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The Essence of the Object of the Reform - Polyudya Before Olga's reform, the collection of tribute was carried out in the form of polyudya. Polyudye - an annual detour by the prince and the retinue of subject lands to collect tribute. On the one hand, polyudye is a contribution from the conquered tribes, on the other hand, a certain collection from the population, which had a traditionally voluntary character. In this sense, polyudye was a gift presented to the prince by his subjects. Polyudye was charged in kind, its size was not the same for different parts of the state. The size and nature of the tribute became the custom by the middle of the 10th century. They were regarded as legal, and deviation from them as a violation of the norms of customary unwritten law.

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Goals tax reform establishing an orderly system of tribute collection; the weakening of tribal power; strengthening the power of the Kyiv prince.

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Start of tax reform The reform began in 946. “And Olga went with her son and with her retinue through the Drevlyane land, setting tributes and taxes,” this is how Nestor describes this event in The Tale of Bygone Years. Journey book. Olga. Painting of the vault of the Tsarina's Chamber in the Moscow Kremlin

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Establishment of "lessons" Princess Olga established a "lesson" - a fixed amount of tribute that had to be paid within a certain period of time. Tribute instead of "polyudya" was a more civilized form of taxes, carried out once a year by collecting food, furs and various products.

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Establishment of graveyards In each administrative district, graveyards and camps where tribute was collected were built. The meaning of these buildings was that Olga, having divided the principality into administrative components, built small fortresses in each part of it, capable of repelling any dissatisfied decrees of the princess. Graveyards were also used for trade. Ilyinsky churchyard on Vodlozero

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Tiuns - tribute collectors People were identified to collect tribute on graveyards - "tiuns". The tribute collector is no longer called a "cattleman", as among the Eastern Slavs before they became part of Old Russian state. This indicates a special stage of development monetary relations- From cattle as the equivalent of money, the Russians are moving to their other equivalents, reminiscent of metallic money.

The reign of Princess Olga (briefly)

The reign of Princess Olga - a brief description

The opinions of researchers differ when it comes to the date and place of birth of Princess Olga. The ancient chronicles do not give us accurate information whether she was from a noble family or from a simple family. Some are inclined to believe that Olga was the daughter of the Grand Duke Oleg the Prophet, while others argue that her family comes from the Bulgarian prince Boris. The author of the chronicle "The Tale of Bygone Years" directly says that Olga's homeland is a small village near Pskov and that she is "from a simple family."

According to one version, Prince Igor Rurikovich saw Olga in the forest, where he was hunting game. Deciding to cross a small river, the prince asked for help from a girl passing by on a boat, whom he at first mistook for a young man. The girl turned out to be pure in thought, beautiful and smart. Later, the prince decided to take her as his wife.

Princess Olga, after the death of her husband (as well as during the reign of Igor in Kyiv) from the Drevlyans, proved to be a firm and wise ruler of Russia. She dealt with political issues, managed with combatants, governors, complainants, and also received ambassadors. Very often, when Prince Igor went on military campaigns, his duties fell entirely on the shoulders of the princess.

After Igor was killed in 945 for the repeated collection of tribute, Olga cruelly repaid them for the death of her husband, showing unprecedented cunning and will. Three times she killed the Drevlyan ambassadors, after which she gathered an army and went to war against the Drevlyans. After Olga could not take main city Korosten (while the rest of the settlements were completely destroyed), she demanded three sparrows and three doves from each house, and then ordered her soldiers to attach tinder to the paws of birds, set it on fire and release the birds. Burning birds flew to their nests. So Korosten was taken.

After the pacification of the Drevlyans, the princess took up tax reform. She abolished polyudia and divided it into areas of land, for each "lessons" (a fixed tax) were established. The main goal of the reforms was to streamline the tribute system, as well as to strengthen state authority.

Also during the reign of Olga, the first stone cities appeared, and her external public policy carried out not by military methods, but by diplomacy. Thus, ties with Byzantium and Germany were strengthened.

The princess herself decided to accept Christianity, and although her baptism did not affect Svyatoslav's decision to leave pagan Russia, Vladimir continued her work.

Olga died in 969 in Kyiv, and in 1547 she was canonized as a saint.

What is a lesson in Ancient Russia- not many people understand. In our article, we will try to figure out what it is and where it originates from. After all, the period of introduction of lessons decided a lot for the Russian state. It was from this moment that a centralized, orderly system appeared in Russia in economic and political terms.

Prince Igor: the beginning of everything

To understand what a lesson is in Ancient Russia, you need to know how it all began. We will begin to consider history from the time of the reign of Prince Igor Rurikovich, who did not become a strong figure in the management of the Russian state, but went down in history as a prince who could not cope with his people because of his stupidity and greed.

Prince Igor began to rule after the death of Prophetic Oleg. Throughout his reign, the prince did not show himself as a worthy ruler. However, he did not show himself as a bad prince. The only thing that Prince Igor became famous for was unsuccessful attempts to march on Byzantium. It is also worth noting that thanks to Igor, the trade agreement with the Greeks, which was concluded by Prince Oleg the Prophet, was continued. This condition was convenient for Russia at that time.

Violent death of the prince

The real glory comes to Prince Igor after his tragic death, about which there are now many legends and myths, many of which have not yet been scientifically proven. Despite this, historians are of the opinion that Igor was brutally killed by the Drevlyans, from whom he unfairly collected tribute.

The strangest thing in the history of Prince Igor is his act. It is known that the collection of tribute in Russia was adopted a very long time ago. This rite, which proves respect for the king, was obligatory for everyone. A well-known historical fact: the prince collected tribute from the Drevlyans, but it seemed to him that the funds that he collected were not enough. Then Igor returned to collect the tribute again. This was repeated several times, until the Drevlyans became furious from such impudence and injustice of the prince. According to legend, the Drevlyans killed Igor, considering him a dishonest, unworthy and unfair ruler who simply “robs” his people. Prince Igor was brutally murdered by the Drevlyane people, for which he soon paid a heavy price.

The coming of the princess to power

After the death of Prince Igor, his wife, Princess Olga, comes to power in Russia. Russia has always been ruled strong warriors, so Olga faced a difficult task: she had to prove her strength and show the whole state that she was also a strong personality who was able to rule the country. In ancient chronicles, one can find four deeds of Princess Olga, which are of great importance for the development of Russian history.

The reign of the princess begins with revenge for the death of Prince Igor. This was the first act mentioned in the annals. As revenge, Princess Olga, together with her son Svyatoslav, burned down the capital of the Drevlyans. During the fire, a lot of Drevlyan ambassadors died. This act proved the strength of a woman, despite the fact that throughout Russian state a woman was considered a weak-willed creature who had to run a household and raise children.

But let's not deviate from the topic. What is a lesson in ancient Russia? After the completion of revenge, the princess decided to take up state affairs in order to eliminate economic and political problems in the country.

The beginning of the tenth century in the Russian state

Before Princess Olga took the throne, Russia remained under the strong influence of the Varangians. Rurikovich went to distant lands, where they built new cities, fortresses, thereby expanding the borders of the Kievan state. Today, chronicles tell us that because of their geographical remoteness, the Varangians could not pass on very much of their culture to Russia. But this did not prevent the Varangians from developing the surrounding lands and waterways, the peoples living nearby.

