§ 17. Settlement as a specific ecosystem

Wherever a person appears, he creates for himself a kind of habitat - settlements. These are single settlements, villages, towns and, finally, cities: small, medium, large and megacities. The development of settlements is associated with the formation of comfortable living conditions for a person and the implementation of economic activity. AT locality housing, roads and other communications are being built, industrial enterprises and various objects of economic use are being built. As a result of construction, a person significantly transforms the environment: destroys the soil cover and natural vegetation, destroys the established animal communities, violates the hydrological regime of the territory, pollutes the atmosphere and generally changes the surrounding landscape. The scale of these changes depends mainly on the size of the settlement, areas of economic activity, population density, and the nature of development.

In settlements, the effect of environmental factors differs from those in natural ecosystems. For example, the temperature regime largely depends on thermal emissions, the degree of landscaping, area and other features of the settlement. In addition to natural factors, the vital activity of organisms is also affected by specific abiotic factors: electromagnetic radiation, noise exposure, the consequences of man-made accidents, and others. In settlements, it is impossible to ignore social factors. For example, with an increased population density, the number of infectious diseases increases, and the living conditions of plants and animals worsen.

Many changes in the environment, characteristic of settlements, have a negative impact on humans. To mitigate undesirable consequences, a person tries to partially restore the conditions of existence, reminiscent of natural ones. This includes planting greenery in settlements, creating artificial reservoirs and zoos, botanical gardens, and breeding domestic animals. As a result, the settlement is a "variegated" combination of artificial structures and natural elements of nature.

The development of the ecosystem of settlements and their ecological state largely depends on the socio-economic policy of the authorities and the ecological culture of the population.

It should be noted the instability of the ecosystems of settlements, as artificial objects. This is expressed in very rapid changes in the structure of communities. For example, open areas quickly turn into wastelands overgrown with tall grass. A person can cut down a park, build up a territory, change the assortment of ornamental plants, on which the appearance of a settlement largely depends.

Settlements are characterized by outbreaks of certain species, for which man creates favorable conditions. A vivid example is hordes of rats, clusters of pigeons and crows, thickets of quinoa and nettles.

As elsewhere in our region, settlements are different in age and size, history of formation, location. This creates a diversity of their ecosystems. Human settlements have a multifaceted impact on the surrounding natural communities. The main negative impact is directed at water and forest ecosystems, since most of the settlements are confined to water bodies, and forests were cut down during their formation. The surroundings are used for recreation, building cottages, picking mushrooms, berries and medicinal plants. The settlement is a source of pollutants, debris, alien plants and animals. Large cities, such as Cherepovets, have a particularly large impact, the impact of which extends over hundreds of kilometers.

The influence of villages, the most common type of settlements in the Vologda Oblast, is associated with agricultural production and forest management. Currently, there is a decline in agricultural production and an increase in logging. In our region, in recent decades, many villages have been deserted, and the territories around them have been abandoned. Huts are gradually being destroyed, vegetable gardens are overgrown, roads are barely visible. It's a sad sight for a man. Such emotions are not characteristic of nature. When any resource appears on the territory, consumers immediately use it.

The development of communities in abandoned villages illustrates well the impact of human settlements on the environment. Here, nature is not restored in its original form, and the formation of communities proceeds along a different path. Competitive relations are clearly manifested, as habitats, for example, occupied by cultivated plants, are captured by other species. For many years, weedy perennial species predominate in the plant world. This is a creeping wheatgrass, a field bodyak, an eastern sverbiga. Cultivated trees and shrubs (apple, cherry, lilac, poplar, gooseberry, black currant and raspberry) are preserved. Herbaceous plants have been growing in old abandoned gardens for a long time - elecampane, horseradish, Turkish carnation, perennial daisy, Canadian goldenrod and other perennials. Sometimes, only by the presence of these species in plant communities, it can be established that there was once a settlement here.

In non-residential villages, the species composition and number of animals depend on the age of their desolation, area, features of vegetation and surroundings.

Abandoned villages gradually leave the usual "companions" of man. Of the birds, the house and field sparrows are the first to disappear, unable to withstand “loneliness” after a few years. Rock pigeons continue to nest in the attics of the huts. They fly better than sparrows and can find food far from the village, where usually everything is overgrown with tall grass, and it is difficult to collect seeds from the ground. And in winter, when everything is covered with snow, pigeons fly to large settlements, especially those where there are farms. It's warmer and you can find food. For quite a long time, jackdaws can live in villages, populating the preserved high buildings - usually utility sheds, haylofts and churches. They forage in low grass meadows but prefer to fly to farms and pastures. In winter, they, like pigeons, move to large settlements. Starlings remain in villages as long as birdhouses remain there. When their artificial houses fall into disrepair, they are forced to look for a new place to live. If there is nothing like birdhouses, the birds leave the village. The barn swallows remain the longest of all human companions in abandoned villages, building nests in dilapidated buildings. There are far fewer mammals closely related to humans. House mice disappear quite quickly, unable to compete with "wild" rodents. But gray rats in small numbers remain in villages up to 20 years.

At the same time, new inhabitants appear here. Small birds that prefer shrubs and tall grasses, such as warblers and warblers, become common. White wagtails, thrushes fieldfare settle. With a decrease in disturbance, more cautious species also settle. Some falcons and owls nest on dilapidated churches, tall trees. And in May and early June, black grouse roam on the roofs of the huts - and the view is good, and the male is visible in all its glory. Mammals appear in old villages. Wild boars often plow the land in abandoned vegetable gardens - the land there is loose and rich in food. Meadow and forest small rodents are numerous. Foxes make their lairs in the buildings - there are almost ready shelters.

Thus, abandoned villages are now a peculiar type of habitat with a complex composition of plants and animals. These communities are very different from the indigenous taiga communities of organisms.

Questions and tasks

How do human ecosystems differ from natural ecosystems?

What is the specificity of the manifestation of environmental factors in the settlement?

H Describe the features of the ecosystem in your community.

§ 18. Features of ecosystems of urbanized territories

No matter how hard people tried ... to disfigure the land on which they huddled, no matter how they stoned the earth so that nothing would grow on it ... Spring was spring even in the city. The sun warmed, the grass, reviving, grew and turned green everywhere… not only on the lawns of the boulevards, but also between the slabs of stones, and birches, poplars, and bird cherry blossomed their sticky and fragrant leaves….

