are one of Norway's most important natural resources and provide a variety of export products. On the slopes of the Scandinavian mountains, coniferous forests rise up to 1100 m in the south and up to 300 m in the north. A narrow strip of birch crooked forest stretches above. On the western slopes and in the coastal strip, where there are strong winds and excessive moisture, the conditions for forest growth are not favorable; there is dominated by small shrubs, alternating with mountain meadows. Only on the slopes of the mountains in the upper reaches of the fjords, where there are no winds and less humidity, spruce, pine and birch forests grow. The tops of the fields are covered with mountain tundra - thickets of grassy willow, dwarf birch and juniper, heather, bearberry, lingonberry. Along the river valleys, low-stemmed birch forests rise to the fjelds. Under the mountain coniferous forests of Norway, mountain podzolic soils poor in humus are developed, and under tundra vegetation, thin tundra soils are developed. Soils suitable for agriculture are found mainly in the southeast of the country, on the Eren peninsula and in places along the western coast.

Among the animals of Norway, forest and tundra species predominate. Reindeer, lemmings, arctic foxes and eiders are commonly found in the Arctic region. Ermine, hare, elk, fox, squirrel and - in small numbers - wolf and brown bear are found in the forests to the very south of the country. In the forests you can meet elk, red deer, badger, marten, weasel, beaver, lynx, ermine, squirrel. In the tundra, among mammals, there are reindeer, blue and white fox, hare, fox, and the lemming, called the Norwegian mouse in Norway, is also common. Hare and fox live everywhere, which are of commercial importance. Previously, a wolf and a bear lived in the forests and tundra, but now they are almost completely exterminated.

Norway is exceptionally rich in birds, many of which are of commercial importance. In the forests, this is black grouse and capercaillie, in the tundra - polar partridge. Gulls, eiders, guillemots, wild ducks, wild geese, etc. are found on the coast of the sea and fjords, rivers and lakes. Especially many birds nest on rocks that break off to the sea, forming bird colonies.

The seas washing the shores of Norway are rich in fish, especially on the vast shoals-banks near the Lofoten Islands. Warm, plankton-rich waters brought North Atlantic Current, mix here with the oxygenated cold waters of the Arctic Ocean, which creates extremely favorable conditions off the coast of Norway for the reproduction of zooplankton, the main food for fry. It is plankton that attracts here in different time shoals of cod, herring, mackerel.

The rivers and lakes of Norway are no less rich in fish. Valuable species are found there - salmon, trout, salmon, and fishing for them is a special item in the income from tourism, especially from foreign tourists. However, in recent decades, the fish resources of inland waters have been declining.

1.5 Natural resources and minerals in Norway

The bowels of Norway, its island possessions and the adjacent seabed are quite rich in various minerals. Although it was previously believed that Norway is poor in mineral fuel resources. Indeed, only insignificant reserves of hard coal were known in the Svalbard archipelago. However, the discovery in the 1970s of oil and gas fields on the continental shelf in the North and Norwegian Seas revolutionized the assessment of the country's fuel and energy potential. Proven oil reserves in Norway amount to more than 800 million tons, natural gas - 1210 billion. cubic meters.

Of the metal ore minerals, Norway has significant reserves of pyrites (sulfur pyrites), which in some places contain copper, ilmenite (titanium ore), molybdenum, nickel and magnetite ores. Uranium deposits have been discovered in the south of Norway. Of great importance for the country's economy are copper pyrite deposits, located mainly in the central part of the country (Suditjelma, Lökken, Røros). Copper-nickel sulfate ore deposits are located in the south, in the Ringerike region. Ilmenite ores, rich in titanium dioxide, are found in large quantities in the north of Norway and in the extreme southwest, near the city of Egersund, where the deposit itself is called Titania. It is the largest in foreign Europe, and thanks to it, Norway is considered one of the most important suppliers of titanium in the world.

From iron ores, mainly magnetite ones are developed. Iron ores contain little phosphorus, which improves their quality, but they are all poor in iron and are enriched. The largest deposits of magnetite ores are concentrated in the north of Norway - in the Servanger and Rana mines. However, the ores here contain little iron. Deposits of ores richer in iron are found in the upper reaches of the Tronnheimsfjord. Norway has very large reserves of building stone (granite, slate, marble).

1.6 Nature conservation in Norway

Nature protection in Norway is one of the priorities of the legislative and power structures. The Law on Nature Protection was adopted back in 1910 and is now in force with additions in 1951 and 1954. It is controlled by the Council for Nature Conservation under the Ministry of Labor and Public Works and the Department of State Forests. They are greatly assisted by the scientific public organization Norwegian Union for Conservation of Nature.

Protected areas and objects - three national parks with a total area of ​​about 168 thousand hectares and more than 30 reserves (50 thousand hectares) - are located in the forest and tundra zone of the country.

