Gravity (mg) is the force with which the Earth attracts a body located on its surface or near this surface. The force of gravity is directed strictly vertically to the center of the Earth; depending on the distance to the surface the globe free fall acceleration (g) is different. At the surface, it is about 9.8 m/s2, and g decreases with distance from the surface.

The law of gravity, proposed in 1666 by Isaac Newton.

F = G.m.M/r2, N,
where:
F - strength gravitational attraction, H,
G is the coefficient of the gravitational constant; G = 6.7.10\-11, N.m\2/kg\2,
m - masses of the Moon, m = 7.35.10 \ 22, kg,
M - mass of the Earth, M = 6.10 \ 24, kg,
r is the distance between the bodies along the centers, r = 3.844.10\8, m.

F = 6.7.10\-11.7.35.10\22.6.10\24:(3.844.10\8)\2 = 295.671.10\35:14.776.10\16=
20.01.10\19, N

Body weight (weight force) (P) is the force with which the body acts on a horizontal support or stretches the suspension, while the body is stationary. Body weight and gravity differ in nature: body weight is a manifestation of the action of intermolecular forces, and gravity has a gravitational nature. When accelerating a=0, P=mg, N, where m is the body mass in kg; when moving down P=mg-ma, N; up P=mg+ma, N; and for a=g, P=0. The state of a body in which its weight is zero is weightlessness.

Let's look at a few examples:
1. A body 2 lies on plate 1 (Fig. 1). The force of the body weight P=mg is directed strictly vertically to the center of the Earth, where P is in H, m is in kg, g is in m/s\2.

2. Body 2 (Fig. 2) was placed on the slab on the side face. Again, the force of the weight of the load is directed towards the center of the Earth. No matter how the body is standing, the direction of the force of weight does not change.

3. Load 2 is lifted to a certain distance from the Earth and kept in a horizontal position. The force of the body weight P is directed downward. To hold the body in a stationary state, we apply a force T directed upwards, T=P. The third law: "The forces with which bodies act on each other are equal in absolute value and opposite in direction." Let's turn the body at a certain angle, then we get: T + B \u003d P + K, where B is the force expended on turning the body, K is the resistance force that occurs when the body is turned. Therefore, we can say that the body was affected by the force K, which was spent on turning something inside, and in the opposite direction. We release the body from the hands to the Earth. The body falls down, while P=0, but when falling the body does not turn around, the question arises where the force expended on turning the body before falling was spent. On friction, on overcoming the magnetic properties of the Earth, but is it really so? Physicists find it difficult to answer this question and, throwing up their hands, declare: "But how could it be otherwise."

4. Stand for the study of the weight of a rotating body (Fig. 3): Electric motor 1 direct current. Multiplier 2 (a mechanism that increases the speed of the shaft). Flexible shaft 3 (steel rope in a flexible sleeve, which transmits rotation from the multiplier 2 to shaft 4, which is made from one installation on an electronic lathe and has a slight eccentric shift of the shaft rotation axis relative to the center of the circle). Supports 5 with an outer race of the bearing. Highly sensitive electronic scales 6.

The weight of the shaft with supports is fixed. Turning on the electric motor, we gradually increase the current strength and the frequency of rotation of the shaft 4. With an increase in the speed of rotation, the weight of the shaft 4 decreases, and at a high frequency of rotation, the shaft becomes weightless. The supports can be removed, but at a high speed of rotation, large centrifugal forces arise that could balance themselves if the shafts did not have an eccentric displacement of the axis of rotation relative to the center of the shaft circumference. Due to the eccentric rotation, the shafts begin to vibrate and without bearings they cannot work. But where did the weight of the shaft go?

Hypothesis: "When bodies rotate, significant changes occur in their atoms."

Atom. Initially, the word atom meant an indivisible particle into smaller parts. But according to modern scientific ideas, the atom consists of small particles. It is made up of electrons, protons and neutrons. And it is likely that there are still smaller particles than quarks, but not yet discovered. modern methods research. Neutrons are present in all atoms, but they are sometimes absent in hydrogen atoms. Atoms do not have a clearly defined outer boundary, so their sizes are determined conditionally: by the distance between the nuclei of identical atoms.

The electron belongs to the lightest particle with a mass of 9.11.10\-31, kg. It has a negative electric charge e=1.6.10\-19 coulombs, and its size is too small to be measured by modern methods, but it is believed that its size does not exceed 10\-20, see Fig.

A positively charged proton (1.6726.10\-27, kg) is 1836 times heavier than an electron. And the neutron (1.6749.10\-27, kg), which does not have an extra electric charge, is 1839 times heavier than an electron. Protons and neutrons have comparative sizes of the order of 2.5.10\-15 m, but these sizes are determined with an error.