L.N. Tolstoy "Resurrection"

With the growth of population and industry, the natural environment in settlements is unrecognizably transformed. Nowadays, people talk more often about the "urban environment", which in many respects differs sharply from natural environment. A person is surrounded by high-rise buildings and noisy streets, polluted air, hot asphalt... The city “presses” and “expels” nature. But it is still quite difficult to imagine an urban environment completely devoid of nature.

Vegetable world. Nature penetrates the city not only spontaneously, but also at the will of man (green spaces, flower beds in the yards). As a result, cities develop their own habitat. It is so unlike the wild, neither in composition, nor in the richness and diversity of species. The everyday "green environment" of a person in the city is made up of urban plants on the streets, in courtyards, in parks and squares.

The territories of settlements, as a rule, have a clearly defined spatial structure, which corresponds to different complexes of species. In the spatial structure, the city itself and the immediate surroundings are distinguished, undeveloped or with rural-type buildings. Inside the city, there are zones of old, new and latest buildings. The degree of change in the natural environment decreases from the center to the periphery. Accordingly, the floristic diversity also changes: it is maximum on the outskirts of the city and minimum on the border of the zones of new and newest buildings.

Urban habitats are usually divided into two types:

1. A group of habitats representing the remains of a former landscape;

2. A group of habitats associated with human activities.

The first includes disturbed areas of forests and meadows, as well as coastal zones in cities through which rivers flow. The second group includes cultivated habitats (parks, squares, gardens, boulevards, lawns, flower beds, etc.). It also includes territories where spontaneous (non-targeted) plant communities are formed:

Erosion group - outcrops, embankments, wastelands;

roadside group - habitats along highways;

railway group - habitats along railway tracks;

slot group - slots on asphalt and concrete pavements, etc.;

dump group - landfills, garbage heaps, ruins;

wall group - walls and roofs;

· overconsolidated group - yards, stadiums, trails, children's and sports grounds.

In urban habitats, unusual and difficult conditions for the growth of plants are formed. These are a special light and thermal regime, lack of moisture, artificial substrates that are far from natural soils in properties, gas contamination and dustiness of the air.

Urban plants are "torn out" from the natural system of biological connections. Mutually beneficial relationships with neighboring plants, as well as with fungi that form mycorrhiza, soil bacteria, and pollinating insects, disappear. On the contrary, in urban conditions, insect pests and pathogenic fungi sometimes reach high numbers.

A feature of urban floras is that they change the ratio of local and alien species. Alien species predominate here. Most of the local plants are "expelled" from the flora already when cities are laid down - when deforestation is cleared for settlement. And later it is difficult for them to return to the city - urban conditions are too different from those familiar to the local flora. Alien species, on the other hand, pour into cities in wide streams, since it is here that the intersections of the main distribution routes of alien species are concentrated. The role that man plays in the distribution of these species is related to his economic and social activities. Great importance transport and trade play a role in the distribution of alien plants.

an important role in shaping flora In cities, human activity is played by the introduction of plants from other natural zones into culture and the transfer of species from the local flora into culture. In urban settlements, foreign species are used mainly for landscaping and decoration. The attention of the townspeople has always been attracted by trees and shrubs not only with edible fruits, but also with high decorative qualities. The urban "floral" design is based almost entirely on foreign species. For it, herbaceous flowering annuals and perennials are used, and very rarely - local species.

Animal world of settlements. Often there is a misconception that in the neighborhood of a person in settlements - villages, towns and cities there are a very small number of animals. In fact, in human settlements and their immediate environs, animals are diverse and often more numerous than in their natural habitats. Back in the 19th century, the Russian naturalist Modest Nikolaevich Bogdanov, describing the animals living next to humans, wrote: “ They are here around you, around you, above you and below you, and finally, on yourself.

Settlements have a number of features that attract animals.

There are very different conditions in human settlements. After all, nearby there may be wooden and stone buildings, plantings, wastelands and many other objects. Therefore, many species of animals live in a small area.

In settlements, the microclimate (temperature, humidity) differs from natural landscapes, it is very favorable for many animals. In medium-sized cities, including Vologda and Cherepovets, the temperature in the center is 1-2 degrees higher than in the suburbs, and this is already beneficial for animals.

Omnivorous animals (hooded crows, gray rats) are provided with an inexhaustible supply of food in human dwellings, outbuildings, in landfills, and in garbage containers.

Compared to natural ecosystems, animals must adapt to the disturbance factor (transport, working machinery, noise). Most people do not pay attention to animals and do not bother them.

The fauna of the settlement is changing. On the one hand, with the development of the settlement, the species diversity and the number of local animal species are gradually decreasing. Only a part of them survives in the neighborhood with the person. Basically, these species are widespread, able to live in different conditions (great tit, thrush fieldfare, gray crow). They often settle in areas with preserved natural or artificially created plant communities (parks, squares, wastelands, banks of water bodies). Indigenous animal species predominate in small villages.

On the other hand, with the growth of the settlement, the number of species that have penetrated from other natural zones increases. They also inhabit completely changed territories where natural communities have disappeared. For immigrant animals, the conditions of the settlement may be similar to their "native" habitat conditions. So, stone buildings look like rocks for swifts, city swallows and others. Quite often, these species become numerous. Such common species as the jackdaw, rook, rock dove, house and field sparrow, gray rat, house mouse, red cockroach outside the settlement, do not survive in the "wild" places. Only in summer can birds feed on meadows and on the banks of water bodies. To spend the night, they almost always return to the village.

Animals of a settlement, like any other ecosystem, are included in the food chain and participate in the cycle of substances. Among the animals of settlements there are herbivores, carnivores, consumers of dead organic matter and omnivores. In parks, squares, in home gardens, in thickets of plants, there are numerous animals that feed on plants. The food for them is foliage, needles (insects, rodents), wood (insects), roots (insects, soil roundworms), nectar (pollinating insects), fruits and seeds (insects, birds, rodents). The distribution of animals in the settlement is uneven. In the central parts of the city, there are few insects - pollinators and herbivores.

Thus, urban ecosystems are among the most variable and complex in structure. They more than other human settlements have an impact on the surrounding territories. We can say that the world is developing towards the city. As recorded in the United Nations Sustainable Development Agenda: “ In the new millennium, half of the world's people will live in cities; governments should strive to reduce the number of urban poor, reduce the influx of people into cities by improving living conditions in rural areas and developing rural infrastructure. Strong management of urban expansion is needed».