The more rivers were developed, the more trade routes were opened. It was from this moment that the expansion of cities began. This was a very strong impetus to the economic development of Russia. And the power itself already meant the creation of an economic and political infrastructure. Water trade routes begin to be controlled by different princes. It is this moment that dates the emergence of such a state as Kievan Rus.

Attempts at centralization: the introduction of churchyards and lessons

The treasury of Russia constantly received funds that could ensure victory in the conquest of Byzantium. These funds came in the form of churchyards and tribute, which were paid by the conquered tribes and peoples to the state. Today, even the amounts of these taxes can be found in ancient documents. The Russkaya Pravda, which is considered the first legislative document in Russia, states that the amount of tribute was 300 hryvnias per year. This amount was paid for maintaining peace between the captured tribe and Russia.

It was Princess Olga who was able to divide the entire Novgorod land into several parts, which were called "graveyards". Each territorial unit had its obligations to Kievan Rus. Each churchyard was obliged to pay an annual lesson - a tribute, the amount of which was precise and fixed at the legislative level.

Authorities in the ancient state

At that time there was only one authority - the prince. The prince's squad can also be called an authority. It was the princely squad that was the official body that collected tribute in Ancient Russia. Naturally, the collection of taxes took place under the supervision of the princess. However, this authority of the squad is regulated in Russkaya Pravda. The squad received income, which provided the population. In addition, the population was obliged to provide any funds if the combatant was in the service. Then another type of relationship appeared in the state, which was called "non-feudal-vassal".

The main part of the population of the state were community members, that is, free peasants who were part of various communities. Since there was no land ownership, the treasury received income that brought taxes. The definition of the word "lesson" in Ancient Russia of this time was still unknown. However, taxes were obligatory in nature. For non-payment of taxes, very cruel norms were applied, up to the death penalty.

Taxation system in Russia

Every year, from November to April, the prince's team received a large income. There were only two ways to get it: cart and polyudye. The cart was a mandatory provision of money and food to the prince directly to the court. The polyudye was collected by the combatants themselves during the detours of state territories.

The detour, as a rule, was made by junior warriors.

Before Olga came to power, taxes were irregular and had no order or norm. Only in the 10th century Kievan Rus a system of taxation is being created, which has a clear order. It is from this moment that the introduction of lessons in Russia takes place.

Reforms of Princess Olga

Olga's coming to power was the start economic activity the entire population. It was then that mandatory payments appeared in the form of churchyards and lessons. This contributed to the development domestic policy. Before the reign of the princess, the main task of the state was the development foreign policy. Despite all the control, the reforms of Princess Olga were more peaceful than hostile.

Specific changes in the state system

If we talk about the time of the power of the princess, then it was Olga who carried out those reforms that were able to establish: a fixed amount of tribute, the appointment of responsible people for its collection and the creation of special points for its collection.

The princess decided to introduce all the changes immediately. Control over orders also began to be exercised immediately after the introduction of changes in the state order.

Graveyards and lessons

To clearly understand what the lessons meant in Russia, it is enough to open the modern Tax Code Russian Federation and read the 8th article. This reform of the princess was the first attempt to establish unity in the country, to make it legal. Charters were mainly intended for persons who had any powers. After all, there were enough such persons: for each churchyard there were representatives. Due to the geographical remoteness of the graveyards, the commissioners remained to manage them locally. Thus, Princess Olga established a procedure for arranging internal affairs and eliminating the problems of the country.

It is also important to say that all of Russia was divided by the princess into large volosts, and churchyards became their centers. As a rule, churchyards were large villages located along the banks of various rivers.

Conclusion

Economic development and the development of commodity-money relations was due to the creation of lessons. So what is a lesson in Ancient Russia? A lesson is a fixed amount of taxation. It was from the moment of the reign of Princess Olga in Russia that a constant and fixed income appeared in the state treasury, which could already correct some of the economic problems of Russia. In addition, the princess created independent administrative units, which are still preserved in our country today. big state. Olga not only handled the affairs of foreign policy, but also actively dealt with the problems that existed within the state itself.

In addition, the reforms that Olga carried out became the strengthening of power in Russia, led to the distribution of control throughout the state.

Among other things, it is important to say that it was thanks to the princess that Russia began to acquire its cultural and spiritual values. It was from the moment Olga came to power that the state began to develop in a religious and spiritual sense, because Olga actively participated in the spread of Christianity in Russia. People began to acquire self-consciousness and a sense of duty to their state. This was facilitated by the creation of a unified system of taxation - the introduction of mandatory payment of lessons.

Taxes are mandatory fees levied by the state from economic entities and from the population at rates established by law. For the formation of the tax system, in addition to the formation of the state and the emergence of legislative acts, a certain level of economic (economic) relations in the country is necessary.

The formation of the tax (tax) system in Russia has long been helped by the development of trade and the gradual formalization of customs law; the second factor that ensures this process is not just the formation of statehood in Russia in the 9th-10th centuries, but also the improvement of state structures, especially those involved in fiscal policy, the heyday of these structures can be considered the 16th-18th centuries; the third most important factor was the formation in the XV-XVI centuries. agricultural as the main one in an agrarian society, i.e., the active development of agriculture and cattle breeding, which supplied products for trade in the domestic and foreign markets; the fourth factor should be considered the development of crafts, and in the XVII-XVIII centuries. manufacturing production.

In Russia, the first form of tax collection was called "polyudye", it was characteristic of a number of emerging states of Eastern Europe. "Poludie" is mixed type the collection of tribute, more or less stipulated in oral agreements between the tribes, as well as the feeding of the prince and his squad at the expense of the population of the subject territories.

The collection of “polyudya” in Kievan Rus is reported in the notes of the emperor of Byzantium Constantine Porphyrogenitus (908-959) “On the management of the empire”. Describing the life of various peoples, including those in the regions of the Danube and the Dnieper, he testified to the "severe way of life ... of the Ross." When the month of November came, their archons (princes) went out with the "dews from Kiava" (Kiev) and went to the "polyudye", which was called "circling".

In late autumn and winter, the prince and his retinue traveled around the territories subject to him in order to collect tribute, without a predetermined quota. At first, the collectors of "polyudya" went to the tribe of the Drevlyans (Vervi - An), closest to Kiev, then through Lyubech along the Dnieper to the Dregovichi (Druguvi - there); after to Smolensk, where the Krivichi lived in the Upper Dnieper. Further, the "circling" around Kyiv continued along the Desna River to the northerners (severians), and through Chernigov and Vyshgorod, the prince returned to Kiev with his retinue.

The fact that the term "poludie" appeared on the basis of the Slavic word is confirmed by the Greek transcription of this word, in the ancient Icelandic sagas it is also borrowed from Old Russian. Arab sources, such as Ibn Rust, report that the Slavs during the "polyudya" period collected tribute not only in food, but also in clothing. This can be interpreted as you like broadly, apparently, they took furs, leather, canvas, etc., that is, everything from which clothes are sewn.

The main results of the "whirling" were the collection of: honey, wax, furs and slaves (slaves), which were sold or exchanged in foreign markets, including in Byzantium. They returned to Kyiv from "polyudya" in April, part of the tribute was used at the Grand Duke's court, and part, apparently, was paid to combatants for their service. By this time, the surrounding tribes sent "monoxyls" - one-deck boats with sides and masts. Of these, a flotilla of 100-200 ships was assembled. They set sail in June-July, these months were considered the most favorable for expeditions along the Black Sea to Constantinople. The journey from the pier in Vityachevo to Constantinople took an average of six weeks. Vityachev was a collection point because ships from Pereyaslavl, the third largest city in Russia after Kyiv and Chernigov, arrived here. Pereyaslavl stood on the Trubezh River, which flows into the Dnieper below Vitya-chev, there was a Dnieper ford. The path "to the Greeks" was very difficult, because it was necessary to overcome twelve Dnieper rapids.