Both protons and neutrons are composed of elementary particles - quarks, which are the main constituent of matter. There are six types of quark particles with a fractional electric charge equal to +2/3e or -1/3e elementary charge. Protons are made up of three quarks: two +2/3u and -1/3u quarks, and one +2/3d quark. The neutron also consists of three quarks: two +2/3d quarks and -1/3d quarks, and one -1/3u quark. Of these relationships, the proton is a positively charged particle, and the neutron is neutral. The mass of the nucleus is the constituent sum of all protons and neutrons, and given the small weight of electrons, the mass of an atom is equal to the mass of the nucleus.

Quarks are interconnected by force nuclear interconnections, which are called gluons, being elementary particles, carriers of strong interaction.

Electrons in an atom are attracted to the nucleus, but there is a Coulomb interaction between them, which describes the force interaction between fixed point electric charges. These same forces keep the electrons inside the potential barrier surrounding the nucleus. It was believed that the electrons in the atom move in orbits, but according to quantum mechanics, this is not true. In every body there are many molecules with atoms. The atoms are clamped together, as a result, the electrons have limited freedom of movement. A strictly defined distance is observed between protons, neutrons and electrons of the same-named atoms.

From the point of view of ordinary mechanics, this can be represented as if "springs" are located between the electrons, which put pressure on the electrons with little effort. Electrons begin to move towards the nucleus, compressing three "springs" each (two of their own atoms, the third from a neighboring atom), and on the reverse side, the action of the three "springs" weakens and gaps form between them. As a result, compressed "springs" throw electrons in opposite directions from the nucleus. And then each electron begins to rush about (it cannot be at rest), forming free space, which is much larger than the electron. For the observer, the electron is, as it were, and it is, as it were, absent. An electron at a given point in space at a given time is blurred, pulsating.

An atom can be examined with a scanning tunneling electron microscope at a magnification of a million to one and a half million times.

The atoms in the molecules and the molecules themselves in the body are interconnected. On fig. 4 atoms and nuclei with protons and neutrons are depicted in a horizontal plane. Positively charged particles of u-quarks and d-quarks in protons and neutrons are located at certain distances between themselves and with neighboring quarks of atoms located in neighboring rows.

When the body is rotated by 90 degrees, that is, the body has turned from the horizontal to the vertical plane, then the picture of the location of the quarks must necessarily change. The positive particles of the quarks +2/3u-quark and +2/3d-quark will shift down to the negative field of the Earth, otherwise it cannot be, as shown in Fig. 5. The nucleus also deforms and an eccentric displacement of the centers of positive particles of quarks relative to the center of the atom is formed. The more quark particles, the greater the eccentricity of the atom in the vertical plane.

When a body falls freely, the weight force P=0, the quark particles are redistributed, that is, they have the same location pattern in the horizontal and vertical planes, as shown in Fig. 4. When a body hits the Earth, quark particles are redistributed, the picture of their arrangement changes, as shown in Fig. 5.

Hypothesis: “The weight of the body is based on the electromagnetic nature of the interaction and is provided by the displacement of positive quark particles towards the center of the Earth and depends on the number of positive quarks in the atom and the body. an atom, creates the force of the body's weight."

From the point of view of ordinary mechanics, this can be represented in such a way that the atoms in the horizontal plane are arranged in order. The next lower layer of atoms is also in order, but all the atoms are displaced relative to the upper layer by half the distance between them to the right and left, forward and backward. And so is each layer of atoms. In weightlessness, the distances between atoms are strictly maintained, and, as it were, "springs" are located between the atoms, which put pressure on the atoms with the same force. Zero body weight.

In a freely lying body on the Earth, the "springs" do not press on the atoms with the same force, although the distances between the atoms in the horizontal and vertical planes are the same. Due to the attraction of positively charged quarks to the negatively charged surface of the Earth, quarks violate the alignment of their location in the atom, which creates the force of the weight of the body on the support.

Since the force of gravity equal to zero is formed during the fall acceleration g=9.8 m/s\2, then in a second the fall velocity is V=g.t=9.8.1=9.8 m/s. AT spaceships this rate of fall is constantly maintained, and all bodies are weightless.

Then the angular speed of rotation of the shaft, at which the weight of the shaft becomes equal to zero, is determined: w=V/R, rad/s, with a shaft radius R=0.01 m, w=9.8/0.01=
980 rad / s, and the shaft speed per minute N \u003d 30.w / 3.14 \u003d 9373 rad / min.