Questions and tasks

What is the difference between living conditions for plants and animals in a settlement and in natural ecosystems?

How do plants and animals inhabit settlements?

What groups of plants by habitat can be distinguished in the settlement?

What groups of animals according to their habitats can be distinguished in the settlement?

H Make a diagram of the possible food relationships of the most common animals of the locality.

§ 19.State environment in populated areas.

The state of the environment in a settlement directly depends on the types and volumes of economic activity. The quality of the environment changes to a lesser extent in small human settlements. Most serious problems associated with the deterioration of the human environment are typical for large industrial centers. These are various types of environmental pollution, especially atmospheric air and soil.

Environmental pollution in settlements

The state of atmospheric air in human settlements is the most important indicator of the quality of the environment. Organisms living on the surface of the earth are surrounded by air and depend on its composition. Out of the air it is simply impossible to exist!

The properties of the air are such that it is almost impossible to isolate oneself from pollution. The air is in constant motion and all the substances that enter it are carried over long distances. People, plants and animals suffer from dust, air pollution. Even in small villages, the air is constantly polluted. Here, road dust, smoke from chimneys and fires violate the cleanliness of the surrounding area. There are incomparably more sources of air pollution in cities. Currently, a huge amount of pollutants enters the atmosphere from numerous enterprises, transport, construction sites and other sources.

The most problematic places - areas of increased risk for life in cities - are the vicinity of enterprises, highways and central areas.

Plants are a kind of living filter that absorbs dust and all kinds of chemical pollution from the air. Therefore, the vegetation of settlements is of great sanitary and hygienic importance. Many tree species release volatiles into the air. organic matter- phytoncides. They are detrimental to microbes, due to which the content of microorganisms is reduced several times. In addition, in urban conditions, plants create a kind of microclimate. In summer, in the green urban "oases" (squares, parks, boulevards), the air temperature is on average 2-3 o C lower. Humidity is higher here than in open areas and streets. The anti-noise effect of green spaces is associated with a large sound-reflecting ability of tree foliage.

It is no less important that plants give a person “for the soul”. "Green islands" improve the "quality of life", especially for the city dweller, increase resistance to stress and stress.

In the Vologda Oblast, the pace of planting greenery in settlements lags far behind the pace of their development. In addition, plantings do not meet sanitary, hygienic and aesthetic requirements either in quantity or quality. Uniformity and poverty of the range of plants used are noted everywhere. The flora of the Vologda Oblast contains 75 local tree species, most of which are used in the landscaping of settlements. These are warty birch, downy birch, rough elm, smooth elm, small-leaved linden, English oak, Siberian larch and others.

On the territory of the Vologda Oblast, 155 species of woody plants introduced by humans have been noted. Most of them have limited use: planting near houses, in summer cottages. Remains of park cultures of the 19th century have been preserved. A positive example is the increased prevalence in recent times Kuril tea, fragrant raspberry, Maksimovich hawthorn, Weymouth pine and gnarled pine. The greatest species diversity of woody plants is typical for the regional center (about 120 species).

Plants, and other organisms in settlements, are also very dependent on another element of the habitat - soil. chemical change soil composition is associated with the deposition of substances from the air, the ingress of harmful substances with precipitation. The concentration of pollutants in the soil, especially in industrial centers, near highways can be so high that it becomes "dead". It is very dangerous to grow vegetables and fruits in such places, to play for children. In addition, the soils in settlements are highly compacted. This violates their moisture, gas regime and does not allow soil organisms to exist normally. The use of salt mixtures to combat glaciation on roads has led to salinization of roadside soils. This significantly influenced the spread of southern salt-loving plants far to the North.

In human settlements, water is one of the most important resources. Even Thales of Miletus, the great sage of antiquity, proclaimed water the beginning of all things. Man has four essential tasks in relation to water: find it, conduct it, collect it and save it. Organisms cannot exist without water. A person needs it for life, at home, at work. Resting places are located near the reservoirs. The presence of water bodies significantly improves the aesthetic appearance of the territory.

Aquatic ecosystems are among the most vulnerable ecosystems. Reservoirs occupy the lowest parts of the relief. This leads to the fact that pollutants from the entire territory in the form Wastewater, polluted precipitation, dust, debris fall into the water. They are not in the same place in the water. With the flow of water, pollutants spread far from the source of pollution. Therefore, one of the most important environmental problems is the preservation of the purity of water bodies, from the spring to major river and lakes.

Biological objects also affect the quality of the human environment. Many organisms are not safe for his health or cause significant economic damage. So, herbivorous species of animals (slugs, insects, rodents), multiplying in large numbers, can damage cultivated plants. Poplars, which are widespread in the landscaping of settlements, are damaged by poplar moths, the caterpillars of which gnaw out the leaves from the inside. On the bird cherry, the bird cherry ermine moth develops in huge quantities. Many species as a result of their vital activity cause damage to buildings. For example, gray rats are able to gnaw through almost everything. Birds often build nests in electrical devices, which can lead to breakage. A number of animals can cause diseases or carry pathogens (lice, fleas, cockroaches, flies, rodents, birds).

At the same time, most animals have an attractive appearance, interesting behavior. Living next to us, they survive positive emotions, make our life more comfortable.

As a result of the existence of settlements, numerous environmental problems. First of all, there is a violation of the abiotic conditions for the existence of organisms. This is a change in the earth's surface on the territory of a settlement (leveling of relief, drainage, change in river beds, and others). There is a deterioration in quality natural ingredients in air, water and soil pollution. The territory is littered with household and industrial waste. Picturesque landscapes are being lost.

Biotic relations are changing significantly, since in a settlement a person becomes the main species influencing the life of other organisms. There is a reduction in the species diversity of local plant and animal species. Their place in the communities of settlements is occupied by immigrant species. Thus, the structure of natural ecosystems is disturbed, and completely new communities of organisms are often formed. There are changes in food relations in communities. It can be said that a person "feeds" some species and deprives "food and shelter" of other species. Species living in garbage dumps (gulls, crows, quinoa and others) have become common.

The settlement, as it were, excludes nature. On the site of groves and meadows there are buildings surrounded by concrete and asphalt.

Numerous changes in the environment and the accelerated rhythm of life affect a person as a biological and social being (from the microclimate to psychologically significant working conditions, recreation, social life).