The season for the passage of caravans to the Black Sea coincided with the season for caviar, so the Rus also brought caviar and expensive fish to Byzantium. At least a thousand people arrived in Constantinople with the merchants. On the basis of trade agreements with Byzantium in 911 and 944. merchants stopped at a special farmstead and engaged in trade. Caravans returned to Kyiv no later than November, by the beginning of a new "circling" around Kyiv, they brought expensive fabrics and weapons, gold and silver from Constantinople.

Thus, the route from Kyiv to Constantinople was closely connected with the implementation of the tribute received from the "polyudya" and was only part of the Great Trade Route "from the Varangians to the Greeks."

When the Old Russian state became stronger, in the middle of the 10th century. here the first known economic reform in Russia was carried out, associated with the beginning of the second stage in the formation of the tax system. PVL, Konstantin Porphyrogenitus, V. O. Klyuchevsky and S. M. Solovyov talk about the three components of the reform of Princess Olga (the widow of Prince Igor), which she carried out in 946. one of which killed Prince Igor, prompted Princess Olga to transform this entire system. "And Olga went with her son (Svyatoslav) and with a squad through the Drevlyane land, setting tributes and taxes," according to the Tale of Bygone Years (PVL). Further, it is said that she established tributes and dues along the Meta and Luga, visited Novgorod and Pskov, along the Dnieper and the Desna. She also installed graveyards everywhere (from the word "guests" - merchants). Princess Olga in 946 for the first time turned to the collection of tribute, the amount of which, at least in general terms, was established in advance. Thus, firstly, the “polyudye” or “circling” of the Kiev prince with his retinue in the subject territories was canceled. Tribute instead of "polyudya" was a more civilized form of taxes, carried out once a year by collecting food, furs, various products from lands that became volosts, then county principalities, etc. Secondly, special places were determined to collect tribute - " churchyards". They were also used for local (exchange) trade, and near large cities, on the banks of large rivers - and for foreign trade. Thirdly, according to a number of testimonies, people were determined to collect tribute on graveyards - "tiuns". Russkaya Pravda speaks of them as important officials. The tribute collector is no longer called a "cattleman", as among the Eastern Slavs before they became part of the Old Russian state. This circumstance testifies to a special stage in the development of monetary relations - from cattle as the equivalent of money, the Russians are moving to their other equivalents, reminiscent of metallic money.

So, the first stage of the formation of the tax system in Russia is chronologically determined: IX - ser. X e.;

Second stage: from ser. 10th century before the beginning of socio-political fragmentation, the separation of North-Eastern, South-Eastern, South-Western Russia, that is, until the 1120s;

The third stage continued from the 1120s. before the attack of the Horde on Russia, i.e. until the 1230s.

According to the PVL, very interesting trends in the development of the tax system in Russia appeared at the third time stage. If applied to the X century. "tire" and "tribute" were mentioned as equivalent fees, then in the descriptions of the XII-XIII centuries. these terms are being clarified. In Russia at that time, the initial process of feudalization took place, which acquired more or less definite contours. A third of the tribute collected was intended for the Grand Duke, went to the prince's treasury, which gradually acquired the significance of the state treasury. One tenth of it was sent to the disposal Orthodox Church and was called "tithes".

At the same time, three varieties of tribute-tire appeared: the first was charged from "smoke", that is, from a house with a stove and a chimney. This testified to a certain stage of rural construction, it can be assumed that those who wished to evade tribute were drowned "in a black way" - without bringing the pipe outside. In a few centuries, the household tax will become the main direct tax in Russia, its origins were born in the XII-XIII centuries. in the form of a tribute-tire from "smoke". Another part of the families - farmers - paid from the "ral" (from the plow). In the distant future, this will become a land tax. Another part of the population paid from a "person", which in a few centuries will be transformed into a poll tax.

The tribute-tire had two components: 1) the tribute was paid in favor of the state, that is, it turned into a tax; 2) the quitrent was intended for the feudal lord, that is, it turned into land rent. But in relation to the first centuries of the existence of the Old Russian state, it is difficult to draw such a clear gradation of tribute. The principle of collecting tribute from the territories, and not from the people living in them, was still preserved in remote areas.

The fourth stage in the formation of the tax system coincides with the time Tatar-Mongol yoke. This was the period from 1236-1240. until the middle of the fifteenth century.

Ancient Russia became dependent on the Horde on the terms of a semi-colony. The management of the Russian lands by national leaders, princes from the Rurik family, was preserved. But the princes had to receive shortcuts to rule for big money and gifts.

The Horde people were born steppe dwellers and horse breeders, did not know agriculture and did not build cities. Their contribution to world culture, noted by L. N. Gumilyov, was associated with the life and way of life of the steppes: they invented and introduced into everyday life a large disassembled yurt; from men's clothing, long trousers (trousers) were among the first to be used; invented a curved saber; wore a fur headdress, a malachai hat. The Mongols, originally illiterate, state structure turned out to be receptive to the experience of other countries and peoples. Having passed long haul conquests across the expanses of Asia, they adopted from a number of peoples from ancient culture, including the Chinese and Persians, literacy, the skills of conducting a population census, organizing a fast postal service by creating "pits" - postal stations through equal segments of the path.

The Horde began to conduct the first census in Russia even before the fall of Kyiv in 1238, when, after the death of Grand Duke Yuri in Vladimir-on-Klyazma, his brother Yaroslav Vsevolodovich began to rule there. Khan Batu sent his Baskaks with clerks (census takers) and interpreters (translators) across the Russian lands. According to the Italian traveler Plano-Car-Pini, this census was very cruel. From each head of the family, who had three sons, they took one full, captured all unmarried men and unmarried women, all the poor and childless, and drove them into slavery. The rest were all listed and paid tribute. From now on, every male person at any age and in any condition had to pay yasak annually: "for bear, beaver, sable, polecat and fox fur." Those who could not pay were taken into slavery. And in 1257, after the death of Batu and his son Sartak, the second census was carried out in Russia. The clerks who arrived censused the population of Suzdal, Ryazan, Murom and other lands. They did not count, that is, they did not impose "yasak" (tax) (as in the first census), on clergymen and monks. For the rest, listed by "numerals" in the census, "yasak" was determined in the form of the furs of wild animals already listed. All those who did not pay were taken away, as in previous years, in "full".

But the main thing was the tribute common to all of Russia called "the Horde exit." Its amount was not clearly defined. The appanage princes paid the "exit" on behalf of the population of their principalities. But from the time of Ivan Danilovich (Kalita), the Moscow princes began to pay for all the "horde exit", having previously collected the necessary amount from different places. The Horde took more gold and silver, expensive furs. If the khan in Sarai (the capital of the Golden Horde) wanted more tribute-gifts, the princes and sons were detained for an indefinite time in the Horde until their entourage collected the required amount, more often with gold and silver dishes, perhaps, and salaries from images. Resisting not only requisitions, but also humiliation, the princes and their sons were martyred in the Horde.