Hypothesis: "The angular velocity of displacement of u-quark, d-quark, gluons and electrons (w/1) in the nucleus of an atom occurs up to the angular velocity of rotation of the shaft (w), that is, w/1 is less than 980 rad/s. If w/1 more than 980 rad / s, then the rotating shaft with a load on it becomes, as it were, weightless, since the positively charged particles of quarks do not have time to rearrange themselves in the direction towards the center of the Earth, especially since the bodies are mainly built from different atoms.

Hypothesis: "The coefficient of the gravitational constant G in Newton's law is not a constant value. When a body rotates, the axis of which is perpendicular to another body, the coefficient G decreases within the angular velocity of rotation w / 1 to 980 rad / s, and when w / 1 is more than 980 rad /c becomes zero (G=0), that is, the force of gravity is zero (mg=0).

It is known that at the Earth's surface the free fall acceleration is equal to
g=9.8 m/s2, when moving away from the surface, g decreases, and space-time (pv) is distorted upward. Newton believed that space and time are constants, and according to the theory of relativity, any object around it bends space-time, that is, space and time do not constants and depend on the magnitude of the free fall acceleration g and are determined by the formula:

Where:
G - coefficient of gravitational constant, G=6.7.10\-11, N.m\2/kg\2,

Pv=9.8/6.7.10\-11=1.46.10\11, kg/m\2,

Then the formula for the force of gravitational attraction will take the form:

F=m.M/r\2.pv=7,35.10\22.6.10\24:(3,844.10\8)\2.1,46.10\11=
2.04.10\19, kg.

Paradox. If a load lying on a horizontal surface moves from the weight of a weight of 1 kg, and according to Newton from 1H = 9.8 kg.m / s \ 2, but then the question is, where is 9.8 kg, where is m, where is c \ 2 ? When we know that the cargo moved from 1 kg.

Hypothesis: "With a free fall of a body, space-time slows down at each kilometer of fall, the force of gravitational attraction increases depending on the magnitude of the acceleration of free fall."

Let's hang the body on a thread. Stretching, the thread will begin to rotate the body until it stops. The force expended on unwinding the thread is expended on the intersection of positively and negatively charged particles of quarks and electrons of the magnetic field lines of the Earth in the horizontal plane, but the force of unwinding the thread has no effect on the displacement of alignment in atoms.

The car is moving along the road. The weight of the car is distributed on four wheels. The car accelerates to a speed of about 900 km / h, while the angular speed of rotation of the wheels will be about 1000 rad / s, then the load from the weight of the car transmitted through the wheels to the Earth will be zero, but due to the aerodynamic properties, the car will be pressed to the Earth, but can take off, being in weightlessness.

This happened in the Crimea on the highway Dzhankoy - Simferopol. The racer in a sports car accelerated so that he took off at a small turn, rising five meters from the Earth. The sports car cut down, as if cut, the tops of trees at a distance of 50 - 60 meters. Frightened, the racer braked, the wheels stopped spinning, the engine stalled and the car began to fall sharply down the cuts of several trees almost to the root. The traffic police for a long time "puzzled their heads" why the car flew horizontally and not along a parabola for several seconds, but did not come to anything.

In all rotating mechanisms, in the manufacture of parts, an eccentric displacement of the axis of the ox relative to the center of the circle was initially laid down, which causes them to vibrate, so bearing wear occurs over the entire surface of the diameter of the bearing race, and not from below, where the gravity of the shaft is applied. In this case, the force from vibration exceeds the weight of the shaft itself.

In lathes, the cam mechanisms that clamp the shafts during processing themselves have an eccentric offset, otherwise they cannot be made, therefore, the parts made on these machines have an eccentric offset. Electric motors are mainly produced with a speed of about 900 to 3500 rpm, but rotating mechanisms do not work at such speeds due to vibration, therefore, gearboxes are used that reduce the speed of the working body.

And another interesting point. Photo 6 shows the laying of stones on the wall of an ancient structure. The blocks are perfectly matched to each other, so that human hair impossible to fit between blocks. The question is: the ancient builders had nothing to do but grind and fit the blocks to each other? Naturally, they were not fools and would use materials like our bricks. Easier and much faster. But the ancient builders knew the secret, they could turn stone blocks into a flowing mass, which flowed down like liquid resin, acquiring a bizarre shape, polished in atomic purity of processing.

A Latvian immigrant, Eduards Lidskalnin, somehow single-handedly built a castle out of multi-ton boulders. He moved stones weighing 30 tons. During his lifetime, he did not reveal his secret, but said: "I discovered the secret of the structure of the pyramids."