The settlement should not develop spontaneously. It is necessary to create scientific approaches to the formation of the urban environment in harmony with nature.

Questions and tasks

Why are there many sources of pollution in the settlement?

Why is it necessary to preserve "green islands" in settlements?

What role do animals play in the community?

How do pollution bind air, soil and water?

Prove that you cannot create an environmentally friendly environment only in the environment of your own home.

Ecology (from the Greek. oikos - house and logos- doctrine) - the science of the laws of interaction of living organisms with their environment.

The founder of ecology is considered a German biologist E. Haeckel(1834-1919), who for the first time in 1866 used the term "ecology". He wrote: “By ecology we mean the general science of the relationship between the organism and the environment, where we include all the “conditions of existence” in broad sense this word. They are partly organic and partly inorganic.”

Initially, this science was biology, which studies the populations of animals and plants in their habitat.

Ecology studies systems at a level above the individual organism. The main objects of its study are:

• population - a group of organisms belonging to the same or similar species and occupying certain territory;
• , including the biotic community (the totality of populations in the territory under consideration) and habitat;
• - area of ​​life on earth.

To date, ecology has gone beyond the scope of biology itself and has become an interdisciplinary science that studies the most complex problems of human interaction with the environment. Ecology has come a difficult and long way to understanding the problem of "man - nature", relying on research in the "organism - environment" system.

The interaction of Man with Nature has its own specifics. Man is endowed with reason, and this gives him the opportunity to realize his place in nature and purpose on Earth. Since the beginning of the development of civilization, Man has been thinking about his role in nature. Being, of course, part of nature, man created a special environment, which is called human civilization. As it developed, it increasingly came into conflict with nature. Now humanity has already come to the realization that the further exploitation of nature can threaten its own existence.

The urgency of this problem, caused by the aggravation of the ecological situation on a global scale, has led to "greening"- to the need to take into account laws and environmental requirements in all sciences and in all human activity.

Ecology is currently called the science of a person's "own home" - the biosphere, its features, interaction and relationship with a person, and a person with the whole human society.

Ecology is not only an integrated discipline where physical and biological phenomena, it forms a kind of bridge between natural and social sciences. It does not belong to the number of disciplines with a linear structure, i.e. does not develop vertically - from simple to complex - it develops horizontally, covering an ever wider range of issues from various disciplines.

No single science is capable of solving all the problems associated with improving the interaction between society and nature, since this interaction has social, economic, technological, geographical and other aspects. Only an integrated (generalizing) science, which is modern ecology, can solve these problems.

Thus, from a dependent discipline within the framework of biology, ecology has turned into a complex interdisciplinary science - modern ecology- with a pronounced ideological component. Modern ecology has gone beyond the limits not only of biology, but in general. The ideas and principles of modern ecology are ideological in nature, therefore ecology is associated not only with the sciences of man and culture, but also with philosophy. Such serious changes allow us to conclude that, despite more than a century of history of ecology, modern ecology is a dynamic science.

Goals and objectives of modern ecology

One of the main goals of modern ecology as a science is to study the basic laws and develop the theory of rational interaction in the system "man - society - nature", considering human society as an integral part of the biosphere.

The main goal of modern ecology on the this stage development of human society - to bring Mankind out of the global ecological crisis onto the path of sustainable development, in which the satisfaction of the vital needs of the present generation will be achieved without depriving future generations of such an opportunity.

To achieve these goals, environmental science will have to solve a number of diverse and complex problems, including:

• develop theories and methods for assessing the sustainability of ecological systems at all levels;
• to study the mechanisms of regulation of the number of populations and biotic diversity, the role of biota (flora and fauna) as a regulator of biosphere stability;
• study and create forecasts of changes in the biosphere under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors;
• evaluate the state and dynamics of natural resources and the environmental consequences of their consumption;
• develop methods of environmental quality management;
• to form an understanding of the problems of the biosphere and the ecological culture of society.

Surrounding us live environment is not a random and random combination of living beings. It is a stable and organized system that has developed in the process of evolution. organic world. Any systems are amenable to modeling, i.e. it is possible to predict how a particular system will react to external influences. A systematic approach is the basis for studying environmental problems.

Structure of modern ecology

Ecology is currently divided into a series scientific branches and disciplines, sometimes far from the original understanding of ecology as a biological science about the relationship of living organisms with the environment. However, at the core of all modern trends ecology lie fundamental ideas bioecology, which today is a combination of various scientific areas. So, for example, allocate autecology, investigating the individual connections of an individual organism with the environment; population ecology dealing with relationships between organisms that belong to the same species and live in the same territory; synecology, which comprehensively studies groups, communities of organisms and their relationships in natural systems(ecosystems).

Modern ecology is a complex of scientific disciplines. The base is general ecology, which studies the basic patterns of the relationship of organisms and environmental conditions. Theoretical ecology explores the general patterns of life organization, including in connection with the anthropogenic impact on natural systems.

Applied ecology studies the mechanisms of destruction of the biosphere by man and ways to prevent this process, and also develops principles rational use natural resources. Applied ecology is based on a system of laws, rules and principles of theoretical ecology. The following scientific directions stand out from applied ecology.

Ecology of the biosphere, which studies the global changes taking place on our planet as a result of the impact of human economic activity on natural phenomena.

industrial ecology, studying the impact of emissions from enterprises on the environment and the possibility of reducing this impact by improving technologies and treatment facilities.

agricultural ecology, studying ways to obtain agricultural products without depleting soil resources while preserving the environment.

Medical ecology, which studies human diseases associated with environmental pollution.

Geoecology, which studies the structure and mechanisms of the functioning of the biosphere, the connection and interconnection of biospheric and geological processes, the role of living matter in the energy and evolution of the biosphere, the participation of geological factors in the emergence and evolution of life on Earth.

Mathematical ecology models ecological processes, i.e. changes in nature that can occur when environmental conditions change.

economic ecology develops economic mechanisms for rational nature management and environmental protection.

legal ecology develops a system of laws aimed at protecting nature.

Engineering ecology - a relatively new area of ​​environmental science that studies the interaction between technology and nature, the patterns of formation of regional and local natural and technical systems and ways to manage them in order to protect the natural environment and ensure environmental safety. It ensures that the equipment and technology of industrial facilities comply with environmental requirements.

social ecology arose quite recently. Only in 1986 the first conference devoted to the problems of this science took place in Lvov. The science of the "home", or the habitat of society (man, society), studies the planet Earth, as well as space - as the living environment of society.

