There is a saying: " time to collect and time to scatter". From my own experience, I am constantly convinced that you need to destroy everything to the ground before you start creating something fundamentally new.
Destroy your usual perception of the world - that's what I'm talking about. loosen, move assemblage point» (in terms of the teachings of the Toltecs). But here, apparently, there is not and cannot be any universal recipe. - There are millions of people in the world who have gone crazy, but have not started to create something.
And here the conclusion suggests itself. - having destroyed, it is necessary to build a bridge to start building anew, collecting pieces into a whole. The main thing here is the design of this bridge.
And it also helps a lot, in any business, to sit down and realize yourself as a complete Nothing. Zero. reset. Suffer (a little, not for long, because time is precious) over this thought, grit your teeth and take action.
But this is just one of a million ways to let go of your inflated ego. There are plenty to choose from! Buddhism, Hinduism and many other teachings rooted in antiquity offer many recipes for awareness and happiness, and the path to yourself always begins with this - let your ego go.
A very long time ago I discovered such a concept as saturation, intensity of life. Throughout my life, I have been learning to “pump” as much as possible in several directions at the same time, learning to see and take the chances that life constantly offers, “here, reach out and just don’t be afraid to take it, and try to hold on and increase!”
People often ask me what / who inspires my creativity, and they always try to judge by myself. People in general, in principle, always judge by themselves. Tk is a subjective and objective picture of the world. Whoever has such a narrow picture, in my paintings they see only beetles, owls and mechanical elements that are not connected with each other in any way. Who " reality tunnel» wider - they build their own relationships and patterns. That's how it works.
Life experience + developed imagination is always the main source of inspiration. In my case, at a certain stage of this experience of various kinds, it became so much in my head that I had to take a canvas and share it. At first, a kind of chaos turned out, gradually it was structured into more harmonious forms filled with internal geometry. - as I streamlined my life, in all its areas, harmonized my ways of living and my thinking. However, the fact is that there will always be a billion times more questions than answers. And this is the lot of human life, which you just need to take for granted. After all, the very desire to ask these questions, to look for answers to them, in any way, is already Something, it shows the interest in the world, in human life. And this is a priceless gift. After all life always reciprocates love and interest in it.
You can also look for answers in books, this is one of the alternative worlds. The dominance of the Internet and YouTube videos deprives a person of the main thing - after all, this is ready-made, most conveniently packaged information that the brain does not need to work to digest. Books force the brain to work. They stimulate the imagination. We correlate our life experience with the worlds from books, and pump our thinking even more.
I'm a book lover, obviously. I can easily prefer an evening with a good, useful book to an equally good party in the company of people I like. It has always been so. For several years now I have been forming my own library, carefully looking for, selecting, sometimes hunting for certain books that reflect and emphasize any facets of myself. And this is a real quest, no less interesting than in the quest room.
Therefore, create, build your life, using all available tools for this. No need to be afraid of change, stress - these are all bridges to new turns, new pleasant surprises. Good thing these surprises are unpredictable!
A tiny part of my library. One minus in the presence of so many books at home - you need a place for them (and here I personally had to sacrifice - leave only the most important). In addition, if you often change the location of your residence, books are the thing that suffers the most during transportation. Therefore, it is probably better to create a library when you are already leading a more or less "sedentary" lifestyle.
I usually read several books at the same time. Depends on the mood. - on the same principle as more than 20 playlists with different styles of music, for different mental states..
SUN OPTION 1
1. According to modern scientific data, the age of the Sun is ...
A) 2 billion years
B) 5 billion years +
C) 500 billion years
D) 300 billion years
2. What is the name of the line on the disk of a planet or satellite that separates the illuminated (day) hemisphere from the dark (night).
A) Almucantrate
B) Parallax
C) Terminator +
D) faculty
3. The most common element in the Sun is
B) hydrogen +
D) this question does not make sense, since the Sun is a plasma
4. What is the name of the flow of mega-ionized particles (mainly helium-hydrogen plasma), flowing from solar corona at a speed of 300-1200 km / cinto outer space?
A) prominences
B) cosmic rays
B) solar wind +
5. What spectral class does the Sun belong to?
6. In what part of the Sun do thermonuclear reactions take place?
A) in the nucleus +
B) in the photosphere
B) in prominences
7. The eclipse of the Sun for the observer comes
A) if the moon falls into the shadow of the earth
b) if the earth is between the sun and the moon
C) if the Moon is between the Sun and the Earth +
D) there is no correct answer
8. What layer of the Sun is the main source of visible radiation?
A) chromosphere
B) Photosphere +
B) solar corona
9. What is the closest star to the Sun?
A) Arcturus
B) Alpha Centauri
B) Betelgeuse
D) Proxima Centauri +
10. What is the surface temperature of the sun?
D) 15 000 000 0 C
Option 2
SUN
1. The closest star to Earth is
A) Venus, since ancient times called the "morning star"
B) Sun +
B) Alpha Centauri
D) Polaris
2.What are the two gases that make up the Sun?