In one of the television programs of Igor Prokopenko, there was a photograph of an old drawing on a stone. The artist depicted a huge hundred-ton block. To the side stood priests with long trumpets and blew them. Naturally, the artist depicted this from nature, and did not fantasize. We can assume that the ancient artist left a hint to our generation.

The clergy blew pipes, creating a certain sound, and the sound is waves that resonated with the waves of the quarks of atoms. As a result, the quarks began to move, they were unbalanced, and the force of the block's weight became zero. Two slaves picked up a weightless block, and, accompanied by clergymen, brought it to the top, setting it in the right place. The priests changed the program of sound performance, the block softened, and it acquired the desired shape, so that it was impossible to insert a razor blade between the blocks.
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Reviews

The depth of penetration into the microworld is impressive, exceeding the capabilities of a tunneling microscope by orders of magnitude. You raise questions that, it would seem, have already been resolved, but in fact physical meaning they are far from simple, therefore, without in any way claiming to be the ultimate truth, I will touch on these problems, as I understand them.
3. The question arises where the force expended on turning the body before the fall was spent. On friction, on overcoming the magnetic properties of the Earth, but is it really so? - The force is expended on work to overcome the force of gravity applied to the body, as well as to change the points of application of the released inertial force of the inertial mass of the body itself.
4. But where did the weight of the shaft go?
Let's say the shaft is stationary.
The force of gravity is balanced by the reaction of the supports. The force of gravity on the surface of the Earth is the resultant of the force of attraction and the force of gravity. The force of attraction (pulling in) is the interaction of the joint vacuum potential of the Earth on any level (geodesic) surface of the Earth with a body located on this surface. The lower level surface has a higher "density" of the vacuum potential in comparison with the higher one. The lower potential draws in the upper one, regardless of whether the shaft is on the upper surface. But there they put the shaft on supports so that it could rotate. Each elementary particle The shaft has its own "monopoly" of the vacuum potential, oriented along the retraction vertical, i.e. along the radius of the earth. Like any "decent" field, the monopole of each particle is added to the Earth's gravitational field. The inertial mass of this particle in THIS direction, not held by its monopole, rushes after it (or its part). In other directions inertial mass this particle is balanced. So, each inertial mass of each particle, each ringlet of the shaft, along its entire length, is under the influence of the retracting potential of the Earth, proportional to the mass of the particle, and the corresponding released inertial force of its inertial mass.
The shaft starts to rotate.
The inertial mass of the lower hemisphere of the shaft begins to rise above the level surface (geodesic), dragging along its monopole applied to the vacuum potential of the Earth on this surface. But this taboo is worse than the fact that two electrons cannot be in the same place in the same state. Therefore, the vacuum potential of the surface, tightly held by the lower layers of the vacuum potential of the Earth, simply pulls off, rips off these monopoles from the sides of the rotating shaft, sending them to their place at the bottom of the shaft. However, they will already be superfluous on this geodesic. The resulting overflow of monopoles absorbs the vacuum potential of the Earth. The bottom of the shaft with the following monopoles begins to rise, and in their place, instantly, from the depths of the shaft, from the supports, the following portions from the joint vacuum potential of the shaft arrive in order to hold the inertial mass of particles slipping out of the shaft, which are under the influence of their released inertial force. The process of pulling and replenishing is repeated many times. In addition, the rotation of the shaft adds centrifugal forces to this force. Further rotation of the shaft of the corresponding frequency leads to the fact that the vacuum potential of the particles flows into the Earth. And along all the radii of the shaft, its inertial mass, left without retaining bonds, including interatomic and intermolecular ones, "shoots" in all 360 degrees, first with its inertia - the shaft loses weight, and then by the inert mass itself, destroying the shaft.
This is the same gyroscope, only extended, having many concentric circles, along the radii of which its inertial mass, which has received weightlessness, tends to fly out.
Under the influence of its released inertial forces of the inertial mass (which no one yet recognizes), it is possible that the "flying saucer" of the Third Reich once took off. Sincerely.

The daily audience of the Proza.ru portal is about 100 thousand visitors, who total amount view more than half a million pages according to the traffic counter, which is located to the right of this text. Each column contains two numbers: the number of views and the number of visitors.

The hypothesis of the existence of neutron stars was put forward by astronomers W. Baade and F. Zwicky immediately after the discovery of the neutron in 1932. But this hypothesis was confirmed by observations only after the discovery of pulsars in 1967.

Neutron stars are formed as a result of the gravitational collapse of normal stars with masses several times that of the sun. The density of a neutron star is close to the density of an atomic nucleus, i.e. 100 million times higher than the density of ordinary matter. Therefore, with its huge mass, a neutron star has a radius of only approx. 10 km.