The main conclusion from the above is this: the economy of Russia was thrown back several centuries ago. Because of the exorbitant requisitions paid annually even for babies and decrepit old males with furs of valuable breeds of wild animals, the Russians were forced to come to grips with hunting. Thus, instead of a producing economy, they again switched to an appropriating type of economy. For almost a hundred years, the Russians did not widely engage in agriculture and cattle breeding. The Stepnyakovs had little interest in agriculture and its fruits. Due to the delay in the process of feudalization and the formation of an agrarian society, there has been a significant lag in economic development Russian state from European countries. Alignment of levels of development will occur only after a few centuries.

The fifth stage in the development of the tax system in Russia falls on the XIV-XVI centuries. At this time, the conditions for the transition to the so-called field tax were formed. In those days, in the world surrounding Russia - Eastern and Western Europe - centralized states were created. Russia could not remain aloof from these tendencies for a long time. In addition, after the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380, a political and economic upsurge began in the country. From the middle of the XV to the middle of the XVI century. showed a true flourishing of agriculture and Agriculture. During these years, as a whole, the transition to a new stage in the development of the tax system was determined - the collection of land tax. The "plow" as a form of tribute is mentioned in the will of the Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich the Dark (1425-1462). After his death, the scribes had to rewrite the lands and impose "tribute on the plows and on the people." Here, "plow" is officially mentioned as a unit of taxation. So, tribute collections were carried out: by people; along the plows; taking into account the economic power of the economy. "Sokha" as a unit of taxation was not associated with a plow - an agricultural tool. "Sokha" is a unit of land from which taxes were paid to the sovereign, that is, the Grand Duke, in the 15th-16th centuries, the first half of the 17th century. "Sokha" was also determined by the amount of labor needed to cultivate a certain land area. With the gradual elimination of fragmentation in Russia, Yaroslavl, Tver and other principalities joined the collection of taxes in the form of the "Moscow plow". Moreover, other objects of taxation were conditionally equated to arable land: mills, shops, boats, i.e., various real estate.

Legislatively land tax as the main direct tax in Russian centralized state was enshrined in the "Sudebnik" of Ivan IV in 1550. It began to be levied from all Russian lands from 1551. The basis of the "plough" (land tax) was a certain amount of land that could be cultivated by one or more people with one or more horses At the same time, the amount of production was also taken into account, that is, the economic benefit received from plowing the land. V. O. Klyuchevsky called it "industrial plow", meaning the collection of tax from the townspeople draft people (small merchants and artisans). two: Novgorod - about 45 acres of land.In contrast to it, the Moscow plow was a whole arable district.Referring to the service landowners (nobles), the plow arable here in three fields reached 1200-1800 acres of land.

Thus, the size of the plow depended on whether it was possible to obtain and sell so much production from this or that land, depending on its area and fertility, in order to be able to pay the amount of tax. "Sokha" Novgorod was much smaller because in those places there was little fertile land, it was not distributed to service people, and the people were engaged in trades and crafts, foreign and domestic trade a lot and paid taxes, apparently from the amount of total income.

"Sokha" church reached in three fields up to 1350 acres. The peasants located on these and "black", i.e. state, lands, did not carry military service, therefore more rural taxes were taken from them.

"Sokha" state peasants reached 600 acres. It turned out that the "black" peasants from 600 acres of land paid the same amount of land tax as service people from 1200 acres of land, that is, they took twice as much tax from them.

Direct taxes in Muscovy until the 17th century. consisted of 3 parts:

1) tribute (pay tax);

2) feeding administrative persons;

3) other natural duties.

The whole set of cash payments and natural duties was called a tax.

Smaller than "plow" units of taxation were: "howl" - up to 30 acres of land and "obzha" - up to 15 acres.

"Feeds" to regional governors were divided into: a) "entry", i.e. when a person enters the administration; b) "permanent", that is, annual, presented on two major church holidays: "Peter's" and "Christmas". Prior to the dominance of the Moscow principality, "feed" included "supplies in kind" in the form of bread, meat, and hay for livestock. With the accession of Muscovite Rus and the development of commodity-money relations, the governors began to receive monetary salaries.

History shows that even with the introduction of monetary salaries, offerings to various officials were preserved in subsequent times. But they ceased to be obligatory, acquired the character of gifts - "gifts -" - "bribery of officials.

In the 16th-17th centuries, that is, with the advent of a single state and the "anointing" of Ivan IV to the kingdom, the volume of direct taxes increased significantly. Under Ivan the Terrible, this can be explained by large government spending during the Livonian War, and in the 17th century. - elimination of the consequences of the Time of Troubles.

To the field tax ("plough", "howl", "tribute") were added fees for:

1) the ransom of prisoners, especially those taken away by the Crimean Tatars - "Polonian" money;

2) "streltsy" bread was collected for the maintenance of the streltsy troops;

3) "pit money" - for the maintenance of branched from the 16th century. nets of the Yamskaya "chase";

4) "yamchuzhnye" - or saltpeter money - for the purchase of gunpowder;

5) "zasechnye" money was collected even earlier for the construction of "zasek" - barriers on the way of the Tatars to Moscow.

All numerous direct taxes in the XVII century. were enlarged, i.e., reduced to three main ones:

1) money "data", i.e. the land tax itself, which in the old fashioned way was called tribute;

2) "polonian";

3) "ordinary" money, here they did not mean dues from patrimonial peasants. They introduced dues under Ivan IV with the abolition of the administration of governors and volostels and, accordingly, the abolition of feeding. Instead, elected zemstvo elders with kissers appeared. For their maintenance, a state tax was determined, called "rent" or "farm".

To streamline taxation in the XVI century. scribe books were created, which contained data from censuses of arable land and hayfields, and in the 17th century. census books were created to record the number of households and the population in them. By using " census books"In the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov, a transition was prepared to an even more civilized form of direct tax - to a household tax.

The sixth stage of levying a direct tax - a household one - begins the countdown after the death of Alexei Mikhailovich, from 1679. From now on, all direct taxes were reduced to two categories:

1) archery money;

2) Yamsky and Polonyanichnye.

The Streltsy tax was now paid by the urban and industrial rural population, and the population of Pomor counties, where arable farming was not the main occupation of rural residents, also belonged to it. All of them were supposed to contain the archery army.

Yamsky and Polonyanichny money was paid by peasants: state, palace, church, patrimonial and landlord. In both cases, taxes were levied on farmsteads, regardless of how many people lived in them.

The imperfection of such tax collections became apparent already in the first quarter of the 18th century, that is, during the period of the Petrine reforms. Due to the severity of taxes and for a number of other reasons, the peasants began to leave their farmsteads with their whole families, replenishing the ranks of the fugitives, at best, the Cossacks. It became more and more difficult for the state to collect taxes, therefore, in 1724, by decree of Peter I, the Russian Empire switched to collecting a poll tax. In this form - "heart-to-heart" of the male - it was collected for more than 160 years - before the reforms of N. X. Bunge - I. A. Vyshnegradsky.