Human ecology - part of social ecology, which considers the interaction of a person as a biosocial being with the outside world.

- one of the new independent branches of human ecology - science of quality of life and health.

Synthetic evolutionary ecology- new scientific discipline, including private areas of ecology - general, bio-, geo- and social.

Brief historical path of development of ecology as a science

In the history of the development of ecology as a science, three main stages can be distinguished. First stage - the origin and formation of ecology as a science (until the 1960s), when data on the relationship of living organisms with their environment were accumulated, the first scientific generalizations were made. In the same period, the French biologist Lamarck and the English priest Malthus for the first time warned humanity about the possible negative consequences of human impact on nature.

Second phase - registration of ecology as an independent branch of knowledge (after the 1960s to the 1950s). The beginning of the stage was marked by the publication of the works of Russian scientists K.F. Ruler, N.A. Severtseva, V.V. Dokuchaev, who first substantiated a number of principles and concepts of ecology. After Charles Darwin's studies in the field of evolution of the organic world, the German zoologist E. Haeckel was the first to understand what Darwin called the "struggle for existence", is an independent area of ​​biology, and called it ecology(1866).

As an independent science, ecology finally took shape at the beginning of the 20th century. During this period, the American scientist C. Adams created the first summary of ecology, and other important generalizations were published. The largest Russian scientist of the XX century. IN AND. Vernadsky creates a fundamental the doctrine of the biosphere.

In the 1930s-1940s, at first, the English botanist A. Tensley (1935) put forward the concept of "ecosystem", and a little later V. Ya. Sukachev(1940) substantiated a concept close to him about biogeocenosis.

Third stage(1950s - to the present) - the transformation of ecology into a complex science, including the science of protecting the human environment. Simultaneously with the development of the theoretical foundations of ecology, applied issues related to ecology were also solved.

In our country, in the 1960s-1980s, almost every year the government adopted resolutions on strengthening nature protection; Land, water, forest and other codes were published. However, as the practice of their application has shown, they did not give the required results.

Today Russia is experiencing an ecological crisis: about 15% of the territory are actually zones of ecological disaster; 85% of the population breathe air polluted significantly above the MPC. The number of "environmentally caused" diseases is growing. There is degradation and reduction of natural resources.

A similar situation has developed in other countries of the world. The question of what will happen to mankind in the event of the degradation of natural ecological systems and the loss of the ability of the biosphere to maintain biochemical cycles becomes one of the most urgent.

It grows in deciduous forests, rarely in open meadow places. There is a noble liverwort in shady broad-leaved and coniferous-broad-leaved forests (that's why it has the popular name "coppice"). Disappears when forests are disturbed. In open places, it blooms less abundantly and almost does not propagate by seeds. It grows on clayey, sandy loamy, gravel, moderately moist soils rich in neutral humus, preferably rich in lime. Does not tolerate stagnant moisture.

Distributed in Northern Europe (Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden); Central Europe (Austria, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Poland, Switzerland); Southern Europe (Albania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Italy, Romania, France (including Corsica), Spain); on the territory of the former USSR (Belarus, the European part of Russia, Ukraine, Primorye); in Asia (China, Japan (Honshu), Korea).

seasonal changes

Noble liverwort is a perennial herbaceous plant, in which long peduncles with blue-violet flowers appear among last year's green-brown leaves in early spring. Only after that do three-lobed basal leaves develop on long petioles; pubescent below, they soon become leathery. Sometimes white or pinkish flowers appear. The liverworts bloom quite early in the spring, usually at the end of April, a few days after the snow has melted.
They keep the whole season without losing their decorative effect, in some species the leaves overwinter green. Propagated exclusively by seeds. The green fruits of the liverwort are harvested in early June and immediately sown in a shady place with moderate soil moisture to a depth of 1-1.5 cm. The height of seedlings of the liverwort of the first year is 20 mm, root system already quite branched, 40-50 mm long. By autumn, a kidney with a diameter of 1-2 mm is formed. In the next season, 2-3 true leaves are formed, their shape and color are typical for this species. In the third year, the liverworts bloom: the bush has 4-5 leaves and 2-3 flowers with a diameter of 1-2 cm.
Plants obtained from seeds are more plastic and adapt more easily to local climatic and soil conditions.

Application

Previously, the plant was considered medicinal, used as an astringent. Now common in folk medicine.

It was also used as a substitute for tea. Properly prepared tea from the liverwort is effective in diseases of the liver and gallbladder, in cholelithiasis. In addition, this tea is used for irritation of the larynx and diseased lungs.

Bred in gardens as an ornamental plant. Replanting the most decorative and rare species of liverworts from the forest, flower growers - "amateurs" cause significant damage to nature, and the plant itself often dies in inexperienced hands.

Ivan da Marya

1. Appearance

The fruit is an ovoid capsule that splits in two when opened. The capsule is oblong, 0.6–1 cm long, 4–4.5 mm wide, pointed, bare, opened on both sides, the edges of the valves are thickened, smooth. Seeds 5-6 mm long, 1.5-1.8 mm wide, blackish.

1. Ecological features

A plant with a European range. In Russia, it is distributed throughout almost the entire territory of the European part. In Eastern Siberia, it is found in the vicinity of Irkutsk. In Central Russia, it is found in all regions and is a fairly common species.

1. seasonal changes

Blooms from June to autumn, fruits ripen in August - September. They reproduce only by seeds equipped with a fleshy appendage (arilloid), which attracts ants, which, eating it, take away the seeds.

1. Application

For medicinal purposes, the herb of the plant is used, which is harvested during the flowering period. Feed for large and small cattle. Insecticide, fruits are used to kill harmful insects (poisonous seeds).

The plant is distinguished by a particularly striking contrast of bracts of blue tones and bright yellow corollas. It is very decorative, therefore it often attracted the attention of painters and poets, but when plucked into bouquets, it quickly fades.

The flowers of Ivan da Marya abundantly secrete nectar and are deservedly considered a good honey plant.

red clover

1. Appearance

Red clover is a biennial, but more often a perennial herbaceous plant, reaches a height of 15-55 cm. The leaves are trifoliate, with elliptical or obovate leaves, which, like other types of clover, fold up at night; stipules wide, ovate, immediately narrowed upwards into subulate apex. The inflorescences of the head are loose, spherical, often sit in pairs and are often covered with two upper leaves. Corolla red, occasionally white or nonuniform; calyx with ten veins.