Due to the small radius of a neutron star, the force of gravity on its surface is extremely high: about 100 billion times higher than on Earth. This star is kept from collapse by the "degeneration pressure" of dense neutron matter, which does not depend on its temperature. However, if the mass of the neutron star becomes greater than about 2 solar masses, then gravity will exceed this pressure and the star will not be able to withstand the collapse.

Neutron stars have a very strong magnetic field, reaching 10 12 -10 13 gauss on the surface (for comparison: the Earth has about 1 gauss). FROM neutron stars connect celestial objects of two different types.

Pulsars

(radio pulsars). These objects strictly regularly emit pulses of radio waves. The radiation mechanism is not completely clear, but it is believed that a rotating neutron star emits a radio beam in the direction associated with its magnetic field, the symmetry axis of which does not coincide with the axis of rotation of the star. Therefore, the rotation causes the rotation of the radio beam periodically sent to the Earth.

X-ray doubles.

Pulsating X-ray sources are also associated with neutron stars that are part of a binary system with a massive normal star. In such systems, gas from the surface of a normal star falls onto a neutron star, accelerating to tremendous speed. When hitting the surface of a neutron star, the gas releases 10-30% of its rest energy, while in nuclear reactions this figure does not even reach 1%. The surface of a neutron star heated to a high temperature becomes a source x-ray radiation. However, the fall of the gas does not occur uniformly over the entire surface: the strong magnetic field of the neutron star captures the falling ionized gas and directs it to the magnetic poles, where it falls like a funnel. Therefore, only the regions of the poles become strongly heated, which on a rotating star become sources of X-ray pulses. Radio pulses from such a star no longer arrive, since radio waves are absorbed in the gas surrounding it.

Compound.

The density of a neutron star increases with depth. Under a layer of atmosphere only a few centimeters thick, there is a liquid metal shell several meters thick, and below - a solid crust kilometer thick. The substance of the bark resembles ordinary metal, but is much denser. In the outer part of the crust, it is mainly iron; the fraction of neutrons in its composition increases with depth. Where the density reaches approx. 4Ch 10 11 g/cm 3 , the proportion of neutrons increases so much that some of them are no longer part of the nuclei, but form a continuous medium. There, the substance looks like a "sea" of neutrons and electrons, in which the nuclei of atoms are interspersed. And at a density of approx. 2× 10 14 g/cm 3 (density of the atomic nucleus), individual nuclei disappear altogether and a continuous neutron "liquid" with an admixture of protons and electrons remains. Probably, neutrons and protons behave in this case as a superfluid liquid, similar to liquid helium and superconducting metals in terrestrial laboratories.

The substances of such an object are several times higher than the density of the atomic nucleus (which for heavy nuclei is on average 2.8⋅10 17 kg/m³). Further gravitational contraction of a neutron star is prevented by the pressure of nuclear matter, which arises due to the interaction of neutrons.

Many neutron stars have extremely high rotation speeds - up to several hundred revolutions per second. Neutron stars are formed as a result of supernova explosions.

General information

Among neutron stars with reliably measured masses, most fall within the range of 1.3 to 1.5 solar masses, which is close to the Chandrasekhar limit. Theoretically, neutron stars with masses from 0.1 to about 2.16 solar masses are acceptable. The most massive neutron stars known are Vela X-1 (has a mass of at least 1.88 ± 0.13 solar masses at the 1σ level, which corresponds to a significance level of α≈34%) , PSR J1614–2230 en (with a mass estimate of 1, 97±0.04 solar), and PSR J0348+0432 en (with a mass estimate of 2.01±0.04 solar). Gravity in neutron stars is balanced by the pressure of the degenerate neutron gas. The maximum value of the mass of a neutron star is given by the Oppenheimer-Volkov limit, which depends on the (still poorly known) equation of state of matter in the star's core. There are theoretical prerequisites for the fact that with an even greater increase in density, the transformation of neutron stars into quark stars is possible.

By 2015, more than 2500 neutron stars have been discovered. About 90% of them are single. In total, 10 8 -10 9 neutron stars can exist in our Galaxy, that is, somewhere around one per thousand ordinary stars. Neutron stars are characterized by high speeds (usually hundreds of km/s). As a result of accretion of cloud matter, a neutron star in this situation can be visible from Earth in different spectral ranges, including optical, which accounts for about 0.003% of the radiated energy (corresponding to 10 magnitude).

Structure

Five layers can be distinguished in a neutron star: atmosphere, outer crust, inner crust, outer core, and inner core.