A) oxygen
B) helium +
D) hydrogen +
3. What is the temperature of the surface of the Sun?
a) 2800 degrees Celsius
b) 5800 degrees Celsius
c) 10000 degrees Celsius
d) 15 million degrees Celsius
4.Solar energy is the result
a) thermonuclear fusion +
b) burning
5. The outer radiating surface of the Sun is called
A) photosphere +
B) atmosphere
B) the chromosphere
6. Photosynthesis is possible due to the presence in plant cells
A) glucose
b) chlorophyll +
in) carbon dioxide
D) oxygen
7. What explains the movement of the Earth around the Sun?
a) the action of centrifugal force +
b) the action of the force of inertia
c) the action of the force of surface tension
d) the action of the force of elasticity
8. According to modern views on the origin of the sun and the solar system, they formed from
a) other stars and planets
b) big bang
c) gas and dust cloud +
9. The sun lit up approximately
A) 100 million years ago
B) 1 billion years ago
C) 4.5 billion years ago +
D) 100 billion years ago
10. In the process of aging, the Sun will turn into
a) a blue dwarf
b) into a red dwarf
c) into a red giant +
d) into a blue giant
Option 3
What percentage of the total mass of the solar system is contained in the sun?
What is "solar wind"?
A stream of ionized particles propagating to the boundaries of the heliosphere
Last outer shell of the Sun
A complex of phenomena caused by the generation of strong magnetic fields on the Sun
Ejection of material from the solar corona
Which of the following missions is engaged in the study of the Sun?
What is the measure of length "astronomical unit"?
Distance from Sun to Mercury
Distance from Sun to Venus
Distance from Sun to Earth
Distance from Sun to Jupiter
The last stage of the Sun's life cycle is
Black hole
neutron star
white dwarf
red giant
The age of the Sun is approximately
3 billion years
4.5 billion years
7.2 billion years
10 billion years
What type of stars according to the spectral classification does the Sun belong to?
white dwarf
yellow dwarf
white giant
red giant
red dwarf
In what part of the Milky Way is the sun located?
Orion Arm
event horizon
Perseus arm
dark zone
The solar activity cycle is approximately
The Sun is mainly made up of
Oxygen
carbon
Hydrogen
With the sun, 4th option
The sun rotates on its axis
BUT) in the direction of the planets
B) against the direction of motion of the planets +
c) it doesn't rotate
D) only its individual parts rotate
2. The distance from the earth to the sun is called
A) a light year
B) parsec
AT) astronomical unit +
D) annual parallax
3. By mass of the sun
A) is equal to the total mass of the planets of the solar system
B) more than the total mass of the planets +
C) less than the total mass of the planets D) this question is incorrect, since the mass of the Sun is constantly changing
4. The temperature on the surface of the sun is approximately
A) 3000 0 C B) 3000 0 K C) 6000 0 C D) 6000 0 To
5. What is the source of the sun's energy
A) Thermonuclear fusion reactions of light nuclei
B) Nuclear reactions of chemical elements
AT). chemical reactions
6. What class of stars does the Sun belong to?
A) supergiant. B) a yellow dwarf. B) a white dwarf. D) a red giant.
7. The most common element in the sun is
A) helium B) hydrogen C) helium and hydrogen are roughly equal
D) this question does not make sense, since the Sun is a plasma
8. What observations confirmed the occurrence of thermonuclear reactions of helium fusion from hydrogen in the solar core?
A) observing the solar wind
B) Observation of sunspots
B) Observation x-ray radiation sun
D) Observation of the flux of solar neutrinos.
9. Distribute the solar layers, starting with the outer
A) photosphere B) corona C) chromosphere D) core E) prominences
10. The visible surface of the sun is called
A) chromosphere B) photosphere B) crown
11. What are permanent formations in the photosphere called?
A) spicules B) granules c) prominences
12. Where are prominences formed?
A) in the chromosphere B) in the photosphere B) in the solar corona D) in the nucleus
13. Granulation on the Sun explained
A) thermal conductivity B) convection B) radiation energy transfer
14. How is energy transferred from the interior of the Sun to the outside?
A) thermal conductivity B) heat transfer B) convection D) radiation
15. Does not include solar radiation.
A) thermal radiation B) solar radiation B) radio waves
D) magnetic radiation D) electromagnetic radiation
16. Does the sun have magnetic field?
A) yes B) no C) no definite answer
17. What phenomena on Earth are associated with solar activity?
BUT) magnetic storms, earthquakes, increased man-made disasters
B) auroras, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes
C) auroras, magnetic storms, increased ionization of the upper atmosphere
18. Under what processes do corpuscular streams and cosmic rays occur on the Sun?
A) with solar wind B) with convection motion B) during chromospheric flares
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Inside our big house and beyond
Only in the middle of this century it became clear that the galaxy Milky Way is a huge arm of a spiral galaxy, a giant star system, one of many spiral galaxies. The diameter of the Milky Way is 100 thousand light years.
The number of its constituent stars exceeds 100 billion.
Of course, you can make sure that the Milky Way is part of a colossal spiral only if you turn it "face" to the observer. From the side, our galaxy will look like a magnifying glass or folded edges of contact lenses.