The branched stems are ascending. Stems from 3 to 8 per plant.

The leaves are trifoliate, with broadly ovate, finely serrated lobes, the leaflets are entire along the edges, with delicate cilia along the edges.

The fruit is an ovoid, one-seeded bean; the seeds are round or angular, either yellowish red or purple.

1. Ecological features

It grows throughout Europe, in North Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), Western and Central Asia. On the territory of Russia, it is found in the European part, Siberia, on Far East and Kamchatka.

Grows in moderately moist meadows, forest clearings, along fields and roads.

1. seasonal changes

Blossoms from May to autumn, fruits ripen in August - October.

It reproduces both by seeds and vegetatively.

1. Application

Vitamin concentrates are obtained from the leaves. Essential oil is used in aromatic compositions.

Salads are prepared from the leaves, green cabbage soup is seasoned with them. The dried, crushed leaves were added to flour in the past when baking rye bread, and were also used to make sauces and cheeses. In the Caucasus, young unblown flower heads are fermented like cabbage and added to green salads.

It is one of the most valuable forage grasses.

A lot of nitrogen accumulates in the roots after mowing the aerial parts.

buttercup caustic

1. Appearance

Popular name: night blindness. Buttercup acrid is a perennial herbaceous plant. From a very short thickened rhizome of this perennial plant, erect stems develop, reaching a height of 20–70 cm. They are hollow, branching and slightly pubescent. At the ends of the branches of the caustic buttercup are bright golden-yellow flowers.

Basal leaves are 5-7-palchatately divided, on long petioles. Stem leaves have a simpler structure, with linear lobes, sessile.

The flowers are bright yellow, reach 2 cm in diameter, solitary or collected in a semi-umbrella inflorescence. Lots of stamens and pistils. The fruit is a polynut.

1. Ecological features

One of the most common plants in sparse coniferous and birch forests, forest meadows of the forest and forest-steppe zones Western Siberia.

It grows almost throughout the European part of Russia and Western Siberia, in flood and upland meadows, the outskirts of swamps and as a weed in the fields.

1. seasonal changes

Blooms in late spring and summer.

1. Application

Used in folk medicine for the treatment of burns, wounds, headaches, tuberculosis.

Terry form with large bright yellow flowers is grown as an ornamental garden plant.

The plant contains a volatile caustic substance with a pungent odor - protoanemonin (anemonol) of the camphor type, which irritates the mucous membranes of the eyes, nose, larynx and internal organs.

Ecology is a science that studies the environment, the patterns of life of living organisms, as well as human impact on nature. This field of knowledge studies those systems that are higher than a single organism. In turn, it is subdivided into more private branches. What disciplines are included in ecology?

Bioecology

One of the oldest branches of ecology is bioecology. This science is based on the fundamental knowledge about the plant and animal world that man has managed to accumulate throughout his history. The subject of this direction in science is living beings. At the same time, a person is also studied within the framework of bioecology as separate view. This direction in ecology uses a biological approach to evaluate various phenomena, the relationship between them and their consequences.

Main directions

The focus of the study of bioecology is the biosphere. The section of ecology that studies living beings, due to the diversity of data on nature, cannot consist of only one discipline. Therefore, it is divided into several subsections.

• Auetecology is a scientific direction, the subject of which is living organisms in certain habitat conditions. The main task of this direction is the study of the processes of adaptation to the environment, as well as those boundaries of physicochemical parameters that are compatible with the life of the organism.
• Eidecology - studies the ecology of species.
• Synecology is a branch of ecology that studies the populations of various species of animals, plants, and microorganisms. The discipline also explores the ways of their formation, development in dynamics, productivity, interaction with the outside world, and other features.
• Demecology - studies the natural groups of living organisms that belong to the same species. This is a branch of ecology that studies the structure of populations, as well as the basic conditions that are necessary for their formation. Also, the subject of its study are intrapopulation groups, features of the process of their formation, dynamics, and numbers.

Currently, bioecology is the doctrine that underlies nature management and environmental protection. Currently, environmental processes are carried out using modern biotechnological methods.

The relevance of science

Every person sooner or later thinks about how important a quality environment is for life and health. Now the environment is changing rapidly. And not the last role is played by human economic activity. Due to the destructive activity of factories and factories, fresh drinking water is deteriorating, reservoirs are becoming smaller, the landscape of the suburbs is changing. Pesticides pollute the soil.

Bioecology is a branch of ecology that studies methods by which the environment can be cleansed of pollution, the ecological balance is restored again, and total ecological catastrophe is prevented.

How is knowledge about nature applied?

One example of the successful use of the knowledge that bioecology has is the invention of a special toilet in Singapore, with the help of which water consumption is reduced by up to 90%. Waste in this toilet is converted into fertilizer and electrical energy. How does this system work? Liquid waste is treated, during which it decomposes into the elements phosphorus, potassium and nitrogen. Solid waste awaits processing in a bioreactor. During digestion, methane gas is produced in this device. Since it does not have any smell, it is used for household needs. The result of using the knowledge of bioecology in this case is the complete restoration of natural resources.

General ecology

This branch of ecology studies organisms in the context of their interaction with the entire surrounding world. This is the connection between a living being and the environment in which he lives. This also applies to humans. Experts divide the whole living world into three categories: plants, animals and people. Therefore, general ecology also branches into three areas - plant ecology, animal ecology, and humane ecology. It should be noted that scientific knowledge is quite extensive. There are about a hundred sections of general ecology. These are areas of forestry, urban, medical, chemical disciplines and many others.

Applied direction

This is a branch of science that deals with the transformation of ecological systems based on the knowledge that a person has. This direction is a practical part of environmental activities. At the same time, the applied direction contains three more large blocks:

• applied research in the field of nature management;
• environmental design, as well as design, with the help of which it is possible to create environmentally friendly factories and enterprises;
• development of management systems in the field of nature management, which also includes issues of expertise, licensing and control of projects.

Geoecology

This is one of the main branches of ecology, the origin of which is associated with the name of the German geographer K. Troll. In the 30s of the last century, he introduced this concept. He considered geoecology one of the branches of general natural science, in which studies from the field of geography and ecology are combined with each other. In Russia, this term has become widespread since the 70s of the last century. Researchers distinguish several concepts of geoecology.

