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In February 1986, the Soviet passenger ship Mikhail Lermontov sank off the coast of New Zealand in the Cook Strait. 25 years ago, the investigation into this incident went on for more than one month - both in our country and abroad. However, it is still unclear what it was - a tragic combination of circumstances or someone's malicious intent.

50 years ago, the Soviet Union and China - the two largest communist powers - were on the brink of war. The formal reason for the conflict was the dispute over the ownership of Damansky Island on the Ussuri River.

France. XVIII century. The royal province of Gévaudan is terrified: an unknown creature has declared a hunt for people. Every now and then, mutilated corpses are found. Miraculously surviving witnesses speak of the coming of the Beast. To this day, the mystery of the terrible events of 255 years ago remains the subject of controversy between zoologists, historians, folklorists and mystics...

It is difficult to overestimate the role of money in the history of mankind. This is one of the cornerstones of our civilization, changing along with it, but not losing its significance. At the same time, money is a kind of encyclopedia, from which you can learn a lot of interesting things about the life of a particular people.

Over the thousand-year history of people sailing across the expanses of the seas and oceans, there have been many various shipwrecks and accidents. Some of them have acquired legends, films have even been made about them. And the most popular of them, of course, is James Cameron's Titanic.

The way he skillfully twisted his own life, mixed the unsightly reality with the desired reality, still delights those who study his biography.

AT late XIX centuries, in the tiny French village of Rennes-le-Chateau, countless treasures were found that once belonged to the curate Berenger Sauniere. From 1891 to 1917, this man spent more than one and a half billion francs, but his wealth did not dry up. Why? Almost everyone who tried to find an explanation for this died a painful death ...

25 years ago, an explosion occurred at the fourth power unit of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant after the completion of tests on the run-out of the turbine generator rotor. Its power is 105 times greater than nuclear weapons used in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. More than 40 different types of radionuclides were released into the atmosphere. Pollution has spread to the territory of Belarus, Ukraine and Russia.

The sun is an ordinary star, its age is about 5 billion years. All the planets of the solar system revolve in this star.
SUN, the central body of the solar system, a hot plasma ball, typical dwarf star spectral type G2; mass M~2.1030 kg, radius R=696 t. km, average density 1.416.103 kg/m3, luminosity L=3.86.1023 kW, effective surface (photosphere) temperature approx. 6000 K.

The rotation period (synodic) varies from 27 days at the equator to 32 days at the poles, the free fall acceleration is 274 m/s2. Chemical composition determined from analysis of the solar spectrum: hydrogen approx. 90%, helium 10%, other elements less than 0.1% (by number of atoms).

The source of solar energy is the nuclear transformation of hydrogen into helium in the central region of the Sun, where the temperature is 15 million K (thermonuclear reactions).

Energy from the depths is transferred by radiation, and then in the outer layer with a thickness of approx. 0.2 R by convection. The existence of photospheric granulation, sunspots, spicules, etc. is associated with the convective motion of plasma.
The intensity of plasma processes on the Sun changes periodically (11-year period; see C

solar activity). The solar atmosphere (the chromosphere and the solar corona) is very dynamic, flares and prominences are observed in it, there is a constant outflow of corona matter into interplanetary space (solar wind).

Features of the motion Venus moves in an orbit located between the orbits of Mercury and the Earth, with a sidereal period equal to 224.7 Earth days. ;
- Third Earth. The only planet where life exists. Due to its unique, perhaps the only natural conditions in the Universe, it became the place where organic life originated and developed. The shape, dimensions and movement of the Earth The shape of the Earth is close to an ellipsoid, flattened at the poles and stretched in the equatorial zone. ;
- the fourth from the solar system. Behind him is the asteroid belt.

The average distance from the Sun is 228 million km, the period of revolution is 687 days, the period of rotation is 24.5 hours, the average diameter is 6780 km, the mass is 6.4 × 1023 kg; 2 natural satellites Phobos and Deimos. Atmospheric composition: CO2 (>95%), N2 (2.5%), Ar (1.5-2%), CO (0.06%), H2O (up to 0.1%); surface pressure 5-7 hPa. The areas of the surface of Mars covered with craters are similar to the lunar mainland. Significant scientific material about Mars was obtained with the help of the Mariner and Mars spacecraft.

Movement, size, mass Mars moves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit with an eccentricity of 0.0934. The plane of the orbit is inclined to the plane of the ecliptic at a small angle (1° 51). ;
- the fifth from the sun of our solar system. the average distance from the Sun is 5.2 AU. e. (778.3 million km), sidereal circulation period 11.9 years, rotation period (cloud layer near the equator) approx. 10 h, equivalent to a diameter of approx. 142,800 km, weight 1.90 1027 kg.