The contemporary of Peter I, Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov (1652-1726), opposed the introduction of the poll tax. In 1724 he published an essay "On Poverty and Wealth". This book can be considered the first work on political economy in the country. IT Pososhkov advocated limiting the exploitation of the peasants by the landowners. He regarded taxes as the most important source of state income, therefore he proposed to tax all social strata of society, with the exception of the clergy. I. T. Pososhkov believed that in quantitative (total) terms, taxes should be levied based on the income that people receive from crafts and trade, working on the land. Thus, I. T. Pososhkov, for the first time in the economic history of Russia, proposed, in fact, to switch to income tax. This proposal of the first Russian political economist was 200 years ahead of the time in which he lived. Peter I did not forgive the great scientist for criticizing the then existing order in Russia: shortly after his arrest, I. T. Pososhkov died in the Peter and Paul Fortress.

In addition to state taxes - taxes, in Russia there were trade duties, which were indirect taxes. From the period of the formation of the Old Russian state, they were divided into travel and actual trade. Widely known is "myt" - a fee for the right to transport goods. The people who performed this function were called mytniks or "publicans". It was washed dry, i.e., land, it was taken from carts with goods, and water was taken from boats with goods. "Golovshchina" and "kostka (gos - tka)" was a collection from persons carrying goods. "Rear rolls" are petty fees from merchants traveling from the market. "Mostovshchina" and "transportation" were duties on the right of passage of merchants with goods across the bridge, and so on.

Actually, trade duties were divided into:

1) fees for preparatory trading activities;

2) fees for the right to buy and sell.

The first ones were also called "zamytnaya duty", i.e. they replaced "myt" in the city where the merchant stopped for trade. There were also "appearance" - a small fee at the customs when the merchant applied for the goods brought; "living room" - a fee for renting a shop for sale. There were also indirect taxes: "granary" and "polavochnoe" (for shops), "weighty" or "pood" - collection when weighing goods, "measuring" - when measuring bulk goods, etc.

For the right to buy and sell were charged: "tamga" - a fee for the right to sell and buy. The word is one root from the Tatar word "". Sometimes, instead of tamga, this collection was called "osmnic" - it first appeared in the 12th century, that is, before the Horde. Both were charged to both sellers and buyers. Moreover, this duty was levied on foreign merchants more expensively.

The rejection of various duties occurred with the help of the Statutory Charter of 1654. One duty for the right to trade began to be levied - ruble. From the seller it was 5 rubles, from the buyer - 2.5 rubles.

19th century brought with it changes in the tax sphere of the Russian Empire. Excise duties became indirect taxes. With the abolition of serfdom, the victory of the industrial revolution and the intensification of market relations, the name and essence of the main direct tax changed.

A pagan prince and warrior-priest, he managed to rise above his own religious and ideological limitations in the name of enlightenment and culture, in the name of the great future of the peoples of the Russian state, which became possible after they gained great wealth - Slavic writing and Russian alphabet.

He was a great leader who managed to inspire the peoples who trusted him to great deeds in the name of the emerging new great state called Rus.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Bellarminov I. Elementary course of general and Russian history. M .: Education, 1993 (from the series "Textbooks of pre-revolutionary history").

2. Vernadsky G. History of Russia. Book. 1. Ancient Russia. M., 2000.

3. Danilevsky I. Ancient Russia through the eyes of contemporaries and descendants. 2001.

4. Demin V. Chronicle Russia. Moscow: Veche, 2002.

5. Kirpichnikov A. Rurik from Ladoga // M.: Motherland. 2001. Nos. 1–2.

6. Makarov N. To the Breathing Sea // Motherland. 2001. Nos. 1–2. From 37.

7. Sakharov A. N., Buganov V. I. History of Russia from ancient times to the end of the 17th century. M.: Education, 1999.

8. Solovyov S. Readings and stories on the history of Russia. Moscow: Pravda, 1989.

9. Froyanov I. Beginnings of Russian history. Petersburg, 2001.

10. Blueberry Dm. Taxes in the old days //Byloye, 1996. No. 7. article).

TOPIC 4. THE ERA OF PRINCESS OLGA (MIDDLE X CENTURY)

PLAN

Introduction

1. Olga's revenge

2. Reforms of Princess Olga

3. Baptism

Conclusion

Bibliography

INTRODUCTION

In Russia, at least since the end of the 830s. the rules of the Varangian, i.e. Norman, Scandinavian dynasty, whose representatives also bore the corresponding non-Russian names - Rurik, Askold, Oleg, Igor. In the history of almost any medieval state, there were such periods when an “alien” dynasty was in power. So, for example, the European dynasties of the Carolingians, Bourbons, Habsburgs or in Asia - Chingizids, Timurids, etc. ruled simultaneously in a number of various countries. This preference for "foreign" rulers has its own manifold reasons: here are the "neutrality", "impartiality" of the alien rulers in relation to various segments of the country's population, and their certain "alienation from this population, and the longevity, antiquity (the right to power is rooted in the history of another country - as if in a "dark", unchanging past), etc. But, of course, the dynasty eventually grows together with the country in which it rules.

The reign of Princess Olga proves this. And not even because she was Russian by origin, a Slav, and not because she called her son the Slavic name Svyatoslav, but because she ruled the country in her interests, and not in her own. Olga, having carried out reforms, eliminated the arbitrariness of princely power, which ensured not only the preservation of the integrity of the Old Russian state, but also immensely strengthened it.

In addition, Olga took care of the enlightenment of Russia, the spread of the Christian faith in it and achieved a high position for her state in the foreign policy arena.

1. OLGA'S REVENGE

Princess Olga is a legendary figure in the history of Ancient Russia. Chronicles call her "the wisest of people." How did it happen that a woman in the middle of the X century. became the ruler of the emerging Old Russian state? Of course, the state only benefited from this. Olga showed herself to be both a skilled reformer, and a resourceful diplomat, and, most importantly, a person of high morals, as Olga's contemporaries and subsequent generations understood her to this day.

Very little is known about Olga's origins and early youth. The chronicle only reports that in 903 a “wife from Pskov, named Olga” was brought to Igor. According to the Joachim Chronicle, she was a Russian princess - the daughter of the prince of the Pskov Krivichi - and originally bore the name Prekrasa (the name is quite probable; for example, in the Russian-Byzantine treaty of 944, the name of a similar warehouse is mentioned - Predslava). Igor preferred to call his wife Scandinavian and even "his" name Olga (the female version of the name Oleg).

Later legends stubbornly pointed to Pskov as Olga's homeland, and over time, the image of the wise princess, the mother of the great warrior Svyatoslav, became completely legendary. Pskov legends sometimes said that Olga was born in Pskov itself, sometimes they called her home the city of Izborsk, then the village of Vybutskoye near Pskov. Even the marriage of Igor and Olga, about which so little was said in the annals, was told with unusual and romantic embellishments. Igor once hunted in the Pskov forests, according to the legend, and was looking for a way to cross to the other side of the river. A boat was floating along the river, and a beautiful and strong girl was sitting in it. The young prince was “stung by a vision” and tried to start free conversations with her, but the wise maiden read the young man a whole instruction on pure love, forcing Igor to leave “his youthful sophistication” and decide that he could not find a better bride.

In this story, two opposite elements are clearly intertwined: folk legends about a meeting in the dense forests over the river Velika young Igor with his betrothed bride and the pious reasoning of a later scribe.

Already the authors of the XVI century. believed that Olga came from a Varangian family, although they had no reason for this, except for their conjectures. The Varangian origin of Olga was not in doubt among the majority of historians of the 17th-19th centuries. However, there were few grounds for this opinion. The word "olgo" was derived from the Norman "elga", meaning that in Russian the initial "e" is replaced by "o". Indeed, the Greek writer of the X century. calls Olga Elga. Other Greek manuscripts know the Russian princess under the name of Ulga or Olga.