The largest and youngest national park is Bergefjell; it was founded in 1963 and covers an area of ​​100,000 hectares. Børgefjell is located in northern Norway at an altitude of 450-1,700 m above sea level. Birch and spruce forests, willows, tundra species are protected here, and flora and fauna are also studied. Observations are being made on wolverine, arctic fox, numerous birds - tundra partridge, white-fronted goose, long-tailed duck, Arctic skua, etc.

In Norway, fish resources have been declining in recent decades. This is due to the "acidification" of lake and river waters from acid sulfur rains falling on the territory of Norway. Sulfur additions to the air in Scandinavia are due to gaseous emissions from industrial enterprises in the UK and Germany. At the same time, Norwegian forests also suffer from air pollution.

If we consider the energy aspect, in Norway, as in most other industrialized countries, the dominant gas emissions into the atmosphere are emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), accounting for 74% of total emissions. About 23% of the total Norwegian air emissions come from the oil and gas industry.

At the same time, Norway seeks to follow the letter of the Kyoto Protocol, which limits the use of both oil and natural gas for electricity generation and heating - due to emissions of "greenhouse" gases into the atmosphere. The Norwegian government builds its environmental policy in relation to industrial activities both on direct directive regulation of the volume of environmentally harmful emissions, and on economic measures to influence industry, such as taxes, and, above all, carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere.

2. Population of Norway

The population of Norway is about 4,500,000 people (as of June 2001).

2.1 Ethnic composition

Norwegians make up about 97% of the population. National minorities are the Saami (about 30 thousand people), Kvens (Norwegian Finns), Danes and Swedes. The Norwegian language belongs to the Germanic group of the Indo-European family of languages. Until now, there are two of its literary forms - riksmol (or Bokmål) and lannsmol (or nynorshk). Bokmål publishes 90% of all printed matter and teaches in more than 80% of schools.

Norwegians live in forested and arable valleys and in coastal areas. The traditional occupations of the Norwegians are agriculture, animal husbandry, fishing, and now they work in a wide variety of industries.

In the mountainous parts of northern and partly middle Norway, in the forest-tundra and tundra, the Sami live. This people has retained its national identity - its language and culture. The Saami language belongs to the Finno-Ugric group of the Ural family of languages. Now the Saami are aware of the danger that threatens them of losing their national traditions, and the Norwegian authorities have abandoned the previous policy of "Norwegization" of this people. The traditional occupations of the Sami are reindeer herding, fishing, and hunting. However, in modern Norway, only 6% of the Sami are engaged in reindeer herding. The rest of them go to work in mines, logging, become farmers. They are also engaged in handicraft production of souvenirs. Increasingly, the Saami are settling in towns and cities. Only in summer do reindeer herders lead a nomadic life and then live in frame tents or in cats.

National minorities include Danes (about 15,000) and Swedes (about 8,000) related to Norwegians in language. The Danes live in cities, not constituting compact communities, and the Swedes live mainly in the villages bordering Sweden. Of the newcomers and naturalized foreign-speaking minorities, the earliest are the Kvens, or Norwegian Finns (20 thousand). Currently they live in fishing villages and in small towns in the north of Norway - around the Varangerfjord, Porsangerfjord, Altafjord, and also in the Troms county. Their occupations are fishing and work in the local industry, especially in the construction industry.

Many foreigners permanently residing in the cities of Norway (more than 50 thousand) have retained their national citizenship. These are emigrants from economically highly developed and developing countries who came to Norway after the war in search of work. Emigrants from England (8,000), Iceland (1,000) and the USA (11,000) are predominantly highly qualified specialists. They communicate with Norwegians in English or have mastered the Norwegian language, rarely maintain compatriot contacts in Norway, and therefore do not constitute compact national minorities.

The situation is different with emigrants from the developing countries of Asia, Africa and Latin America, mostly low-skilled workers. Emigrants from these countries have retained their language and religion, which contributes to the unification of each ethnic minority into a separate community. Even with non-compact settlement, they maintain family and other compatriot ties within each ethnic group.

Almost a third of the Norwegian population works in industry. A relatively large share is employed in transport, especially in the navy. Norwegians are considered the most "seafaring" nation in the world. Employment in the service sector is growing every year, where almost half of the economically active population works. Recently, women are increasingly involved in social production. But at the same time they earn 20 percent less than men.

2.2 Religious composition of the population

The state religion of Norway is Evangelical Lutheranism. By law, the King of Norway and at least half of the ministers must be Lutheran. As of 2006, according to official statistics, 3,871,006 people or 82.7% of the population belong to the state Church of Norway. However, only about 2% of the population attend church regularly. Another 8.6% of the population as of 2007 belong to other faiths and teachings. Among them, the most numerous are adherents of Islam (1.69% of the population), the Roman Catholic Church (1.1%) and Pentecostalism (0.86%).