The atmosphere of a neutron star is a very thin layer of plasma (from tens of centimeters for hot stars to millimeters for cold ones), the thermal radiation of a neutron star is formed in it.

The outer crust consists of ions and electrons, its thickness reaches several hundred meters. A thin (no more than a few meters) near-surface layer of a hot neutron star contains a non-degenerate electron gas, deeper layers - a degenerate electron gas, with increasing depth it becomes relativistic and ultrarelativistic.

The inner crust consists of electrons, free neutrons, and atomic nuclei with an excess of neutrons. As the depth increases, the fraction of free neutrons increases, while the fraction of atomic nuclei decreases. The thickness of the inner crust can reach several kilometers.

The outer core consists of neutrons with a small admixture (several percent) of protons and electrons. In low-mass neutron stars, the outer core can extend to the center of the star.

Massive neutron stars also have an inner core. Its radius can reach several kilometers, the density in the center of the nucleus can exceed the density of atomic nuclei by 10-15 times. The composition and equation of state of the inner core are not known for certain. There are several hypotheses, the three most probable of which are: 1) a quark nucleus, in which neutrons fall apart into their constituent up and down quarks; 2) a hyperon core of baryons, including strange quarks; and 3) the kaon nucleus, consisting of two-quark mesons, including strange (anti)quarks. However, it is currently impossible to confirm or disprove any of these hypotheses.

Cooling neutron stars

At the time of the birth of a neutron star (as a result of a supernova explosion), its temperature is very high - about 10 11 K (that is, 4 orders of magnitude higher than the temperature in the center of the Sun), but it drops very quickly due to neutrino cooling. In just a few minutes, the temperature drops from 10 11 to 10 9 K, in a month - to 10 8 K. Then the neutrino luminosity decreases sharply (it depends very much on temperature), and cooling occurs much more slowly due to photon (thermal) radiation of the surface. The surface temperature of known neutron stars, for which it has been measured, is on the order of 10 5 -10 6 K (although the core is apparently much hotter).

Discovery history

Neutron stars are one of the few classes of space objects that were theoretically predicted prior to discovery by observers.

For the first time, the idea of ​​​​the existence of stars with increased density even before the discovery of the neutron, made by Chadwick in early February 1932, was expressed by the famous Soviet scientist Lev Landau. Thus, in his article On the Theory of Stars, written in February 1931 and for unknown reasons belatedly published on February 29, 1932 (more than a year later), he writes: “We expect that all this [violation of the laws of quantum mechanics] should manifest itself when the density of matter becomes so great that the atomic nuclei come into close contact, forming one giant nucleus.

"Propeller"

The rotation speed is no longer sufficient to eject particles, so such a star cannot be a radio pulsar. However, the rotation speed is still high, and the matter captured by the magnetic field surrounding the neutron star cannot fall, that is, the accretion of matter does not occur. Neutron stars of this type have practically no observable manifestations and are poorly studied.

Accretor (X-ray pulsar)

The rotation speed is reduced so much that now nothing prevents the matter from falling onto such a neutron star. Falling, the matter, already in the state of plasma, moves along the lines magnetic field and hits the solid surface of the body of a neutron star in the region of its poles, heating up to tens of millions of degrees. Substance heated to such high temperatures glows brightly in the X-ray range. The area in which the incident matter collides with the surface of the body of a neutron star is very small - only about 100 meters. This hot spot periodically disappears from view due to the rotation of the star, so regular pulsations of X-rays are observed. Such objects are called X-ray pulsars.

Georotator

The rotation speed of such neutron stars is low and does not prevent accretion. But the dimensions of the magnetosphere are such that the plasma is stopped by the magnetic field before it is captured by gravity. A similar mechanism works in the Earth's magnetosphere, which is why this type of neutron stars got its name.

Notes

1. Dmitry Trunin. Astrophysicists have clarified the limiting mass of neutron stars (indefinite) . nplus1.ru. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
2. H. Quaintrell et al. The mass of the neutron star in Vela X-1 and tidally induced non-radial oscillations in GP Vel // Astronomy and Astrophysics. - April 2003. - No. 401. - pp. 313-323. - arXiv :astro-ph/0301243 .
3. P. B. Demorest, T. Pennucci, S. M. Ransom, M. S. E. Roberts & J. W. T. Hessels. A two-solar-mass neutron star measured using Shapiro delay // Nature. - 2010. - Vol. 467 . - P. 1081-1083.