However, the chronicler himself, who is inclined to lead the Russian princes out of the sea, does not know anything about the Norman origin of Olga, and it is not known about any Varangian princes in Pskov. Therefore, it is more careful and more correct to simply say that Olga was born in the Pskov land and was the first Russian woman who left an indelible mark on history about herself.

It is impossible not to notice that if among the participants in the treaty between Prince Oleg and the Greeks (i.e., with Byzantium) there are still no Russian names, then in the later Igor treaty they participated, in addition to the ambassador of his son Svyatoslav - moreover, they were named among the first, most important persons - the ambassadors of Volodislav and Predslava (it is possible that these were relatives of Olga Prekrasa).

The chronicle, as we see, speaks of the marriage of Olga and Igor under 903, but this marriage took place, of course, much later. The only child from this marriage was Svyatoslav, who was born in 942, that is, 3 years before his father's death. “It is difficult to think that Igor's marriage to Olga remained fruitless for about 40 years. Here the chronicler put arbitrary dates to fill in the empty years, and attributed Igor's marriage to an early time, because he wanted to prove that Igor was the son of Rurik, while the folk traditions recorded in the annals remembered Olga as young beautiful woman capable of capturing even the Byzantine emperor.

Until 944, Olga was obviously only a wife and mother, but in one, outwardly insignificant fact, her will was expressed, quite possibly, in the name that her son received. According to the so-called Joachim Chronicle, "a son was born to Igor, his name was Olga Svyatoslav." She called her son a Russian name, and this was, without a doubt, a significant fact that clearly expressed the "Russianization" of the dynasty; subsequent princes of Kyiv were called Yaropolk, Vladimir, Svyatopolk, Yaroslav, Izyaslav, etc.

For the first time Olga appears on the political arena after the death of her husband. Militant and unscrupulous in his means, Igor led big wars with the Drevlyans who lived in dense forests and swamps along the Pripyat. Here he was killed while trying to get a new tribute from the Drevlyans. Prince Igor was punished for his greed and recklessness. “The Tale of Bygone Years” tells about it this way: “Igor began to reign in Kyiv, having peace to all countries. And autumn came, and he began to plot a campaign against the Drevlyans, wanting to take even more tribute from them.

That year (945) the squad told Igor: “The youths of Sveneld dressed up in weapons and clothes, and we are naked. Let's go, prince, with us for tribute, and you will get it, and we. And Igor listened to them - he went to the Drevlyans for tribute, and added a new tribute to the previous one, and his men did violence to them. Taking tribute, he went to his city. When he was walking back, on reflection, he said to his squad: “Go home with tribute, and I will return and collect more.” And he sent his retinue home, and he himself returned with a small part of the retinue, desiring more wealth. The Drevlyans, having heard that he was coming again, held a council with their prince Mal: ​​“If a wolf gets into the habit of sheep, then he takes out the whole herd until they kill him. So is this one: until we kill him, he will destroy us all. And they sent to him, saying, “Why are you going again? I've already taken all the tribute." And Igor did not listen to them, they killed Igor and his squad, because there were not enough of them ".

Having become a widow, Olga began to rule on behalf of her young son Svyatoslav and mercilessly avenged the Drevlyans for the death of her husband.

It should be noted that the "careless" Drevlyans underestimated the power and influence of Olga in the Kiev principality. Apparently, they had not heard much about the mind of the princess either. At the same time, the Drevlyans understood the “value” of Olga as the wife of an ancient Russian ruler who united many tribes of the Eastern Slavs under his rule. To get Olga into his family, and with her and her son, was the desired dream of the Drevlyansk prince. This would allow him to further claim the role of the ruler of all Russia and the prince of Kyiv. So, the chronicler conveys: “The Drevlyans said: “Here we killed the Russian prince; we will take his wife Olga for our prince Mal, and we will take Svyatoslav and do to him what we want.”

Noteworthy are the words of the Drevlyans in relation to the son of Igor Svyatoslav: "we will do to him what we want." It means, most likely, that they were going to simply kill him. It is understandable. Svyatoslav is the heir of Igor and the ruler of the principality, and he directly stood in the way of Mal, who claimed the throne in Kyiv. It was easiest to occupy him by marrying Olga.

Mal sends matchmakers to her: “And the Drevlyans sent their best husbands, twenty in number, in a boat to Olga.”

Olga, having learned that the Drevlyans had come - the murderers of her husband, called them to her and said what they probably did not expect to hear from her: "Good guests have come." As you can see, she harbored her hatred for the time being. The Drevlyans answered: "Come, princess." Olga’s question is natural: “Tell me, why did you come here?” And what did the Drevlyans answer: “The Drevlyan land sent us with these words: “We killed your husband, because your husband, like a wolf, plundered and robbed, and our princes are good, because they introduced order in the Drevlyan land. Get married for our prince for Mal ". From our point of view, these words of the Drevlyans cannot be called anything other than a mockery. Indeed, they killed their husband, and even came to "do good", to woo the murderer.

But, from the point of view of the Drevlyans themselves, and of Olga, and in general of all their contemporaries, the proposal was quite natural. Very often, and subsequently, princes who killed other princes, even their brothers, took their wives for themselves as lawful prey and thereby secured for themselves the rights to the property of the murdered. So, Prince Vladimir, who baptized Russia, killed his brother Yaropolk, the Kyiv prince, the eldest in the family, and “began to live with his brother’s wife, a Greek woman, and she was pregnant, and Svyatopolk was born from her.” True, as the chronicler writes, “Vladimir lived with her not in marriage, but as an adulterer,” but for a pagan this did not play a big role, but was important for the chronicler himself, a zealous Christian.

Thus, the proposal of the Drevlyans to Olga was legitimate, moreover, they emphasized their respect for her, not intending to seek her by force. But, perhaps, Prince Mal was simply afraid that he would not defeat the people of Kiev, or he really counted on success by peaceful, diplomatic, even "amicable" means.

The substantiation of the claims of the Drevlyansky prince is characteristic. The ambassadors told Olga, they say, your husband was a “robber” and a thief, who by his actions brought confusion into relations between the principalities-tribes, and “our princes are good”, because they “brought” and keep order in the Drevlyane land, and, without doubts, they will introduce it in the Kiev principality, in the whole Russian land. This way of thinking is also quite legitimate. It should be recalled the circumstances of the calling of Prince Rurik - the Varangian to the Slavic land in Novgorod. Then, according to the chronicler, "kind to kindred stood up, and they had strife, and they began to fight with themselves." In other words, there was no “order” in Novgorod, as it was then understood, there was no public amenities and power. Then “they said to themselves,” the Tale of Bygone Years reports, “let’s look for a prince who would rule over us and judge by right.” The princes were found from the Varangians, who were called Rus. "The Russians said Chud, Slavs, Krivichi and all:" Our land is great and plentiful, but there is no order in it. Come reign and rule over us.

It seems that after the reign of Igor Kiev principality was close to the state in which the Novgorod land was in 862, when it took to choose a prince-ruler. Due to the senseless actions of Prince Igor, the disintegration of the tribal principalities that had recently been brought together began.

Apparently, not only the Drevlyans, but also other tribes were hostile. They could also take advantage of the weakening of princely power and try to move away from Kyiv, fall out of the rule of Igor's successors and live on their own. This was fraught with an increase in chaos and war, i.e., disorder, because once the conquered tribes from which tribute is collected, no one would have let them go so easily, and would have tried to conquer them again by force of arms. Olga's subsequent actions prove this.