2.3 Population structure in Norway

Norway is one of the sparsely populated countries in Europe (13.83 people per 1 sq. km). The most populated is its southeastern part - Estland, where half of the population lives. Its density reaches 50 people per 1 sq. km. km. The plateaus of the southern part are almost deserted. The northern part is extremely sparsely populated (only 10% of the population). The average population density there is less than one person per square kilometer. km. The population is concentrated in coastal cities and towns. In summer, the Saami roam in the mountains with herds of deer. Between the southern and northern parts of Norway there is a low area around the Tronnheimsfjord, where the average density reaches 4-5 people per 1 sq. km. km. The distribution of the population over the territory of Norway is shown in fig. 2.1.

More than 50% of the population lives in cities. Large cities: Oslo, Bergen (230 thousand people), Trondheim (150 thousand), Stavanger (120 thousand), Narvik (80 thousand), Kristiansand (72 thousand), Fredrikstad (70 thousand), Dram -men (55 thousand), Tromso (60 thousand). Norway is characterized by small towns. There are 532 urban settlements, and only in 32 of them the number of inhabitants exceeds 10 thousand people. Most Norwegian cities are located on the sea coast. Only a few small towns are found in the Estlann valleys. The rural population lives either on farms or in small fishing villages. Rural residents often combine work on their plots with fishing or with work in factories in a nearby city.

Rice. 2.1 Population density in Norway

2.4 Demographic situation in Norway

The age structure of the Norwegian population according to 2005 data is presented in Table 1.

Table1 Age structure of the Norwegian population

The population is increasing by an average of 0.7% per year (according to 2005 data), mainly due to natural increase. The birth rate is 12.79 per thousand. Mortality - 9.89/1000 people. Child mortality is low - 3.98 per 1000 births (2005). Life expectancy for men is 75.73 years, for women - 81.77 years. There are an average of 1.81 children per woman.

2.5 Standard of living in Norway

Norway is one of the countries with the highest standard of living: in terms of GDP per capita (in 2004 - 42 thousand dollars), it is one of the five leading countries in the world. Since 2000, Norway has held the 1st place in the world according to the so-called human development index, developed by the UN.

All Norwegian citizens are members of state insurance and pension funds, covering the provision of medical care, the receipt of old-age and disability pensions, and other types of assistance. Much attention is paid to improving the living conditions of families with children. In addition to child insurance, there is a comprehensive and flexible maternity leave policy.

Norway has traditionally been characterized by property being evenly distributed among its population and has remained a relatively homogeneous society for many years. Thus, the ratio between the highest and minimum levels of wages is 2:1 (the highest paid category of workers - oil workers - an average of 310 thousand kroons per year, the lowest earnings - an average of 160 thousand kroons per year - for workers in the service sector ). On average, Norwegian workers and employees receive about 215 thousand crowns a year.

3. State structure

The official name is the Kingdom of Norway (Kongeriket Norge). Norway is a unitary state based on the principles of constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy. The country has a constitution of 1814 with a number of later amendments and additions.

The king is the head of state and executive power, formally has great powers. The King of Norway has been Harald V since 1991. The King has executive power, which he exercises through the government, headed by the Prime Minister. All ministers, headed by the king, constitute the Council of State. The Constitution calls the person of the King "sacred and revered"; he is not liable for his actions. During breaks between sessions, the King can independently adopt normative acts having the force of law on issues of industry, trade, and policing.

The king is endowed with certain powers in relation to parliament: he opens parliamentary sessions, speaking at the first meeting with a speech from the throne, has the right to convene emergency sessions. On the advice of the government, the King appoints and dismisses senior officials, he has the right to pardon. He decides on foreign policy issues: concludes and terminates treaties with foreign states, receives diplomatic representatives, has the right to start a war for the defense of the country and conclude peace. The King is the supreme commander of the land and sea forces.

The country's supreme legislative body is the bicameral parliament, the Storting. The Storting is elected every four years by universal democratic secret ballot under a proportional electoral system. The head of the Storting is the prime minister, who becomes the leader of the party that won the parliamentary elections. Jens Stoltenberg has been Prime Minister since 2005. Parliament was previously divided into two chambers - upper and lower, Lagting and Odelsting, but in practice this division became a pure formality and was abolished on February 20, 2007.

Executive power belongs to the king, who appoints the government (Council of State) headed by the prime minister. The government consists of the Prime Minister (usually the leader of the majority party) and at least 7 ministers who are appointed and dismissed by the king. The competence of the government is very extensive. The vast majority of public administration issues are concentrated in the hands of this body. The government also has some powers in the field of legislation: it prepares most bills. The government exercises its functions through departments headed by ministers. The list of departments is not established by law, but there are relatively few of them (10-20). The government is responsible to parliament.

On Fig. showing the national flag of Norway. The current form of the national flag was legislated in 1927. Red, white and blue colors on the flag symbolize democracy, the Scandinavian cross on the flag is traditional for the flags of the countries of the Scandinavian Peninsula (Denmark, Sweden, Finland).

Rice. 3.1 State flag of Norway

The coat of arms of Norway (Fig.) is one of the oldest in Europe.

Rice. 3.2 State emblem of Norway

The capital of Norway is Oslo, the largest cities are Bergen, Trondheim, Stavanger.