According to one of them, this discipline studies the geological environment and its ecological features. This approach assumes that the geological environment is associated with the biosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Geoecology can also be defined as a science that studies the interaction of biological, geographical, as well as industrial spheres. In this case, this section of the science of nature studies various aspects of nature management, the relationship between the environment and man. Different interpretations are distinguished depending on what kind of science (geology, geography, or ecology) the author of the definition takes as the main one.

There are three main directions in this field of natural science.

• Natural geoecology is the science of stable parameters of geospheres, zonal and regional natural complexes, which ensure the comfort of the environment for humans and its self-development.
• Anthropogenic geoecology. It studies the scale of all those changes that occur in nature as a result of human activity.
• Applied geoecology. It is a synthesis of knowledge about what strategy and tactics can be applied in order to preserve the evolutionary parameters of the environment, to prevent the onset of crisis situations.

Private areas of research in this area of ​​natural science are land ecology, fresh water, atmosphere, the Far North, highlands, deserts, geochemical ecology, and other areas. The main objectives of the discipline are to identify the patterns of the impact that a person has on nature, as well as direct this impact to improve the environment and improve it.

social ecology

This is a branch of ecology that studies the relationship between man and the environment - geographical, social, and also cultural. The main task of this scientific direction is the optimization of economic activity and the environment. Moreover, this interaction should be optimized on an ongoing basis.

Harmonious relationships between nature and man are possible only if nature management is rational. The scientific principles of the rational use of the resources of the surrounding world are called upon to develop other disciplines: medicine, geography, and economics. Social ecology is otherwise called human ecology. The forerunner of this science is the theologian Thomas Malthus, who called on mankind to limit population growth for the reason that natural resources are not unlimited.

Topic: Ecological features of animals in relation to temperature.

Goals:

• Show the various adaptations of animals to temperature as an environmental factor.
• Learn to distinguish between cold-blooded and warm-blooded animals.
• Develop cognitive interests and logical thinking.
• Build a positive relationship with nature.

Equipment: map "Natural zones of the world", a multimedia projector for viewing the presentation, task cards, handouts.

During the classes

1. Organizational part.

-Hello guys! Sit down!

2. Communication of the topic and objectives of the lesson.

-In the past lessons of ecology, you have already learned what environmental factors are, how they affect living organisms, what features animals have in connection with the impact of these environmental factors. Look at the topic of our lesson. What associations do you have when you read it? What are we going to study today?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

- You know a lot! And clearly, my friend,
What will be an important lesson for you now!

We have several tasks ahead of us! It is necessary to find out what temperature conditions are on our planet, what groups of animals are distinguished in connection with the influence of temperature, and most importantly, how animals adapt to different temperatures.

Open your notebooks and write down the date and the topic of the lesson.

III. Learning new material.

1. Teacher's story with elements of conversation.

– So what are the temperature conditions on our planet?

Mountains, deserts, savannas, forests,
Rivers, lakes, fields and seas.
How huge you are my planet!
How mysterious you are our Earth!

– Look at the map “Natural areas of the world”. From the lessons of geography, you already know what different natural areas distinguish. Think about the criteria by which they are distinguished?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

- They are shown in different colors. The hottest territories are located near the equator - these are the tropics and subtropics.

What color is it shown on the map?

(ORANGE)

- Right. But this color fine arts referred to as warm colors!

- And here are shown coldest zones – near the poles are subpolar regions. What color is used here?

(VIOLET)

- Correctly! It belongs to the group of cold colors!

- And between them lie temperate areas. They are shown to us in green.

The planet is huge!
Where it's humid, where it's hot!
Where the cold is terrible
And severe frost.
And there is no corner on a huge planet
Where someone could not survive at all!

(IN THE PROCEDURE OF READING THE POEM I DEMONSTRATE TYPES OF NATURE)

– Animals live in almost the entire temperature range that is represented on the planet. Shell amoeba are found at + 58 °C, the larvae of many Diptera can live at a temperature of about + 50 °C. The bristletails, springtails and mites living high in the mountains survive perfectly at night temperatures of about -10 ° C. Science knows a flightless mosquito - a twitch that lives on the slopes of the Himalayas. It remains active even at -16°C. The body of an animal is constantly undergoing metabolism. Its intensity depends on the body temperature of the animal. At the same time, metabolism provides the animal with energy. The temperature of the environment affects the body temperature of animals. With too much heat or too much cold, the animal dies.

2. Work with the textbook.

- temperature as environmental factor, of course, affects living organisms, and depending on this, two groups of animals are distinguished: cold-blooded and warm-blooded.

(I FORM A SCHEME ON THE BOARD)

Guys, write down the diagram in your notebook.

– COLD BLOODED… WARM BLOODED

- These are complex adjectives formed by adding 2 roots: cold and blood, warm and blood.

– What do these terms mean?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

–And as it is said in textbook nike?

- Open your textbooks. Find § 12 on page 31 4 paragraph above. Read the definition.

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

- Right. The cold-blooded group includes all invertebrates, fish, amphibians and reptiles.

- Turn the page of the textbook and find the 2nd paragraph from the bottom. Read the definition in italics. (STUDENT ANSWERS)

The group of warm-blooded animals includes only birds and mammals. (DURING THE EXPLANATION, I SUPPLEMENT THE PREVIOUSLY FORMED SCHEME). Write this down in your notebook.

- Pay attention to the diagram. Why do I use when referring to cold-blooded animals Blue colour, and when designating warm-blooded red?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

– That's right, today in the lesson we will use blue for low temperatures and cold-blooded animals, and red for high temperatures and warm-blooded animals.

Take pencils and highlight the terms in your notebook.

- Name the animals that we can classify as warm-blooded.

What about animals that can be classified as cold-blooded?

3. Work in small groups.

- Guys, I suggest uniting in groups of 5 people. To do this, the guys from the third desks will have to change seats. You have packages with tasks on the tables. You need to determine which group these animals belong to. There are 5 cards, like you, and there are also 5 circles near the animal. Everyone fills in 1 circle and passes it on to the next. Write your names on the package and remember the serial number. Everyone paints only a circle with its serial number. We use colors for warm-blooded - red, and cold-blooded - blue. Based on the results, you will make the only right decision. In addition, you need to think about where this animal lives. The work needs to be done quickly! I give you a minute to discuss! Get started! Time has gone!