At least, this is how the Drevlyans imagined the situation, and therefore they offered their prince as the ruler of all Russia. And their idea was close to reality. Olga, it seemed, could not establish a tough management, and her son was too small. And it is unlikely that at first anyone put on the princess as a ruler. Based on this, it can be assumed that the wedding of Olga and Prince Mal was very likely, and the Drevlyans seriously counted on success. But they miscalculated.

Olga showed herself to be quite a capable ruler. Pretending to be favorable to the request of the Drevlyans, she outwitted them. The princess answered the matchmakers: “Your speech is kind to me - I can no longer resurrect my husband; but I want to honor you tomorrow before my people; now go to your boat and lie down in it, magnifying yourself. In the morning I will send for you, and you say: “We will not ride horses, we will not go on foot, but carry us in a boat.” And they will lift you up in a boat." And so they did. “Olga ordered to dig a great and deep hole in the Terem courtyard outside the city” and sent for the guests. When they were brought in a boat, they were sitting, “magnifying, shaking their sides and wearing great chest badges,” and Olga ordered them to be thrown into the pit along with the boat. “And, clinging to the pit, she asked them:“ Is your honor good? And ordered them to fall asleep alive; and covered them up,” the chronicler narrates.

Then Olga sent to the Drevlyans and said to them: “If you really ask me, then send the best husbands to marry your prince with great honor, otherwise the people of Kyiv will not let me in.” The Drevlyans, having heard about this, "chosen the best husbands who ruled the Derevskaya land", and sent them to Olga. She greeted the ambassadors cordially, ordered a bath to be prepared for them, and said: "After washing, come to me." “And they kindled the bath, and the Drevlyans entered it, and began to wash, and locked the bath behind them, and Olga ordered to light it from the door, and everything burned down,” the second revenge of the princess is described in The Tale of Bygone Years.

But even this was not easy for the inconsolable widow to calm down. Now she herself went to the Drevlyansk land, anticipating them: “I’m already going to you, prepare many honeys near the city where my husband was killed, but I’ll cry on his grave and arrange a feast for him.” The Drevlyans granted this request of Olga.

She really, "taking a small squad with her, went light, came to the grave of her husband and mourned him." She ordered to pour a "great grave" and performed a feast - a funeral rite. The Drevlyans also participated in this. They drank and ate without suspecting anything; “And when the Drevlyans got drunk, she ordered her youths to drink for their honor, and she herself walked away and ordered the squad to chop down the Drevlyans, and cut them down 5,000” - this was the third revenge of the Kyiv princess.

Of course, Olga's cruelty is amazing, but behind her is a clear plan for the implementation of revenge. By burying alive in the ground the first ambassadors, who undoubtedly were the best people Drevlyansky tribe, she invites even "the best husbands who ruled the Derevskoy land." Thus, Olga destroys all the nobility of the tribe, all tribal princes and elders, leaving the Drevlyans without people capable of organizing a rebuff in case of an attack on them. Moreover, during the feast, virtually the entire squad of the Drevlyansk prince, i.e., the most combat-ready part of the army, is cut out. So, the Drevlyans now have neither a governor nor a squad. "And Olga returned to Kyiv and gathered an army against the remaining Drevlyans".

Having recruited many "brave warriors", Olga and her son Svyatoslav went to the Derevskaya land. The Drevlyans came out against her. “And when both troops came together for a fight, Svyatoslav threw a spear at the Drevlyans, and the spear flew between the horse’s ears and hit him in the leg, for Svyatoslav was still a child. And Sveneld and Asmud said: “The prince has already begun; » .

This passage allows us to conclude that, although nominally, Svyatoslav was considered the ruler of the principality. Olga, apparently, can be regarded as a regent for the young prince, who was not yet able to really govern. Olga decided everything for him, and her powers were unlimited, she behaved like a sovereign ruler, and the governors Asmud and Sveneld helped her.

The Drevlyans won the battle. They fled and shut themselves up in their cities. Olga set about besieging Iskorosten, where her husband was killed, but she could not take the city. Then she once again showed cunning. Pretending to be merciful, she assured that she would no longer take revenge, because she took her revenge in full. And she promised to be content with just one tribute, and a very light one at that: "From each court there are three doves and three sparrows." The Drevlyans submitted and brought the required tribute. Olga, having ordered tinder to be tied to each bird, set them free. The birds, of course, as she expected, flew into the city, through the yards from where they were taken. The city was engulfed in fire: “And there was no yard where it would not burn. And people fled from the city, and Olga ordered her soldiers to grab them. And so she took the city and burned it, took the city elders into captivity, and killed other people, gave the third into slavery to her husbands, and left the rest to pay tribute.

Olga carried out her revenge in full.

“In the stories of the chronicle about Olga's revenge, there is undoubtedly a lot of legend, but cunning and cruelty were a phenomenon of that time. To bloodily avenge the death of loved ones was a matter of honor, and in this respect the Russian princess was no different from the barbarian queens of the Merovingian era in France, who left behind the impression of unbridled cruelty and vindictiveness, ”says Academician M.N. Tikhomirov.

V. Kozhinov does not fully agree with him: “The first famous act of Olga and the young Svyatoslav - the cruel reprisal against the Derevlyans who killed Igor - was, obviously, an expression of the inevitable covenant of blood feud, which in the highest degree was present (on early stages history) to Germanic, including Scandinavian ethnic groups, but was not characteristic of Russia ... One cannot but pay attention to the fact that this is a kind of unique page in Russian history (although, of course, revenge motives are present later in the annals and in the epic, but these are just motives that never again grow into a grandiose act of the most cruel retribution. Moreover, there is nothing similar in the subsequent behavior of Olga herself. Therefore, one gets the impression that in this first act the princess was guided by the demands of the Varangian environment of her late husband ".

Perhaps V. Kozhinov is right. Of course, one cannot underestimate the influence on Olga of the two governors, Prince Igor, Sveneld and Asmud, who, undoubtedly, were Varangians, as indicated by their Scandinavian names.

But Olga's revenge was conditioned, so to speak, by state necessity. What does it mean? The Drevlyans were conquered by Oleg back in 883, he took tribute from them for the black marten. In 914, Igor again had to conquer them. "Having won," he "paid more tribute to them than before." In 945, the Drevlyans, in fact, again rebelled against the power of the prince and went too far by killing him. It was impossible to leave them unpunished, and Olga had to conquer the Derevskaya land once again. It was arranged under the guise of revenge, and in order to subdue the recalcitrant, many of them had to be physically destroyed.

The uprising and separation of the Drevlyans was also dangerous because it could serve as an example for other tribes, and this threatened, in the long term, with the collapse of the newly formed state, and in the near future, with a decrease in the tribute that was imposed on the principalities subject to Kyiv. And this would be a sensitive blow for the Kievan princes. They could lose the support of their squad, which had to be paid from the collection of this very tribute. It is noteworthy that the Varangian governors helped Olga in suppressing the Drevlyan resistance, since it was in their interests and in the interests of the squad. The cessation of the flow of wealth could also entail a change in the princely dynasty.