The official language is Norwegian, the national currency is the Norwegian krone.

4. Foreign and domestic policy of Norway

Foreign policy of Norway has a pronounced social orientation. From the late 1880s - early 1900s. the country began to create, and after the Second World War, the social security system was significantly expanded: the payment of old-age and disability pensions, benefits to the unemployed, as well as to widows and orphans. These measures are paid from the insurance premiums of employees and entrepreneurs, as well as from the funds of local governments and the central government.

The implementation of the principles of democracy is ensured, in addition, by the activities of a wide range of different organizations that unite their members according to their interests. In Norway, there is a practice in which all interested organizations get the opportunity to speak on a particular issue when major decisions are being prepared by the authorities.

In addition, Norway has a number of elected trustees and authorized organizations to which citizens can complain if they fail to resolve the issue in state or other instances. This, in particular, concerns the commissioners for ensuring the civil rights of the population, for protecting the interests of consumers, and for compliance with the principles of equality. There is also an institution of children's commissioners whose responsibility is to ensure the interests of children.

When it comes to foreign policy, Norwegians have a strong sense of national identity. On the question of Norway's accession to the European Union (EU), two referenda were held in 1972 and in 1994, which showed that the majority of the population was against joining the EU.

Norway has been a member of NATO since 1949, although Norway's military efforts in NATO have dwindled in recent years.

Norway is one of the founding countries of the UN. The Norwegian Trygve Lie was elected its first general secretary. Oslo considers the UN as the main body for the maintenance of international law and order and the system of international security.

In matters of international humanitarian cooperation, Norway plays a key role. In proportion to its GNP, Norway gives more to charitable donations than any other country in the world. The Nobel Peace Prize is awarded annually in Norway.

5. Administrative - territorial division of Norway

In Norway, there are two systems of territorial division of the country: official administrative and traditional, which is used primarily in ethnographic literature. Administratively, the country is divided into 18 counties (Fig.), governed by governors. The word "fylke" in its primary sense meant "tribe, people", and later they began to designate the concept of "region, province". Fülke is grouped into five main unofficial large regions:

Nur-Norge(Northern Norway):

county Nordland -- administrative center: Bude;

county Troms -- administrative center: Tromso;

county Finnmark -- administrative center: Vadse;

Trendelag(Central Norway):

county Noor-Trendelag -- administrative center: Steinkjer;

county Ser-Trondelag - the administrative center: Trondheim;

Westland(Western Norway):

county Mere-o-Romsdal -- administrative center: Molde;

county Sogn og Fjordane -- administrative center: Leikanger;

county Hordaland -- administrative center: Bergen;

county Rogaland -- administrative center: Stavanger;

estlann(Eastern Norway):

fylke Oslo -- the administrative center: Oslo;

county Akershus -- administrative center: Oslo;

county Østfold -- administrative center: Moss;

county Buskerud -- administrative center: Drammen;

county Vestfold -- administrative center: Tensberg;

county Telemark -- administrative center: Skien;

county Hedmark -- administrative center: Hamar;

county Oppland -- administrative center: Lillehammer;

FROMerlann(Southern Norway):

county of Aust-Agder -- administrative centre: Arendal;

county Vest-Agder -- administrative center: Kristiansand.

Each county is further subdivided into several communes. The total number of communes in Norway is 432.

Rice. 5.1 Administrative divisions of Norway

Traditionally, the country is also divided into two large parts - North and South. The first includes the territory north of 65 ° N. sh., which includes three historical and geographical regions coinciding with the borders of three counties: Nordland, Troms and Finimark; to the second - lands south of 65 ° N. sh., covering four historical and geographical regions, each of which includes several counties: Trennelag, Vestland (West), Estland (East) and Serland (South).

Other territories of Norway are not included in the county and are not divided into communes. The archipelago of Spitsbergen (Svalbard), with its administrative center in Longyearbyen, as well as the island of Jan Mayen, are the possessions of Norway; Jan Mayen is administered by the Nordland administration. Bouvet Island is a dependent territory of Norway. Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land in Antarctica, territorial claims to which Norway makes, are also among its dependent territories.

6. Economy of Norway

6.1 General information

As of 2008, Norway's GDP was 2,272 billion crowns, and per capita - 72,305.6 dollars (2nd place in the world). The country leads in terms of the quality of life of the population and all social parameters, it is the third exporter in the world in terms of energy resources. Its supplies play an important role in providing oil and gas (over 12%) to Western Europe. Norway is one of the world leaders in terms of taxation - an average of more than 45%. Inflation rates were 2.5% in 2004; the unemployment rate is about 5% of the working population.

Table 2 Main economic indicators

Norway is a developed industrial and agricultural country. According to national statistics, the country's economy is divided into two parts: continental and shelf.

continental economy-- represented by traditional industries: electrometallurgical, electrochemical, mining, pulp and paper, mechanical engineering and other manufacturing sectors. The hallmark of the Norwegian industry is the production of offshore drilling platforms and related equipment, production lines for fish processing.