What is in it? Well, the stars, of course, you will say, and you will not be mistaken. Yes, mostly stars. But not only. A few percent of the total galactic mass of the Milky Way is interstellar gas and galactic dust. At some distance from the galactic disk, many stellar globular clusters are scattered - a kind of satellites of the galaxy. Each such cluster contains up to a million stars. Finally, relatively recently it turned out that our galaxy also has a corona, which extends over a distance of several tens of disk diameters.
The disk of the galaxy rotates entirely - like a saucer. The rotation of the galaxy was discovered in 1925 by the Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort. He also determined the position of its center, located in the direction of the constellation Sagittarius. The distance to it is approximately 30 thousand light years. Studying the relative motion of the stars, Oort also established that the Sun also moves around the center of the galaxy in an orbit. Modern meaning its speed is 250 km/s. And a full revolution around the center takes about 2.2 × 108 (220 million) years.
In order for all this to be so, the center of the galaxy must have a gigantic mass - about 100 billion solar masses! At the center of the galaxy's core is a source of enormous energy - 100 million suns.
Why don't we see spiral arms or an impressive massive core when we look at the sky? The answer is quite simple: because we observe our galaxy "from the inside", we are in it, and we are not looking from somewhere else. Yes, the Milky Way is our home.
And if you still dare and go out into space? The universe is not limited to the Milky Way galaxy. If we left its limits, an immense empty space would open before us, impenetrable blackness, devoid of any noticeable objects. Only at a distance of more than 150 thousand light years from our stellar island, we would find two ragged fog formations irregular shape- Large and Small Magellanic Clouds. They are clearly visible in the sky of the southern hemisphere of the Earth in the form of two whitish spots and look like isolated fragments of the Milky Way. They were first described by one of the participants circumnavigation Ferdinand Magellan. They have no direct relation to the Milky Way: they are two independent small galaxies, rather poor in stars. The Small Magellanic Cloud lies 160,000 light-years away, while the Large Magellanic Cloud lies even further, almost 200,000 light-years away. Although the Magellanic clouds are noticeably smaller than the Milky Way in size, very curious objects have been found in them. For example, in the Large Magellanic Cloud is the star S Doradus, which has the highest known luminosity. It is not visible to the naked eye, because it has an 8th magnitude, but its absolute luminosity exceeds the solar one by 600 thousand times!
However, the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds are far from everything. 2.5 million light-years from the Milky Way lies spiral galaxy Andromeda, which is much larger than ours in mass and number of stars. It is visible to the naked eye as a faint star of the 5th magnitude and is listed in the Messier catalog at number 31, therefore it was called M31 (and Charles Messier is a famous French astronomer, one of the first to start compiling a catalog of nebulae and star clusters).
The Andromeda Galaxy, the Milky Way, the Magellanic Clouds, the spiral in Triangulum (M33) and many smaller galaxies ( total number about 40) are part of the so-called Local Group with a diameter of over 3 million light years. More than a dozen similar groups are scattered within more than 30 million light years. And 50 million light years lies large cluster in the constellation Virgo, numbering several thousand galaxies. Thus, our Local Group belongs to an even larger structure, which is usually called a local supercluster of galaxies. Its diameter is 100, and the thickness is more than 30 million light years. The center of this gigantic galactic cloud is the very cluster in Virgo.
The Milky Way galaxy huddles at the very edge of a local supercluster. And even further away, at a distance of several hundred million light-years, there is a much larger cluster in the constellation Coma Berenices, which includes more than 10 thousand galaxies. Apparently, it is part of another giant galactic supercluster, which in recent times Dozens are open. These majestic objects crown the hierarchy of structures of the observable part of the Universe, which is otherwise called the Metagalaxy.
The visible part of the Universe has more than 100 billion galaxies. We on Earth with the naked eye see only four of them: the Milky Way, the Andromeda Nebula, the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds.
Stars
Shine and warmWe leave the house at night and look up. What do we see? Yes, of course, the stars, the sky full of stars, the sky bright from the stars. The world of stars is striking in its diversity. Among them are giant stars and dwarf stars, stars that love society, and stars that prefer solitude. Many stars form so-called multiple systems of two or three stars, which revolve around a common center of gravity at a relatively small distance from each other. There are stars that shine in the infrared and are not visible to us. There are others that shine tens and hundreds of thousands of times brighter than our Sun. And only in one parameter - in mass - they do not differ very much from each other: from 0.1 to 100 solar masses.
Stars are like people - they are born, grow up, grow old and die. But if some leave quietly and imperceptibly, then the finale of others is accompanied by grandiose cosmic cataclysms. Such objects are visible at a distance of many millions of light years, and their brightness exceeds the human imagination: it exceeds the light intensity of hundreds of billions of stars in an entire galaxy.
Each star has its own term. Some burn out in a matter of millions of years - when dinosaurs walked around the Earth, some of these stars did not yet exist. Others will live for a long time: the lifetime of stars slightly less massive than the Sun can reach 25 billion years (recall that about 14 billion years have passed since the Big Bang). The sun lit up about 5 billion years ago.