(INCLUDING MUSIC AND NATURE VIDEOS)

- The group that finishes the work, raise your hand.

(DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS OF THE WORK)

“Ah, now let’s place our animals on the map.

(GUYS NAME THE ANIMAL, SAY TO WHICH GROUP IT IS RELATED TO, CALL THE PLACE OF ITS HABITATION AND POSITION THEM ON THE MAP).

Look at the map now guys! Both warm-blooded and cold-blooded live in zones with low temperatures. And in areas with high temperatures, representatives of these two groups also live.

4. Working with a multimedia projector.

How do animals adapt to life in different conditions?

STEP 1.

An image of a lizard appears on the screen.

What kind of animal is shown here? To which group does it belong?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

- The desert iguana is painted in darker colors in the morning, when it is not yet hot, and as it intensifies solar heat she turns pale. Why do you think this is happening?

(DARK COLOR HELP TO ABSORB EXTERNAL HEAT, AND LIGHT TONE REFLECTS SOLAR RADIATION.)

– Thus, by changing color during the day, the turtle has adapted to endure temperature changes. The desert tortoise uses the same device.

An inscription appears on the screen: Change in body color.

STEP 2.

An image of a frog and a crocodile appears on the screen.

Who is on the screen? What group do these animals belong to?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

- Where do these animals live? Since these animals are cold-blooded, they also have to adapt to temperature changes during the day. They do this by changing their physical activity. As the temperature drops, cold-blooded animals become more active.

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

An inscription appears on the screen: Change in motor activity due to temperature fluctuations during the day.

STEP 3.

An image of a turtle appears on the screen.

-This is a desert tortoise. With a strong increase in air temperature, the separation of saliva sharply increases in her. Flowing out of the mouth, it wets the lower part of the head, neck and limbs - this is how the turtle cools. Many animals, in order to avoid overheating, dig into the sand or, on the contrary, try to find some kind of hill and climb it, because. the sand gets very hot. Thus, behavioral maneuvers come to the rescue here.

The display reads: Behavioral Maneuvers.

STEP 4.

An image of a grape snail and a bear appears on the screen.

– Look at this image, what can unite such different animals? And the whole point is to avoid unfavorable temperatures for them, they fall into hibernation and stupor. In addition to mollusks, fish and amphibians can fall into a stupor. And what animals living in our area are able to hibernate in winter? ( Hedgehogs, shrews, badgers, ground squirrels, etc.)

On the screen appears the inscription: Hibernation, torpor due to seasonal changes in temperature.

STEP 5.

An image of a group of penguins appears on the screen.

- Look at the picture. These are penguins.

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

- Now I need 10 of the most daring helpers. Please, guys, come to the blackboard!

(A GROUP OF CHILDREN COMES OUT, I GIVE THEM HATS AND WE ALL TRY TO DEMONSTRATE THE MOVEMENTS OF THE PENGUINS).

- We will now depict with you the behavior in a group of penguins.

The guys stand close to each other and form an outer and inner circle.

This is how penguins are built. So they stand for some time, shifting from foot to foot. Then they move in a circle, stepping left or right. Later, those penguins that were inside the group go to the outer circle, and those are inside the group. And again they stand and mark time, and again after a certain time they change places. That's how they get warm.

- What conclusion can be drawn, what kind of device is this?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

An inscription appears on the screen: Formation of groups of animals when the temperature drops.

STEP 6.

An image of a polar bear and a brown bear appears on the screen, and immediately the inscription: The hotter the climate, the lower the body weight.

– Here you see representatives of the same class and even the same detachment, but they live in different conditions. This, of course, is reflected in their appearance. These features were formulated as follows: The hotter the climate, the less body weight! In ecology, this is called the Bergmann rule, after the name of the scientist who formulated it.

STEP 7.

An image of foxes and an arctic fox appears on the screen, and immediately an inscription appears: The colder the climate, the shorter the protruding parts of the body (ears, tail, paws). Allen's rule.

There is a rule here too, but which one? Let's imagine ourselves for a moment as research scientists and try to formulate this rule. Shown here are the Fennec fox, the common fox and the arctic fox. They live in different climatic conditions. I CALL THE TEMPERATURE LIMITS,

– What can be said about distinctive features appearance of these animals?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

- Guys, does the Bergman rule apply in this case?

STEP 8.

An image of a bird, a bear, a walrus appears on the screen.

-Maybe someone guessed why these animals are united here? Look at the background. it is blue, which means we are considering adaptation to low temperatures here.

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

On the screen appears the inscription: The presence of a protective cover.

STEP 9.

An image of a dog appears on the screen.

-Guys, what usually happens to you when you run cross country?

(STUDENT ANSWERS)

- That's right, you sweat, and dogs, due to their physiological characteristics, do not have sweat glands. How do they get out? What adaptations do they have to endure high temperatures?

(TONGUE OUT)

The display shows: Evaporation increase with temperature increase.

STEP 10.

- So, having considered the adaptations of animals to various temperature conditions, we formulated the following conclusions:

All abstracts are displayed on the screen.

- So we coped with all the tasks set at the beginning of the lesson.

There were many tasks
But everything is settled!
But how much more do you have ahead of you?
So much to know!!!
What do you know - do not be lazy.
Always strive to know the world!

IV. Consolidation of new material.

– And now let's check the results of our joint work!

-Remind me what color we used today to designate warm-blooded animals and cold-blooded animals.

- Look at the screen. Determine who is superfluous here and why?

- You have cards with the names of animals on your tables, underline the warm-blooded ones in red, and the cold-blooded ones in blue.

V. Summary of the lesson.

(PLANET LIGHTS AND MUSIC PLAYS)

How beautiful is our world!
Forests and gardens, a brook murmurs,
The waters of a quiet river!
Silent villages, roads, fields,
And sleeps in the cradle of the Universe Earth.
Do not be, my friend, you are cruel to the planet,
Take care of any flower and leaf,
Protect her, help her with labor ...
Earth among the stars is our only home.

So guys, our lesson is coming to an end. Look again at the map and remember that the temperature regime of our planet is very diverse, look at the diagram in your notebook and remember which animals we classify as warm-blooded and cold-blooded, and finally, remember what various adaptations animals have in order to endure exposure various temperatures.

VI. Homework:§12.

Grading.

_________________________ worked well in class today.