Shelf economy occupies a dominant position, it is represented by the oil and gas industries (Fig.), on which the welfare of the country largely depends. The most significant gas fields are Sleipner, Ekofisk and Troll. The largest oil fields are Statfjord, Gylfaks, Oseberg, Ekofisk. Since the mid-1990s, Norway has become the world's second largest oil exporter after Saudi Arabia. Trade in oil and gas brings about half of export and 1/10 of government revenues.

The oil and gas industry in Norway is under strict state control. Back in 1963, the Norwegian Parliament passed a law according to which "the right to natural underwater resources belongs to the state." This affirmed state sovereignty over all Natural resources, which can be found on the continental shelf of the country. The basis of the country's oil and gas complex is the Statoil company, 100% of whose shares are owned by the state. The deficit-free state budget of Norway today is achieved thanks to significant revenues from the oil and gas complex through taxes and the sale of oil and gas owned by the state, which allows the country not only to boost various social programs or create new industries, but also to make active foreign investments.

Examples include large-scale investments in health care, building roads, increasing spending on education, and adopting economic assistance programs to provide small regions of the northern and central parts of the country with services comparable in volume and quality to those in more densely populated regions. The subsidies go to the agricultural sector, the forestry and fishing industries, which also benefit from low interest rates when secured by state bank loans. Credits and direct investments are also directed to the modernization of the technological base of industry, to the creation of "future technologies", such as telecommunications and satellite communications.

In the late 90s of the 20th century, when world oil prices rose sharply, the Norwegian government, in order not to increase inflation in the country, organized a special Oil Fund, into which oil revenues are transferred. Since 2006, this fund has been called the Global Government Pension Fund. According to 2007 data, the volume of the fund was about 300 billion dollars, which, in terms of each inhabitant of Norway, amounted to about 63,000 dollars. Today, its task is to provide decent pensions for future generations.

6.2 Oil and gas industry in Norway

The oil and gas industry is the backbone of the modern Norwegian economy. Proven oil reserves in Norway amount to more than 800 million tons, natural gas - 1210 billion cubic meters.

Norwegian oil reserves are the largest in Western Europe. All of Norway's oil resources are concentrated on the Norwegian Continental Shelf, which is divided into two parts: the North Sea and the Barents Sea. The bulk of Norwegian oil production is carried out in the North Sea, and only a small part - in the Norwegian Sea. Currently, there is practically no production in the Barents Sea due to high costs and environmental problems. However, it is believed that the Barents Sea may contain large oil reserves, in connection with which the Norwegian authorities have begun issuing licenses for development.

If oil production has recently been declining, gas production in Norway is on the rise. Norway is successfully turning into an important gas producing country. Its share in the Western European gas market is approaching 15%. Gas production is expected to reach 70 billion cubic meters, and contracts for the sale of gas have already exceeded the total volume of 50 billion cubic meters per year. More than half of all discovered gas fields in Western Europe are located on the Norwegian continental shelf.

More than a quarter of all Norwegian investment is in the construction of drilling platforms in the North Sea, west of Bergen, where one of the largest natural gas fields is located. The Norwegians built the world's largest drilling platform, with a displacement of 1 million tons and a height of 465 m. The cost of the remaining hydrocarbon resources on the Norwegian continental shelf is estimated in the state budget at 4210 billion crowns (for 2006).

At present, less than a third of the explored hydrocarbon reserves belonging to Norway have been produced. At the same time, Norway is a world leader in technologies that ensure safety in oil and gas production. The main achievement of the country is the adoption of measures to create a system for the prevention of carbon dioxide emissions.

Rice. 6.1 Oil and gas fields in Norway

6.3 Energy industry in Norway

In terms of electricity production per capita, Norway ranks first in the world. Highly developed energy was the basis of the entire industrial development of Norway. It covers most of the energy demand, which makes it possible to export the bulk of the oil and gas produced. A third of the electricity produced is consumed by industry within the country.

Almost all of the electricity generated in the country comes from hydroelectric power plants. Thanks to numerous natural lakes-reservoirs on high plateaus, waterfalls and steeply dipping rivers, it is not necessary to build expensive dams, which makes the cost of electricity extremely cheap. In Norway, water resources are distributed relatively evenly throughout the country, which makes it possible to build powerful energy complexes in the Estland valleys, on the Telemark plateau, in the Westland fjords and on the rapids of the rivers of Northern Norway. Almost all large power plants are connected by power lines into a single power system, which in turn is connected with electrometallurgical and electrochemical enterprises with all cities.

About 2/5 of the generated electricity is consumed by industry, including 1/3 - metallurgy. The surplus electricity is transferred to Denmark and Sweden.

6.4 Other industries in Norway

In the sectoral structure of the Norwegian economy, the so-called export industries stand out sharply for their large scale and high technical level, most of whose products are exported. On the one hand, these are fish processing and pulp and paper enterprises operating mainly on local raw materials, and on the other hand, electrometallurgy and electrochemistry enterprises operating on cheap electricity. The extractive industries should also be included in the export sectors - mines, the products of which are exported in the form of concentrates, and, of course, the oil and gas fields of the North Sea.