Atmospheric composition: H2, CH4, NH3, He. Jupiter is a powerful source of thermal radio emission, has a radiation belt and an extensive magnetosphere. Jupiter has 16 satellites;
Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun in our solar system. Orbital period 29.46 years, rotation period

at the equator (cloud layer) 10.2 hours, equatorial diameter 120 660 km, mass 5.68 1026 kg, has 17 satellites, the atmosphere includes CH4, H2, He, NH3. Saturn has radiation belts. , which has rings. SATURN, the second largest after Jupiter big planet solar system; refers to the giant planets.

Movement, size, shape Saturn's elliptical orbit has an eccentricity of 0.0556 and an average radius of 9.539 AU. e. (1427 million km). The maximum and minimum distances from the Sun are approximately 10 and 9 AU. e. Distances from the Earth vary from 1.2 to 1.6 billion km.

The inclination of the planet's orbit to the plane of the ecliptic is 2°29.4. ;
- the seventh from the sun of our solar system. Refers to the giant planets, the average distance from the Sun is 19.18 AU. e. (2871 million km), circulation period 84 years, rotation period approx. 17 hours, equatorial diameter 51,200 km, mass 8.7 1025 kg, atmospheric composition: H2, He, CH4. The axis of rotation of Uranus is tilted at an angle of 98°. Uranus has 15 satellites (5 discovered from Earth Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, Oberon, and 10 discovered by the Voyager 2 spacecraft Cordelia, Ophelia, Bianca, Cressida, Desdemona, Juliet, Portia, Rosalind, Belinda, Pack) and ring system. Movement, dimensions, mass Uranus moves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit, the major semi-axis of which (average heliocentric distance) is 19.182 greater than that of the Earth, and is 2871 million km. ;
is the eighth from the sun in our solar system. Orbital period 164.8 years, rotation period 17.8 hours, equatorial diameter 49,500 km, mass 1.03.1026 kg, atmospheric composition: CH4, H2, He. Neptune has 6 satellites.

It was discovered in 1846 by I. Galle according to the theoretical predictions of W. J. Le Verrier and J. C. Adams. The remoteness of Neptune from the Earth significantly limits the possibilities of its study. NEPTUNE, the eighth largest planet from the Sun, belongs to the giant planets. Some parameters of the planet Neptune moves around the Sun in an elliptical, close to circular (eccentricity 0.009) orbit; its average distance from the Sun is 30.058 times greater than that of the Earth, which is approximately 4500 million km. This means that the light from the Sun reaches Neptune in a little over 4 hours. ;
- the ninth from the sun of our solar system. The average distance from the Sun is 39.4 AU. e., circulation period 247.7 years, rotation period 6.4 days, diameter approx. 3000 km, weight approx. 1.79.1022 kg. Methane has been discovered on Pluto. Pluto is a double planet, its satellite, about 3 times smaller in diameter, moves at a distance of only approx. 20,000 km from the center of the planet, making 1 revolution in 6.4 days. Some parameters of the planet Pluto moves around the Sun in an elliptical orbit with a significant eccentricity equal to 0.25, exceeding even the eccentricity of Mercury's orbit (0.206).

The semi-major axis of Pluto's orbit is 39.439 AU. e. or approximately 5.8 billion km. The plane of the orbit is inclined to the ecliptic at an angle of 17.2°. One revolution of Pluto lasts 247.7 Earth years;
, their satellites, many small planets, comets, small meteoroids and cosmic dust moving in the area of ​​the prevailing gravitational action of the Sun. According to the prevailing scientific ideas, the formation of the solar system began with the emergence of the central body of the Sun;

The gravitational field of the Sun led to the capture of an incident gas-dust cloud, from which the Solar System was formed as a result of gravitational separation and condensation. The pressure of the solar radiation caused its inhomogeneity chemical composition: lighter elements, primarily hydrogen and helium, predominate in the peripheral (so-called outer, or distant) planets. The age of the Earth has been most reliably determined: it is approximately equal to 4.6 billion years.

The general structure of the solar system was revealed in the middle of the 16th century. N. Copernicus, who substantiated the idea of ​​the motion of the planets around the Sun. Such solar system model called heliocentric. In the 17th century I. Kepler discovered the laws of planetary motion, and I. Newton formulated the law of universal gravitation. The study of the physical characteristics of the cosmic bodies that make up the solar system became possible only after the invention by G. Galileo in 1609 of the telescope. So, observing sunspots, Galileo first discovered the rotation of the Sun around its axis.