The Sun circles the Galaxy in 220 million years and has already managed to pass this trajectory 20 times.
So we look up at the night sky. The first thing that catches your eye is the distinct differences between the stars in brightness and color. In order to capture this difference, there is the term "magnitude". In fact, the absolute magnitude is the same as the luminosity of a star (usually expressed in units of the luminosity of the Sun and denoted by the letter L), that is, the total amount of energy emitted by a star per unit time. We have already talked about the fantastic luminosity of the Golden Fish in the Large Magellanic Cloud, which exceeds the luminosity of the Sun by 600 thousand times. Among other bright stars in our sky, we can mention Antares (alpha Scorpio), Betelgeuse (alpha Orion) and Rigel (beta Orion), whose luminosities exceed the solar one by 4 thousand, 8 thousand and 45 thousand times, respectively. On the other hand, the luminosity of dwarf stars can, in turn, yield to the luminosity of the Sun by thousands and tens of thousands of times.
Only very bright stars can see the difference in color with the naked eye. But a small amateur telescope or even decent field glasses will noticeably improve the image quality. Let's say Antares and Betelgeuse are red, Capella is yellow, Sirius is white, and Vega is bluish white.
The color of a star, and hence its spectrum, is determined by the temperature of its surface layers. At a temperature of 3000–4000 K, the star will be red, at 6000–7000 K it will acquire a distinct yellowish hue, and hot stars with a temperature of 10,000–12,000 K shine with a white or bluish light.
It is customary to distinguish seven main spectral classes, which are denoted in Latin letters O, B, A, F, G, K and M. Each spectral class is divided into 10 subclasses (from 0 to 9, with an increase in the direction of decreasing temperature). Thus, a star with the B9 spectrum will be closer in spectral characteristics to the A2 spectrum than, for example, to the B1 spectrum. Stars of classes O - B - blue (surface temperature - about 100,000-80,000 K), A - F - white (11,000-7,500 K), G - yellow (about 6000 K), K - orange (about 5000 K ), M are red (2000–3000 K).
Our Sun belongs to the spectral class G2 (the temperature of its surface layers is about 6000 K). Thus it turns out that our magnificent Sun, according to astronomical classification, is just a dwarf, a yellow dwarf! True, the diameter of the Sun is about 1.4 million km - the dimensions for a "dwarf", let's be frank, are considerable.
Some stars may change their brightness periodically. For example, Cepheids are yellow supergiants with a surface temperature about the same as that of the Sun. But they shine much brighter, because the power of their radiation exceeds that of the sun by tens of thousands of times. The periodic change in the brightness of Cepheids is associated with complex physicochemical processes in their depths, so they are usually called true, or physical, variables. The star of the World from the constellation Cetus is also among the true variables, although the period of brightness change is much longer for it and is approximately 11 months. (for Cepheids - from a day to a month).
However, there are variable stars whose brightness fluctuations are explained in a completely different way. Here is Algol (beta Perseus), a star that in the old days was called the "devil's eye" and "ghoul". Its brightness changes by a whole magnitude almost every three days. But Algol is a so-called "eclipsing" binary. It's just that a faint star revolves around Algol - the second component of a binary system, the orbit of which lies in the same plane as the Earth's orbit. When it is between Algol and the Earth on the line of sight of an earthly observer, it partially overshadows it.
On the other hand, red giants are relatively weakly heated, “only” up to 2–3 thousand degrees. But the total intensity of the light flux will be very significant compared to the Sun. This is because red giants are really giants. They are very, very big. Let square kilometer The surface of, say, Betelgeuse shines relatively weakly, but the area of this star is several orders of magnitude larger than that of the Sun! Therefore, the power of its radiation is many times higher than the sun. In 1920, the diameter of Betelgeuse was measured. It turned out that it is almost 350 times the diameter of the Sun and is approximately 500 million km.
What will happen if Betelgeuse is in the place of our Sun? The orbit of, for example, Mars is 220 million km from the Sun. All planets terrestrial group(Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars) would simply fall inside a giant star. How would we then write and read about Betelgeuse?
But let's not rush. The volume of Betelgeuse is 40 million times the volume of the Sun. And its mass is estimated at only 12-17 solar masses. What does it say? The fact that a red supergiant, inside which several planetary orbits of the solar system can fit, is something like a huge air bubble. If the average density of solar matter is approximately 1.4 g/cm 3 (almost one and a half times the density of water), then Betelgeuse will have it millions of times less than the air we breathe. Here's your super giant!
But Betelgeuse is not yet the largest supergiant. There are red supergiants so unimaginably huge that stars like Betelgeuse next to them are just “dwarfs squared”. For example, Epsilon Aurigae. It is an infrared supergiant with a diameter of 3.7 billion (!) Km. If you place it in the place of the Sun, it will easily absorb the first 6 planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn) and simply fill solar system up to the orbit of Uranus.
Dark and cold supergiants like Epsilon Aurigae should be empty rarefied worlds, because their substance is "smeared" over a colossal volume. The density of such a substance differs little from the density of emptiness, from the density of vacuum.