NEUTRON STAR
a star made up mostly of neutrons. A neutron is a neutral subatomic particle, one of the main constituents of matter. The hypothesis of the existence of neutron stars was put forward by astronomers W. Baade and F. Zwicky immediately after the discovery of the neutron in 1932. But this hypothesis was confirmed by observations only after the discovery of pulsars in 1967.
see also PULSAR. Neutron stars are formed as a result of the gravitational collapse of normal stars with masses several times that of the sun. The density of a neutron star is close to the density of an atomic nucleus, i.e. 100 million times higher than the density of ordinary matter. Therefore, with its huge mass, a neutron star has a radius of only approx. 10 km. Due to the small radius of a neutron star, the force of gravity on its surface is extremely high: about 100 billion times higher than on Earth. This star is kept from collapse by the "degeneracy pressure" of dense neutron matter, which does not depend on its temperature. However, if the mass of a neutron star becomes more than about 2 solar masses, then gravity will exceed this pressure and the star will not be able to withstand the collapse.
see also GRAVITATIONAL COLLAPSE. Neutron stars have a very strong magnetic field, reaching 10 12-10 13 gauss on the surface (for comparison: the Earth has about 1 gauss). Two different types of celestial objects are associated with neutron stars.
Pulsars (radio pulsars). These objects strictly regularly emit pulses of radio waves. The radiation mechanism is not completely clear, but it is believed that a rotating neutron star emits a radio beam in the direction associated with its magnetic field, the symmetry axis of which does not coincide with the axis of rotation of the star. Therefore, the rotation causes the rotation of the radio beam periodically sent to the Earth.
X-ray doubles. Pulsating X-ray sources are also associated with neutron stars that are part of a binary system with a massive normal star. In such systems, gas from the surface of a normal star falls onto a neutron star, accelerating to tremendous speed. When hitting the surface of a neutron star, the gas releases 10-30% of its rest energy, while in nuclear reactions this figure does not even reach 1%. The surface of a neutron star heated to a high temperature becomes a source of X-rays. However, the fall of the gas does not occur uniformly over the entire surface: the strong magnetic field of the neutron star captures the falling ionized gas and directs it to the magnetic poles, where it falls like a funnel. Therefore, only the regions of the poles become strongly heated, which on a rotating star become sources of X-ray pulses. Radio pulses from such a star no longer arrive, since radio waves are absorbed in the gas surrounding it.
Compound. The density of a neutron star increases with depth. Under a layer of atmosphere only a few centimeters thick, there is a liquid metal shell several meters thick, and below - a solid crust of a kilometer thickness. The substance of the bark resembles ordinary metal, but is much denser. In the outer part of the crust, it is mainly iron; the fraction of neutrons in its composition increases with depth. Where the density reaches approx. 4*10 11 g/cm3, the fraction of neutrons increases so much that some of them are no longer part of the nuclei, but form a continuous medium. There, the matter looks like a "sea" of neutrons and electrons, in which the nuclei of atoms are interspersed. And at a density of approx. 2*10 14 g/cm3 (the density of the atomic nucleus), individual nuclei disappear altogether and a continuous neutron "liquid" with an admixture of protons and electrons remains. Probably, neutrons and protons behave in this case as a superfluid liquid, similar to liquid helium and superconducting metals in terrestrial laboratories.

With even more high densities in a neutron star, the most unusual forms of matter are formed. Maybe neutrons and protons decay into even smaller particles - quarks; it is also possible that many pi-mesons are produced, which form the so-called pion condensate.
see also
PARTICLES ELEMENTARY;
SUPERCONDUCTIVITY ;
SUPERFLUIDITY.
LITERATURE
Dyson F., Ter Haar D. Neutron stars and pulsars. M., 1973 Lipunov V.M. Astrophysics of neutron stars. M., 1987

Collier Encyclopedia. - Open society. 2000 .

See what "NEUTRON STAR" is in other dictionaries:

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At sufficiently high densities, the equilibrium of the star begins to break down neutronization process stellar matter. As is known, during the b - -decay of a nucleus, part of the energy is carried away by an electron, and the rest is a neutrino. This total energy determines upper energy of b - -decay. In the case when the Fermi energy exceeds the upper energy of b - -decay, then the process opposite to b - -decay becomes very probable: the nucleus absorbs an electron (electron capture). As a result of a sequence of such processes, the concentration of electrons in the star decreases, and the pressure of the degenerate electron gas, which maintains the star in equilibrium, also decreases. This leads to further gravitational contraction of the star, and with it to a further increase in the average and maximum energy of the degenerate electron gas - the probability of electron capture by nuclei increases. In the end, neutrons can accumulate so much that the star will consist mainly of neutrons. Such stars are called neutron. A neutron star cannot be composed of neutrons alone, as the pressure of the electron gas is needed to prevent the neutrons from becoming protons. A neutron star contains a small admixture (about 1¸2%) of electrons and protons. Due to the fact that neutrons do not experience Coulomb repulsion, the average density of matter inside a neutron star is very high - approximately the same as in atomic nuclei. At this density, the radius of a neutron star with a mass on the order of the sun is approximately 10 km. Theoretical calculations on models show that the upper limit of the mass of a neutron star is determined by the estimation formula M pr "( 2-3)M Q .