Space has attracted people's attention for a long time. Astronomers began to study the planets of the solar system in the Middle Ages, looking at them through primitive telescopes. But a thorough classification, description of the features of the structure and movement of celestial bodies became possible only in the 20th century. With the advent of powerful equipment equipped with last word observatory technology and spaceships several previously unknown objects were discovered. Now each student can list all the planets of the solar system in order. Almost all of them have been landed by a space probe, and so far man has only been to the Moon.

What is the solar system

The universe is huge and includes many galaxies. Our solar system is part of a galaxy with over 100 billion stars. But there are very few that look like the Sun. Basically, they are all red dwarfs, which are smaller in size and do not shine as brightly. Scientists have suggested that the solar system was formed after the emergence of the sun. Its huge field of attraction captured a gas-dust cloud, from which, as a result of gradual cooling, particles of solid matter were formed. Over time, celestial bodies formed from them. It is believed that the Sun is now in the middle of its life path, so it will exist, as well as all celestial bodies dependent on it, for several billion more years. Near space has been studied by astronomers for a long time, and any person knows what planets of the solar system exist. Photos of them, taken from space satellites, can be found on the pages of various information resources dedicated to this topic. All celestial bodies are held by the Sun's strong gravitational field, which makes up over 99% of the solar system's volume. Large celestial bodies revolve around the star and around their axis in one direction and in one plane, which is called the plane of the ecliptic.

Solar system planets in order

In modern astronomy, it is customary to consider celestial bodies, starting from the Sun. In the 20th century, a classification was created, which includes 9 planets of the solar system. But recent space exploration and the latest discoveries have prompted scientists to revise many positions in astronomy. And in 2006, at the international congress, due to its small size (a dwarf with a diameter not exceeding three thousand km), Pluto was excluded from the number of classical planets, and there were eight of them left. Now the structure of our solar system has taken on a symmetrical, slender appearance. It includes four terrestrial planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, then comes the asteroid belt, followed by four giant planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. On the outskirts of the solar system also passes which scientists called the Kuiper belt. This is where Pluto is located. These places are still little studied because of their remoteness from the Sun.

Features of the terrestrial planets

What makes it possible to attribute these celestial bodies to one group? We list the main characteristics of the inner planets:

• relatively small size;
• hard surface, high density and similar composition (oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium and other heavy elements);
• the presence of an atmosphere;
• the same structure: a core of iron with nickel impurities, a mantle consisting of silicates, and a crust of silicate rocks (except for Mercury - it has no crust);
• a small number of satellites - only 3 for four planets;
• rather weak magnetic field.

Features of the giant planets

As for the outer planets, or gas giants, they have the following similar characteristics:

• large size and weight;
• they do not have a solid surface and are composed of gases, mainly helium and hydrogen (which is why they are also called gas giants);
• a liquid core consisting of metallic hydrogen;
• high rotation speed;
• a strong magnetic field, which explains the unusual nature of many processes occurring on them;
• there are 98 satellites in this group, most of which belong to Jupiter;
• The most characteristic feature of gas giants is the presence of rings. All four planets have them, although they are not always noticeable.

The first planet is Mercury

It is located closest to the Sun. Therefore, from its surface, the luminary looks three times larger than from the Earth. This also explains the strong temperature fluctuations: from -180 to +430 degrees. Mercury is moving very fast in its orbit. Maybe that's why he got such a name, because in Greek mythology, Mercury is the messenger of the gods. There is almost no atmosphere here, and the sky is always black, but the Sun shines very brightly. However, there are places at the poles where its rays never hit. This phenomenon can be explained by the tilt of the axis of rotation. No water was found on the surface. This circumstance, as well as the anomalously high daytime temperature (as well as the low nighttime temperature) fully explain the fact that there is no life on the planet.

Venus

If we study the planets of the solar system in order, then the second one is Venus. People could observe her in the sky in ancient times, but since she was shown only in the morning and in the evening, it was believed that these were 2 different objects. By the way, our Slavic ancestors called her Flicker. It is the third brightest object in our solar system. Previously, people called it the morning and evening star, because it is best seen before sunrise and sunset. Venus and Earth are very similar in structure, composition, size and gravity. Around its axis, this planet moves very slowly, making a complete revolution in 243.02 Earth days. Of course, the conditions on Venus are very different from those on Earth. It is twice as close to the Sun, so it is very hot there. The high temperature is also explained by the fact that thick clouds of sulfuric acid and an atmosphere of carbon dioxide create a greenhouse effect on the planet. In addition, the pressure at the surface is 95 times greater than on Earth. Therefore, the first ship that visited Venus in the 70s of the 20th century survived there for no more than an hour. A feature of the planet is also the fact that it rotates in the opposite direction, compared to most planets. Astronomers know nothing more about this celestial object yet.