If there are supergiants in the “red” stellar class M, then, logically, there should also be red dwarfs, noticeably inferior in mass to the Sun. But they are by no means rarefied bubbles, but full-fledged stars. They can even be "fatter", denser than our Sun, and quite significantly. Let's say the red dwarf Kruger 60B is only five times lighter than the Sun, although its volume is 1/125 of our star. Thus, its average density should be 35 g/cm 3 , which is 25 times greater than the density of the Sun (1.4 cm 3 ) and one and a half times the density of platinum. Even such a solid celestial body as our home planet has an average density of about 5.5 g / cm 3 (the density of rocks earth's crust is 2.6 g / cm 3, and towards the center of the Earth it reaches a value of 11.5 g / cm 3), that is, it is more than six times inferior to Kruger.
Of course, the density of all celestial bodies(even gigantic gas bubbles like Betelgeuse) is growing rapidly towards the center. In order for the Sun to exist stably and not to collapse under the action of gravitational forces, the density of its central regions must reach values of the order of 100 g/cm 3 , which is 5 times higher than the density of platinum. It is clear that in the center of Kruger 60V this value will be 100 times more.
Such dense, dense red dwarfs... Well, in our Universe there is nothing denser? There is. These are white dwarfs. White dwarfs are, by stellar standards, very small and very hot stars. The temperature of their surface layers varies widely - from 5000 K for "old" cold stars to 50,000 K for "young" and hot ones. In terms of mass, they are quite comparable to the Sun, but their diameter, as a rule, does not exceed the diameter of the Earth, and, as we know from the school course, it is about 12,800 km. Thus, their average density reaches values of the order of 106 g/cm 3 and exceeds the density of our Sun by hundreds of thousands of times. One cubic centimeter of white dwarf matter can weigh several tons!
To date, quite a lot of white dwarfs have been discovered, and according to preliminary estimates, they account for several percent of the stars in our galaxy.
Despite the monstrous spread of stellar population in terms of density - from almost complete vacuum to values comparable to the density of an atomic nucleus, the masses of stars do not differ very much - from 0.1 to 100 solar masses. Thus, the heaviest star is only a thousand times more massive than the lightest. Moreover, at the extreme poles of the scale, relatively few stellar audiences fit. The mass of the vast majority of stars ranges from 0.2–5 solar masses.
For a visual representation of all these stellar relationships, consider the following flat diagram.
Diagram: spectral type - luminosity of stars
Astronomers and physicists widely use it as a universal tool, although they call it differently. On the horizontal axis of this diagram, from left to right, spectral classes are plotted in decreasing order of temperature, from O to M. On the vertical axis, from bottom to top, is the luminosity (or absolute stellar magnitudes) as it increases. There is an empirical relationship between temperature and luminosity. The brighter the star, the hotter it is, although, of course, there are exceptions (remember the red supergiants). But on average, this pattern works. Therefore, the farther to the left the spectral type of the star under study lies on the horizontal axis (hence, the greater its temperature), the higher it rises on the vertical scale of absolute stellar magnitudes (luminosity).
Most of the stars appear on the diagonal in the form of a wide band running from the upper left corner of the diagram, where the hot and bright stars, to the lower right, populated by cool, dim red dwarfs. This wide diagonal band is called the main sequence.
Stars that lie on the main sequence obey certain rules. For example, there is a relationship between the temperature of a star and its radius: a star with a certain surface temperature cannot be arbitrarily large, which means that its luminosity is also in a certain range of values. In addition, luminosity is related to the mass of the star. If we go along the main sequence from spectral classes O - B to K - M, then the mass of stars continuously decreases. For example, class O stars have masses reaching several tens of solar masses, while class B stars do not exceed 10 solar masses. Our Sun is known to have a spectral type of G2, so it will be located almost in the middle of the main sequence, a little closer to its lower right edge. Stars of later mass classes are noticeably less than the solar mass; e.g. red dwarfs spectral type M is 10 times lighter than the Sun. physical reason all these regularities were understood only after the creation of the theory of thermonuclear reactions.
However, far from the entire stellar population falls on the main sequence. Red giants form a separate branch, which grows in a wide band from the middle of the main sequence and goes to the upper right corner of the diagram - with a huge luminosity and low surface temperature. Against the background of the bulk of the stellar population of giants, there are relatively few. And in the lower left corner of the diagram are white dwarfs - hot stars with low luminosity, which indicates their very small size.
Calculate the path of a starIn 1972, the Americans launched the Pioneer-10 spacecraft. On board was a message extraterrestrial civilizations: a plate with images of a man, a woman and a diagram of the location of the Earth in space. A year later, Pioneer-11 followed him. By now, both devices should have already been in deep space. However, in an unusual way, their trajectories strongly deviated from the calculated ones. Something began to pull (or push) them, as a result of which they began to move with acceleration. It was tiny - less than a nanometer per second, equivalent to one ten-billionth of gravity on the Earth's surface. But this was enough to shift the Pioneer-10 from its trajectory by 400 thousand kilometers.