Norway is a leader in the production of ferroalloys and is Europe's largest producer of aluminum and magnesium. Europe's largest titanium ore deposit is located in southwestern Norway.

Norwegian mechanical engineering specializes in the production of equipment for the oil and gas production and oil refining industries. Platforms are also delivered to other countries. Another important branch of engineering is shipbuilding.

Norway is also a source of vinyl chloride monomer and polyvinyl chloride, which are used as raw materials for the production of synthetic paints. Norway also produces other technical goods. Paints, adhesives, detergents and fine chemicals make up another sector of the Norwegian chemical industry.

Rich forest resources and the availability of affordable electricity have given Norway a leading role in the global pulp and paper market. About 90% of pulp and paper produced in the country is exported. Norwegian mills produce various types of pulp, including short and long staple sulphate pulp, which is an important component of newsprint and magazine paper.

The main part of the industrial potential of Norway is concentrated in the south of the country (4/5 of industrial production); about 9/10 of the country's industrial enterprises are concentrated in port cities.

6.5 Agriculture in Norway

In Norway, no more than 3% of all land is cultivated, and only 6% of the population is employed in agriculture. The number of farms reaches 200,000, and most of them are small: about half of all farms have plots of no more than 10 hectares, and only 1% of farmers own more than 50 hectares of land. The leading branch is the intensive animal husbandry of the meat and dairy direction, as well as the plant growing that serves it (forage grasses). Sheep breeding and pig breeding are developed. Cultivated crops (mainly barley and oats). Norway provides itself with agricultural products of its own production by 40%. Grain crops Norway is forced to import.

Forests cover 27% of the country's area, and forestry is a small but very important industry for local farmers.

An important place in the economy is occupied by fishing, which is an industry of international specialization in Norway (it is the second largest exporter of fish products in the world).

The fish processing industry is almost as important to Norway as the extraction of oil and gas. It ranks second among the export sectors of the national economy. In terms of fish catch, Norway is in 10th place in the world. The main fish processing centers are Stavanger, Bergen, Alesund, Trondheim. A significant part of Russian fishermen gives their catch for processing to Norway. Russia is also one of the largest consumers of finished fish products.

6.6 Transport system in Norway

Shipping plays a leading role in both internal and external transport links. This is due to the specifics of the geographic location of Norway, the strong indentation of the coastline, combined with the mountainous terrain and the historical seafaring skills of the Norwegians. By sea, 9/10 of the foreign trade and more than 1/2 of the domestic cargo turnover. Norway is one of the leading shipping powers in the world. In terms of tonnage of the merchant fleet, it is in 5th place.

The Norwegian fleet is distinguished by a large proportion of tankers, which account for more than half of the total tonnage. It is an important source of foreign exchange to cover the usually deficit trade balance. More than 80% of the Norwegian fleet is engaged in the transport of goods between foreign ports, which brings the country several billion crowns of foreign currency per year. Every year through seaports Norway passes more than 50 million tons of various cargoes. About half of these are iron ore in transit from Sweden, which is exported through the port of Narvik. Other major ports are Oslo, Bergen, Stavanger.

The length and transport role of railways and motor roads is rather limited. The total length of railways is 4.24 thousand km, of which slightly more than half are electrified. The most important railway junction - the capital of Norway Oslo is connected by lines with Stockholm, Gothenburg (Sweden) and the main cities of the country - Bergen, Trondheim and Stavanger.

The length of roads is 79.8 thousand km. There are 1.3 million cars in the country, of which 1.1 million are cars.

Norway's main air gate is Forneby Airport, near Oslo. Norway is one of the first places in the world in per capita passenger transportation by aircraft.

6.7 Tourism industry in the Norwegian economy

The tourism industry in Norway is extremely well developed, which is explained, firstly, by the high level of development of the country as a whole, secondly, by its rich traditions, and, finally, by the special attention paid by the government to this area of ​​the economy. In terms of priority, tourism is in fourth place after oil production, fishing and woodworking. The service sector and international tourism provide 6.7% of Norway's GDP. This industry employs about 7.1% of the working population.

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Introduction

Norway- one of the largest countries in Europe, located in Northern Europe, in the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula and on a large number of adjacent small islands. The name of the country comes from the Old Norse "Norrvegr" - "the way to the north."

The official name is the Kingdom of Norway.

The capital is Oslo.

The official language is Norwegian.

The form of government is a constitutional monarchy.

The population is 4.68 million people.

The national currency is the Norwegian krone.

Country Internet Domain - .no

The telephone code is +47.

In this paper, a study of Norway will be carried out from the point of view of socio-economic geography and its socio-economic characteristics will be given.

Geographic location of Norway

Norway is located between 59°57"N and 10°43"E (Figure 1.1). Norway's time zone is +1 GMT. Time in Norway is 2 hours behind Moscow time.