Calculations show that the explosion of a supernova with M ~ 25M Q leaves a dense neutron core (neutron star) with a mass of ~ 1.6M Q . In stars with a residual mass M > 1.4M Q that have not reached the supernova stage, the pressure of the degenerate electron gas is also unable to balance the gravitational forces, and the star shrinks to the state of nuclear density. The mechanism of this gravitational collapse is the same as in a supernova explosion. The pressure and temperature inside the star reach such values ​​at which electrons and protons seem to be “pressed” into each other and, as a result of the reaction ( p + e - ®n + n e) after the ejection of neutrinos, neutrons are formed, which occupy a much smaller phase volume than electrons. A so-called neutron star appears, the density of which reaches 10 14 - 10 15 g/cm 3 . The characteristic size of a neutron star is 10 - 15 km. In a sense, a neutron star is a giant atomic nucleus. Further gravitational contraction is prevented by the pressure of nuclear matter, which arises due to the interaction of neutrons. This is also the degeneracy pressure, as earlier in the case of a white dwarf, but is the degeneracy pressure of a much denser neutron gas. This pressure is able to hold masses up to 3.2M Q

The neutrinos produced at the moment of collapse cool the neutron star rather quickly. According to theoretical estimates, its temperature drops from 10 11 to 10 9 K in ~ 100 s. Further, the rate of cooling decreases somewhat. However, it is quite high in astronomical terms. The decrease in temperature from 10 9 to 10 8 K occurs in 100 years and to 10 6 K in a million years. Detect neutron stars optical methods quite difficult due to the small size and low temperature.

In 1967, at the University of Cambridge, Hewish and Bell discovered cosmic sources of periodic electromagnetic radiation - pulsars. The pulse repetition periods of most pulsars lie in the range from 3.3·10 -2 to 4.3 s. According to modern concepts, pulsars are rotating neutron stars with a mass of 1 - 3M Q and a diameter of 10 - 20 km. Only compact objects with the properties of neutron stars can maintain their shape without collapsing at such rotational speeds. The conservation of angular momentum and magnetic field during the formation of a neutron star leads to the birth of rapidly rotating pulsars with a strong magnetic field AT magn ~ 10 12 gauss.

It is believed that a neutron star has a magnetic field whose axis does not coincide with the axis of rotation of the star. In this case, the radiation of the star (radio waves and visible light) glides over the Earth like the rays of a beacon. When the beam crosses the Earth, an impulse is registered. The very radiation of a neutron star arises due to the fact that charged particles from the surface of the star move outward along the magnetic field lines, emitting electromagnetic waves. This model of the radio emission mechanism of a pulsar, first proposed by Gold, is shown in Fig. 9.6.

Rice. 9.6. Pulsar model.

If the radiation beam hits an earthly observer, then the radio telescope detects short pulses of radio emission with a period equal to the rotation period of the neutron star. The shape of the pulse can be very complex, which is due to the geometry of the magnetosphere of a neutron star and is characteristic of each pulsar. The rotation periods of pulsars are strictly constant and the measurement accuracy of these periods reaches 14-digit figures.

Pulsars that are part of binary systems have now been discovered. If the pulsar orbits around the second component, then variations in the period of the pulsar due to the Doppler effect should be observed. When the pulsar approaches the observer, the recorded period of radio pulses decreases due to the Doppler effect, and when the pulsar moves away from us, its period increases. Based on this phenomenon, pulsars that are part of binary stars were discovered. For the first discovered pulsar PSR 1913 + 16, which is part of a binary system, the orbital period of revolution was 7 hours 45 minutes. The proper period of revolution of the pulsar PSR 1913 + 16 is 59 ms.

The radiation of the pulsar should lead to a decrease in the speed of rotation of the neutron star. This effect has also been found. A neutron star, which is part of a binary system, can also be a source of intense X-rays. The structure of a neutron star with a mass of 1.4M Q and a radius of 16 km is shown in fig. 9.7 .

I - thin outer layer of densely packed atoms. In regions II and III, the nuclei are located in the form of a body-centered cubic lattice. Region IV consists mainly of neutrons. In region V, matter can consist of pions and hyperons, forming the hadronic core of a neutron star. Individual details of the structure of a neutron star are currently being specified.