Both red giants and white dwarfs are a kind of waste products of stellar production, residual forms, a certain stage in the evolution of stars that have left the main sequence. How do stars live? What are the stages of stellar life? Do they have childhood, youth, maturity, old age? How do they die?
According to modern concepts, stars are born inside gas and dust clouds, which begin to shrink under the influence of their own gravitational forces. The interstellar medium only at first glance seems to be empty space. In fact, it contains a lot of gas and dust, which are distributed very unevenly. Most of the gas and dust is concentrated in the galactic spiral arms. This is where the so-called associations of young stars are found.
After separation and compaction of a fragment of a gas-dust cloud, the phase of its rapid compression begins. The density of the clot is growing rapidly, and its transparency is steadily decreasing, so the accumulated heat cannot leave it, and the clot begins to heat up. The radius of such a stellar embryo far exceeds the radius of the Sun, but it continues to shrink because the gas pressure and temperature inside the cloud are not able to balance the gravitational forces. When the temperature in the center of the formation reaches several million degrees, thermonuclear fusion reactions flare up in its depths. The temperature and pressure continue to rise, and there comes a moment when they begin to effectively counteract the forces of gravitational contraction. That's when a new stable and full-fledged star appears, which receives its rightful residence in the main sequence.
Like the early, inflationary stage of the evolution of the Universe, the “childhood” of a star is very fleeting. Heavy stars are born much faster than light ones. For example, it took our Sun about 30 million years, and stars three times its mass stabilize in just 100 thousand years. But red dwarfs, whose mass is an order of magnitude smaller than the solar one, have a slow development: the process stretches for a time of the order of hundreds of millions of years. But such stars also live much longer: the mass of a star not only determines the circumstances of its birth and the first steps, but also leaves an imprint on its entire subsequent existence.
Any star is a large self-regulating nuclear reactor, providing long-term and stable energy production. We have such energy problem would be completely resolved! A star contains a lot of hydrogen. She, in fact, burns him all her life. Hydrogen turns into helium, and that, in turn, into ever heavier elements. For example, our Sun, God bless it, has lived in the world for about 5 billion years, and still contains more than 80% hydrogen. The life time of a star on the main sequence (that is, the time of its “quiet” life) depends, first of all, on its initial mass. And here we can all be calm: our Sun will have a long and measured life - no less than the one that it has already existed. Doctors (only not doctors, but physicists and astronomers) give at least 5 billion years.
So, from the point of view just described, any star is a hot plasma ball. The thermonuclear reactions raging in its bowels play a dual role: firstly, they maintain pressure and temperature so that the star does not collapse under the influence of its own gravity, as the great Einstein bequeathed, and secondly, they supply it with heavy elements. The accumulation of heavy elements (and without them, the formation of terrestrial-type planets and, apparently, life) is most active in massive stars.
Every second, the Sun becomes lighter by 4 million tons. This substance simply burns out.
And here again thanks to our Sun! It is no coincidence that throughout its history people sing praises to him. The consumption of hydrogen fuel, which supports thermonuclear fusion reactions in the depths, is not the same for different stars. Stars comparable to the Sun in mass live very economically, so they have enough hydrogen reserves for a long time. Red dwarfs are even more frugal. Therefore, they will live twice, or even three times or four times longer than even the Sun. But massive stars are another matter: they burn their nuclear hydrogen fuel very wastefully. Therefore, the heaviest of them will be on the main sequence for only a few million years. Well, an immoderate life in youth leads to early old age ...
And what is stellar old age? This is when almost all the hydrogen in the core burns out. What happens then? The core of the star begins to shrink, and its temperature rises rapidly. As a result, a very dense and hot region is formed, consisting of helium with a small admixture of heavier elements. A gas in such a state is called degenerate. In the central part of the nucleus, nuclear reactions practically stop, but they continue to proceed quite actively on the periphery. The star swells rapidly, its size and luminosity increase significantly. It leaves the main sequence and turns into a red giant with a surface temperature of about 3000 degrees Kelvin.
Well, let there be no hydrogen, but there are still helium thermonuclear reactions. AT central regions a swollen star, helium continues to transform into carbon and oxygen up to the heaviest elements. But helium is also running out. And here again everything is decided by the initial mass of the star. If it was small, like our Sun, the outer layers are shed, forming a planetary nebula (an expanding cloud of gas), in the center of which the already familiar white dwarf lights up - a hot star about the size of the Earth and with a mass of the order of the mass of the Sun. The average density of the white dwarf matter is 106 g/cm 3 .
A white dwarf is essentially a dead star. All nuclear fuel burned, no reactions. But the object continues to radiate, and the pressure inside it still successfully resists its own gravity. Where does this pressure come from? Here, the laws already familiar to us with their paradoxicality come into play. quantum world. Under the influence of gravity, the matter of a white dwarf is compacted to such an extent that atomic nuclei literally squeezed in electron shells neighboring atoms. Electrons lose their intimate connection with their native atoms and begin to travel freely in interatomic voids throughout the space of a star, while bare nuclei form a stable rigid system - a kind of crystal lattice. This state is called a degenerate electron gas, and although the white dwarf continues to cool, average speed electrons is not reduced. Quantum theory says that the electrons in the electron gas will move very fast. Such a quantum mechanical motion is in no way connected with the temperature of the substance, it creates a pressure called the pressure of a degenerate electron gas. And just this force balances the force of its own gravity in white dwarfs.