Geographic characteristics of Norway

The territory of the country is stretched in the form of a narrow strip along the northwestern coast of the Scandinavian Peninsula from the southwest to the northeast. The largest width of the country is 430 km, the smallest (in the Narvik region) is about 7 km. The length of the country from north to south is 1700 km.

From the east and southeast, Norway borders on Sweden (over 1,630 km), Finland (760 km) and Russia (196 km). From the northwest it is washed by the Norwegian Sea, from the northeast by the Barents Sea, and in the south by the Skagerrak Strait. The Gulf Stream runs along the entire coast.

Near the coast of Norway there are a large number of large islands (Lofoten, Vesterolen, Senja, Magere, Sere), numerous small islands and skerries - St. 150 thousand. Some of them are located at a great distance from the Scandinavian Peninsula:

• - the Svalbard archipelago (Svalbard and nearby islands) in the eastern part of the Norwegian Sea;
• - Jan Mayen between the Greenland and Norwegian seas;
• - Bouvet Island off the coast of Antarctica;

Norway also claims territories that fall under the 1961 Atlantic Convention:

• - Peter I Island off the coast of Antarctica;
• - Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.

Rice. 1.1 Map of Norway

The territory of Norway is about 386,960 km², it extends beyond the Arctic Circle to the northernmost point of Europe - the North Cape (1/3 of the territory is located beyond the Arctic Circle). 62.1% of the area falls on mountains and plateaus, 4.8% - on rivers and lakes, 1.4% - on eternal snows and glaciers. 21.3% of the territory is covered with forests. The length of the outer coast is 2650 km. The coast of Norway is deeply indented by narrow sea bays called fjords. They form natural harbors, protected from the raging sea by chains of islands. Taking into account the fjords, bays and islands, the length of the coastline is almost 56 thousand km. . norway resource gas production policy

Norway is a mountainous country (Figure 1.2). Almost all of its territory is occupied by the Scandinavian mountains, heavily dissected by fjords and cut through by deep valleys. Of the total area occupied by the country, 39,000 sq. km lie above 1000 m above sea level, 91000 sq. km - at an altitude of 500 to 1000 m. The average height above the sea surface of the entire space of Norway reaches about 490 m. Therefore, the amount of land cultivated or generally suitable for agriculture represents a very small part of the entire space: only 2400 sq. km is occupied by arable land. 235000 sq. km are occupied by uninhabited mountains, swamps, etc., and 7000 sq. km. km - glaciers (glaciers).

In the southern and northern parts of the country there are high plateaus (fjelds), off the coast there are many islands. The highest and most extensive plateaus are located in the southern part of the country. In some places they are crowned with ridges and sharp peaks - nunataks. The most powerful and highest fields are Yutunheimen, Yuste-dalsbrs, Telemark. It is here, on the Yutunheimen massif, that the highest peak of the Scandinavian Highlands - Galhepyggen (2470 m) is located.

The western steep slopes of the mountains break off either directly into the sea, or to a narrow coastal lowland - the country flat. This lowland emerged from under sea level in the post-glacial era, when the continental platform, freed from the glacier, rose again. The width of the country flat is from 5 to 60 km. This is not an absolute plain, there are also hills here, but they do not exceed 40 m above sea level. seas. Most of the population of the coast lives on the country flat and many cities of the country are located.

The steep western slopes of the Scandinavian Mountains are replete with fjords, which were formed along the lines of tectonic faults. Fjords are like huge corridors with a smooth surface of transparent waters. The deepest of all go into the land and the most branched fjords of Iestland. The longest of them are Sognefjord (204 km) and Hardangerfjord (179 km).

There are more than 150 thousand islands along the coast of the country. They are located both separately and in whole archipelagos. The largest archipelago is Lofoten and their northern part is Nesterolen. Their close formation protects the country flat from the destructive waves of the ocean. Between the islands and the coast, the sea is always calm.

Rapids rivers - the largest among them Glomma - in places form waterfalls. The slopes of the mountains are covered with taiga forests, which, closer to the peaks, give way to birch sparse forests, meadows, and then mountain tundra. In the northern part of the peninsula, the forest-tundra extends. In total, forests occupy about 1/3 of the territory of the state. The mountains are covered with vast glaciers with a total area of ​​almost 3,000 sq. km. In addition, on about. Svalbard glaciers occupy 36.6 thousand square meters. km.

Rice. 1.2 Satellite view of Norway (GoogleEarth)

Work plan

1. General information about the country

2. Geographical location of Norway

3. Historical background

4. General overview of the economy

5. Population

6. Largest cities in Norway

7. Interesting and entertaining facts

Bibliography

1. General information about the country

Norway (Kingdom of Norway) is a state in the North of Europe, occupying the western and northern parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Territory - 323895 sq. km.; together with the Svalbard archipelago, Jan Mayen Island and others - 387 thousand square meters. km. The population is about 4.3 million, Norwegians (98%), Sami, Kvens, Finns, Swedes, etc. The capital is Oslo. The official language is Norwegian. Religion - Lutheranism.