Showing unbridled cruelty, Olga obeyed the real circumstances. So it was necessary. And the systematic destruction of the enemy can be considered a brilliant tactical move. The Drevlyans, in fact, were liquidated in parts, and the princess began by exterminating the top of the Drevlyan tribe, and then it was not difficult for her to subjugate the rest of the population of the Derevskaya land.

Olga could not leave the Drevlyans alone, otherwise all the other tribes would have separated. But Olga also did not have the opportunity to hold them by force of arms. Tribute could no longer be collected in arbitrary amounts, as Igor practiced. His own experience convinced the princess that this was fraught with disastrous consequences. Realizing this, Olga turns to reforms.

2. REFORMS OF PRINCESS OLGA

“Despite the paucity of chronicle news,” writes academician M. Tikhomirov, “we are amazed at Olga's vigorous activity. The Kiev state was a motley union of separate lands under the rule of the Kyiv prince. As soon as the strong princely hand weakened, the lands began to fall away from Kyiv and again submitted only after new military campaigns. Under Olga, the internal strengthening of the Kievan state begins.

The first thing Olga did was “laid ... a heavy tribute” on the Drevlyans. “Two parts of the tribute went to Kyiv, and the third to Vyshgorod, for Vyshgorod was the city of Olga,” points out the Tale of Bygone Years.

Olga, as we see, had her residence not in Kyiv, but in the Vyshgorod castle located on a high steep hill on the banks of the Dnieper (18 versts north of Kyiv). Thus, the two parts of the tribute that went to Kyiv were apparently distributed between the city administration and the squad located in the city.

Part of the tribute went directly to Olga, for her personal needs and for her small squad, that is, for people close to her.

The fact that Olga was far from the center of the Kievan state emphasizes that she only ruled instead of her son. Nevertheless, Svyatoslav was considered the prince of Kyiv, and Olga's presence outside Kyiv convinced that it was not she who ruled, but her son.

As the chronicle says, Olga established a “heavy tribute” for the Drevlyans, it could not be otherwise. The Drevlyans were to blame. But the tribute was no longer collected in an arbitrary way. Monk Nestor, the author of The Tale of Bygone Years, says: “And Olga went with her son and with her retinue through the Drevlyane land, establishing the order of tribute and taxes.”

In addition, Olga determined the places and territory where she could hunt, her people could beat the beast. “And there are still places for her camps and hunts,” writes the chronicler Nestor. Earlier, before Olga, the princes hunted and obtained furs, where they please, which caused discontent and grumbling of the tribes, on the territory of which the Kievan princes ruled arbitrarily.

Tribute was supposed to be collected once a year, not more often. This is indicated by the line of the chronicle: "And she came to her city Kyiv with her son Svyatoslav, and stayed here for a year."

A year later, "Olga went to Novgorod", that is, she undertook a detour of her possessions in order to collect tribute. But even now the tribute was collected involuntarily, the princess "established graveyards and tributes along Msta, and dues and tributes along Luga". Olga did not again impose tribute on the tribes, but established places for its orderly collection - graveyards, as well as a fixed amount of tribute and dues. Again, besides this, she identified her "traps" - hunting grounds. “Her catches were preserved throughout the land and evidence of her,” apparently, these lands soon became a hereditary princely fiefdom.

Nestor reports that "her (Olga's) sleigh is still standing in Pskov." This indicates that the collection of tribute was carried out in winter, along the sledge track.

The chronicler also assures that “her village Olzhichi has survived to this day.” This last indication is important for assessing the activities of the princess. Agriculture has already firmly established itself in the Russian land, but has not yet gained dominant importance. The name "Olzhichi" seems to indicate that Olga planted slaves on her land, who, by their mistress, received the nickname Olzhichi. Thus Olga was the founder of the first princely villages in Russia. “And so, having established everything, she returned to her son in Kyiv, and there she remained with him in love,” the chronicler defines.

Thus, in Olga's state activity, “her wisdom in carrying out the reform was manifested. In the very first year of her reign, she dramatically changes the previous order of collecting tribute. Olga went through Russia from the Drevlyansk principality to distant Novgorod, establishing a fixed amount of tribute, the procedure for its collection and their systematicity; the places of tribute collection are determined - graveyards and camps. Land demarcation is being carried out, places of princely “catching”, hunting and forest lands are allocated. The activities of the princess were also aimed at protecting the borders of foreign trade, increasing the princely treasury, and at uniting individual lands into a strong state in the east of Europe.

It should be noted that the chronicler does not use any legends and conjectures when describing administrative and economic activities. And in this case, we can fully trust the annals. The data that she left us are very scarce, but even they allow us to imagine the greatest scale of the Russian princess's activities. Her reign constituted a whole epoch in the history of the Old Russian state, and we can undoubtedly regard her measures as reforms.

3. BAPTISM

After the liquidation of internal unrest in the country, the stabilization of the situation and the consolidation of the grand ducal power in Kyiv, Olga had to start solving foreign policy problems: Igor was dead, but the agreement he concluded with the Greeks was in effect. The rulers on the Byzantine throne changed, new people stood at the head of the Old Russian state. The experience of past years and past relations of the empire with other "barbarian" states suggested the need for either confirmation or revision of the previous agreement. So, “Ide Olga to the Greeks,” wrote the ancient author. Of course, the real political relations between the two countries did not allow the ruler of Russia to simply equip an embassy, ​​board a ship and appear at the court of the Byzantine emperors, whose system of foreign policy ceremonial was extremely sophisticated. However, the Novgorod I chronicle reports that, having come to Constantinople, the Russians let the emperor know about their appearance, which can be understood as a hint at some kind of preliminary agreement on this matter.

At that time, the Byzantine government took certain steps in search of allies against some Arab rulers, trying to appease others, neutralize possible opponents on the western and northwestern borders of the empire. In the second half of the 40s. Constantine VII sends an embassy to Otto I, seeks friendship with the lord of Cordoba, tries to reconcile the Sicilian Arabs and the Egyptian ruler Al-Mansur. Judging by the estimates given by Constantine VII in the treatise "On the Governance of the State" of Russia, Khazaria, the Pechenegs, the Byzantine government in the mid-50s. 10th century was very concerned about the state of her relations with Russia, was afraid of new attacks from her, did not trust her, and sought to have a permanent enemy against her in the face of the Pechenegs. At the same time, Byzantium needed Russia as a counterbalance in the fight against the Khazaria and the Muslim rulers of Transcaucasia, and also as a constant supplier of allied troops in the confrontation with the Arabs. It seems that under these conditions, the invitation sent to Olga by Konstantin Porphyrogenitus was a completely natural diplomatic step of the empire in relation to its northern neighbor.

At the same time, it is necessary to keep in mind the tendency characteristic of Byzantium to use the Christianization of neighboring peoples and states as a means of strengthening its political influence among its neighbors. Although the Christianization of Russian society proceeded at a rapid pace and this was already officially reflected in the treaty of 944, nevertheless, by the mid-50s. 10th century Byzantium did not succeed in using Christianity in Russia for its political purposes. From these positions, it seems to us inappropriate to talk only about the desire of Byzantium to Christianize Russia. Both sides were striving for this, but each, fighting for Christianization, probably pursued its own political goals. A similar situation developed in the 1960s. 9th century regarding Bulgaria. The contradictions were resolved by military means, and under the threat of force, the Bulgarians were forced to accept Christianity in a form convenient for Byzantium, so that soon, under Simeon, they would break their ecclesiastical, and, consequently, political dependence on the empire.