Gradually cooling formations, inside which all the hydrogen has burned out, and nuclear reactions have stopped ... By the way, in the distant future, the Sun will also suffer such a fate. In about 5-6 billion years, our home star will burn all the hydrogen and turn into a red giant. Its luminosity will increase hundreds of times, and its radius - dozens. Living on Earth at this time will not be very comfortable, as the temperature at the surface will be about 500 ° C, and the atmosphere will burn out. So our luminary will live for several hundred million years, and then shed its peripheral shells and become a white dwarf.
A photon travels from the center of the Sun to its surface in 40,000 years, and from there to the Earth in 8.3 minutes.
If the mass of the star was large - it exceeded the mass of the Sun by 10 or more times - a core is formed in its center, consisting of heavy elements surrounded by lighter layers. At some point, such a core loses stability and gravitational collapse begins - a catastrophic collapse of the star into itself. This process is irreversible and inexorable. Depending on the mass of the nucleus, its central part either turns into a superdense object - neutron star, or collapses to the end, forming a black hole. The monstrous gravitational energy that is released during the contraction rips off the shell and the outer part of the core, throwing them out at lightning speed. There is a huge explosion. This is what is called a supernova explosion. We are not aware of cosmic cataclysms on a larger scale than supernova explosions. For some time, such a star shines brighter than an entire galaxy. Gradually, the ejected gas envelope will cool down and slow down, and eventually form a gas-dust cloud, in which there will be many heavy elements. When this cloud begins to condense under the influence of gravitational forces, a new star can flare up inside it. Such stars, born on the ruins of the former, are usually called second-generation stars, and our Sun seems to be just one of them.
Thus, some continuity is observed in nature: massive first-generation stars die, enriching the interstellar space with heavy elements that serve as building material for second-generation stars. All chemical elements heavier than helium were formed in the stellar interior during thermonuclear fusion, and the heaviest elements were formed during supernova explosions. Everything that surrounds us on Earth, and the Earth itself, is a stellar substance that we inherited.
Attention! This is an introductory section of the book.
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Line UMK B. A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov. Astronomy (10-11)
Astronomy
natural science
How old is the Sun? Can the sun cool down?
"What happens if the sun goes out?" - the question can be asked in a frightened voice, and curious. "How old is the Sun?" - also one of the most popular children's and adult questions.In our new section "Why" we will regularly answer the most interesting!
Solar Passport
The sun - the central body of the solar system - is a typical representative of the stars, the most common bodies in the universe. The mass of the Sun is 2 * 10 to the 30th power of kg. Like many other stars, the Sun is a huge ball, which consists of hydrogen-helium plasma and is in equilibrium (more on that below).
How old is the Sun?
He is 4.6 billion years old. A lot, right? Given that life (arthropods - the ancestors of modern insects) appeared on our planet about 570 million years ago. The simplest organisms much earlier -about 3.5 billion years ago
Can the sun go out?
You should not be afraid that the Sun will go out, because at first it will flare up very, very strongly!Inside the luminary (and any star that is in a state of equilibrium between the pressure from the inside and the pressure from the outside), at a certain moment, a new stage of thermonuclear fusion flares up. The temperatures get so high that the pressure rises so that the outer shells of the star swell up. The star will change irreversibly, turning into a huge red giant. Our Sun will turn into the same giant.
Is the sun big?
The diameter of the Sun is almost 1,400,000 km. A lot of? Compare with the picture below! Millions of planets equal to the Earth can fit inside the Sun. 99.8% of the mass of the solar system is concentrated in the sun. And from 0.2% of the rest, planets are made (and 70% of the planetary mass fell on Jupiter). By the way, the Sun is constantly losing weight: it loses 4 million tons of its mass every second - they fly away in the form of radiation, every moment about 700 million tons of hydrogen turn into 696 tons of helium.
When and how will our Sun explode?
More correctly, it will turn into a red giant. At the moment, the Sun is in a yellow dwarf state and is simply burning hydrogen. During the entire time of its existence - 5.7 billion years, as we have already said - the Sun is in a stable hydrogen burnout mode. And this fuel will be enough for him for 5 billion years (more than the Earth has existed since the beginning of time!)
After the next stages of synthesis are turned on, the Sun will turn red, increase in size - to the earth's orbit (!) - and swallow our planet. And, yes, Venus and Mercury will gobble up before that. But life on Earth will end even before the Sun begins its transformation, because the increase in luminosity and temperature increase will cause our oceans to evaporate a billion years before that.
How hot is the Sun?The temperature on the surface of the Sun is about 6,000 degrees Celsius. Inside the Sun, where thermonuclear reactions go on without stopping, the temperature is MUCH higher - it reaches 20 million degrees Celsius.