The monetary unit is the Norwegian krone.

Norway gained independence in 1905

Norway is a constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the king. Administrative - territorial division (18 county). The supreme legislative body is the Storting (unicameral parliament). Executive power is exercised by the government appointed by the king.

2. Geographical location of Norway

Norway is located in a maritime temperate climate with cool summers (+6 - +15 degrees Celsius) and fairly warm winters (+2 - -12 degrees Celsius). Precipitation on the plains is 500-600 mm, on the windward side of the mountains their amount increases to 2000-2500 mm. The seas don't freeze.

Most of the territory of Norway is occupied by the Scandinavian mountains. Here is the highest mountain peak in Northern Europe - Mount Galldhepiggen. The coastline of Norway is indented by long deep bays - fjords. During the last ice age, a thick sheet of ice formed over Scandinavia. The ice, spreading to the sides, cut deep narrow valleys with steep banks. Approximately 11,000 years ago, the ice sheet melted, the world's oceans rose, and seawater flooded many of these valleys, creating the picturesque fjords of Norway (see cover photo).

Norway has large reserves of hydropower, forests (productive forest occupies 23.3% of the territory), deposits of iron, copper, zinc, lead, nickel, titanium, molybdenum, silver, granite, marble, etc. Proven oil reserves are more than 800 million tons ., natural gas - 1210 billion cubic meters. Total capital investment in the offshore oil sector reached a record high of NOK 60 billion, or 7.5% of GDP, significantly contributed to the growth of other industries that manufactured equipment for oil production and created the corresponding infrastructure. The purpose of this huge investment is to increase the profitability of the oil industry and improve the state of the country's macro economy. Investments are mainly focused on the giant Stotford field, discovered 20 years ago at the dawn of Norway's oil era.

If oil production tends to decrease, then gas production in Norway is on the rise. Norway is successfully turning into an important gas producing country. Its share in the Western European gas market is approaching 15%. Gas production is expected to reach 70 billion cubic meters by the end of the century, and contracts for the sale of gas have already exceeded a total of 50 billion cubic meters per year.

More than half of all discovered gas fields in Western Europe are located on the Norwegian continental shelf. According to representatives of the Norwegian state company Statoil, unlike the 20th century, which was the century of oil, the 21st century is likely to become the century of gas, especially due to the fact that concern for the cleanliness of the environment is becoming the driving force behind the growth of its consumption.

Svalbard is an archipelago beyond the Arctic Circle. Territory - 62 thousand square meters. km. There are over 1,000 islands in the archipelago. There is no native population.

Svalbard, together with Bear Island located to the south of it, form the administrative district of Norway, Svalbard, which is governed by a governor appointed by the King of Norway.

60% of the archipelago is covered with ice. Of the minerals, only coal is of industrial importance. In the waters of the archipelago, cod, halibut, haddock, harp seal, seal, white whale are found; on the islands - polar bear, arctic fox, deer. However, fishing and hunting are limited.

3. Historical background

Norway as a single state was formed at the end of the 9th century AD. At an early stage, contacts were established with the Russian principalities. The sons of Norwegian kings grew up at princely courts in Russia, Russian princesses became queens of Norway. The Norwegians traveled around Russia, served in the protection of the Russian princes (they were called Varangians), and an active exchange of goods was carried out. Subsequently, as a result of the devastating epidemic of the "black death" (plague) around 1350, the economic situation in Norway worsened, and the country fell under the rule of the Danish crown. In 1814, at the close of the Napoleonic Wars, the victorious allies forced Denmark to cede Norway to Sweden in compensation for its loss of Finland in 1809. Norway took this opportunity to declare independence and adopted the most democratic constitution in Europe at the time, which is still in force today, albeit with significant amendments.

However, under the pressure of Sweden's military superiority and international isolation, Norway was forced to accept the inevitable. The Norwegian leadership voluntarily accepted the worthy proposal of the Swedish crown to conclude a personal union with Sweden. Norway remained a separate state and retained its new constitution. However, both kingdoms received one head of state and had to pursue a unified foreign policy.

Over the next century there was a continuous growth of the Norwegian national identity. Simultaneously with the progress in industry, commerce and shipping, there was a cultural renaissance. In politics, radical and democratic sentiments led to opposition to the King of Sweden. A growing national consciousness emphasized the differences in living standards and lifestyles, as well as in political views between Norway and Sweden. Influenced by divergent economic and foreign policy interests, the Norwegian parliament (Storting) voted in 1905 to break the union with Sweden. The referendum that followed supported this decision by a large majority, and the two kingdoms parted amicably. The first power to recognize the new and completely independent status of Norway was the Russian Empire.

In the post-war period, the political course of Norway is mainly determined by its participation in NATO (since 1949) and is aimed at close political and military-economic cooperation with the leading powers of this bloc (USA, Great Britain, Germany). Norway's relations with the EEC are governed by a free trade agreement (1973).