Is this what happens to all stars? How then does life appear?
The sun is still a very small star, and therefore it can work for a long time, steadily burning its hydrogen. Large stars, on the other hand, due to their huge mass and the need to constantly resist gravitational pressure (what is outside) with their own powerful back pressure, spend their fuel very quickly. As a result, their cycle is completed not in billions, like the Sun, but in millions of years. Because of this, life on nearby planets does not have time to arise.Advice to future astronauts: if you are looking for life on planets in other systems, do not choose massive stars, but rather immediately focus on a star of the Sun class (Class G - surface temperature 5000-6000 degrees. Yellow color).
The textbook by B. A. Vorontsov-Velyaminov, E. K. Straut meets the requirements of the Federal State Educational Standard and is intended for studying astronomy at a basic level. It retains the classical structure of the presentation. educational material, much attention is paid to current state science. Astronomy has made tremendous strides in recent decades. Today it is one of the fastest growing areas of natural science. New well-established data on the study of celestial bodies from spacecraft and modern large ground and space telescopes have found their place in the textbook.
We are completely dependent on our star - the Sun. The earth rotates around its axis, the sun slowly rises above the horizon and all day illuminates and warms the surface of the earth and everything on it. Without the sun, there would be no life.
What was before the Sun? How was it formed?
Five billion years ago, neither the Sun nor the nine planets surrounding it existed.
The atoms that make up our bodies flew through interstellar space in clouds of gas and dust. Scientists think that this gas cloud, which consisted mainly of hydrogen, rotated around its axis. The more the cloud collected dust and gas, the more it contracted, that is, decreased.
The force that causes the cloud to contract is the force of gravity. Inside the cloud, particles were attracted to particles, fusing together. Gradually, the cloud began to rotate synchronously with all its parts at the same time.
Interesting fact: The light emitted by the Sun is equal in power to the light of 4 trillion light bulbs.
An example of the formation of the Sun
To illustrate how this happened, astronomer William Hartmann proposed a simple experiment. You have to shake a cup of coffee. The liquid in the cup moves randomly. If you drop a little milk into the cup, the coffee particles will begin to rotate in one direction. Something similar. It also happened in a cloud in which, little by little, the random movement of particles was replaced by their ordered synchronous rotation, that is, the cloud began to rotate entirely in one direction.
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Scholars have added a dramatic twist to this story. They believe that when the cloud formed, a star exploded not far from it. At the same time, powerful streams of matter scattered in different directions. Part of this matter mixed with the matter of the gas and dust cloud of our solar system. This resulted in even faster cloud compression.
The more the cloud was compressed, the faster it rotated, like a figure skater who, while spinning, presses her arms to her body (and also begins to spin faster). The faster the cloud rotated, the more its shape changed. In the center, the cloud became more bulging, as more matter had accumulated there. The peripheral part of the cloud remained flat. Soon the shape of the cloud resembled the shape of a pizza with a ball in the middle. This ball, yes, you guessed it right, was our child - the Sun. The accumulation of gas in the middle of the "pizza" was larger than the modern size of the entire solar system. Scientists call the newborn Sun a protostar.
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How did the Sun turn from a ball of gas into a star?
This happened very, very slowly, over thousands and thousands of years, as the protostar and its surrounding cloud continued to contract under the force of gravity. The atoms that make up the cloud collided, releasing heat. The temperature of the cloud grew, especially in the denser center, where the frequency of collisions of atoms was higher. The gas in the protostar began to glow. In the bowels of the forming Sun, the temperature gradually increased to millions of degrees.
At such inconceivably high temperatures and equally high pressures, something new began to happen with atoms squeezed and pressed to each other. Hydrogen atoms began to combine with each other, forming helium atoms. Each time hydrogen was converted to helium, a small amount of energy was released - heat and light. Since this process took place everywhere in the core of the Sun, this energy flooded the entire solar system with light. The sun turned on like a gigantic electric lamp. From that moment on, the Sun became a living star, the same as we see in the night sky.
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Nuclear fusion of the Sun
The sun produces energy through a process called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion is a controlled explosion at the center of the Sun, where temperatures range from 15 million to 22 million degrees Celsius. Every second in the depths of the Sun, 4 million tons of hydrogen are converted into helium. The power of the light flux, which is emitted in this case, is equal to the power of 4 trillion light bulbs.
Interesting fact: when the Sun was young, it was 20 times bigger and 100 times brighter than it is now.
What will happen to the Sun next?
It is worth recalling that the supply of hydrogen on the Sun is limited. Over time, the composition of our luminary changes. If at the beginning of its history the Sun consisted of 75 percent hydrogen and 25 percent helium, now the hydrogen content has dropped to 35 percent. As you guessed, there comes a moment when the hydrogen in the bowels of the star disappears. Like any fuel, hydrogen eventually runs out. The Sun has nowhere to take new hydrogen. The core of the star is now made of helium. The nucleus is surrounded by a thin hydrogen shell. The shell's hydrogen continues to turn into helium, but the star has already entered into a decline order.