Third planet from the Sun

The only place in the solar system, and indeed in the entire universe known to astronomers, where life exists, is the Earth. AT earth group it has the largest dimensions. What else is her

1. The largest gravity among the terrestrial planets.
2. Very strong magnetic field.
3. High density.
4. It is the only one among all the planets that has a hydrosphere, which contributed to the formation of life.
5. It has the largest, in comparison with its size, satellite, which stabilizes its tilt relative to the Sun and affects natural processes.

The planet Mars

It is one of the smallest planets in our galaxy. If we consider the planets of the solar system in order, then Mars is the fourth from the Sun. Its atmosphere is very rarefied, and the pressure on the surface is almost 200 times less than on Earth. For the same reason, very strong temperature drops are observed. The planet Mars is little studied, although it has long attracted the attention of people. According to scientists, this is the only celestial body on which life could exist. After all, in the past there was water on the surface of the planet. Such a conclusion can be drawn from the fact that there are large ice caps at the poles, and the surface is covered with many furrows, which could be dried up river beds. In addition, there are some minerals on Mars that can only be formed in the presence of water. Another feature of the fourth planet is the presence of two satellites. Their unusualness is that Phobos gradually slows down its rotation and approaches the planet, while Deimos, on the contrary, moves away.

What is Jupiter famous for?

The fifth planet is the largest. 1300 Earths would fit in the volume of Jupiter, and its mass is 317 times more than the earth. Like all gas giants, its structure is hydrogen-helium, reminiscent of the composition of stars. Jupiter is the most interesting planet that has many characteristic features:

• it is the third brightest celestial body after the Moon and Venus;
• Jupiter has the strongest magnetic field of all the planets;
• it completes a full rotation around its axis in just 10 earth hours - faster than other planets;
• an interesting feature of Jupiter is a large red spot - this is how an atmospheric vortex is visible from the Earth, rotating counterclockwise;
• like all giant planets, it has rings, though not as bright as those of Saturn;
• this planet has the largest number of satellites. He has 63 of them. The most famous are Europa, on which water was found, Ganymede - the largest satellite of the planet Jupiter, as well as Io and Calisto;
• another feature of the planet is that in the shade the surface temperature is higher than in places illuminated by the sun.

Planet Saturn

This is the second largest gas giant, also named after the ancient god. It consists of hydrogen and helium, but traces of methane, ammonia and water have been found on its surface. Scientists have found that Saturn is the most rarefied planet. Its density is less than that of water. This gas giant rotates very quickly - it completes one revolution in 10 Earth hours, as a result of which the planet is flattened from the sides. Huge speeds on Saturn and near the wind - up to 2000 kilometers per hour. It's more than the speed of sound. Saturn has another distinguishing feature- he keeps 60 satellites in his field of attraction. The largest of them - Titan - is the second largest in the entire solar system. The uniqueness of this object lies in the fact that, exploring its surface, scientists first discovered a celestial body with conditions similar to those that existed on Earth about 4 billion years ago. But the most main feature Saturn is the presence of bright rings. They encircle the planet around the equator and reflect more light than itself. Four is the most amazing phenomenon in the solar system. Unusually, the inner rings move faster than the outer ones.

- Uranus

So, we continue to consider the planets of the solar system in order. The seventh planet from the Sun is Uranus. It is the coldest of all - the temperature drops to -224 ° C. In addition, scientists did not find metallic hydrogen in its composition, but found modified ice. Because Uranus is classified as a separate category of ice giants. An amazing feature of this celestial body is that it rotates while lying on its side. The change of seasons on the planet is also unusual: winter reigns there for 42 Earth years, and the Sun does not appear at all, summer also lasts 42 years, and the Sun does not set at this time. In spring and autumn, the luminary appears every 9 hours. Like all giant planets, Uranus has rings and many satellites. As many as 13 rings revolve around it, but they are not as bright as those of Saturn, and the planet holds only 27 satellites. If we compare Uranus with the Earth, then it is 4 times larger than it, 14 times heavier and is located at a distance from the Sun, in 19 times greater than the path to the luminary from our planet.

Neptune: the invisible planet

After Pluto was excluded from the number of planets, Neptune became the last from the Sun in the system. It is located 30 times farther from the star than the Earth, and is not visible from our planet even through a telescope. Scientists discovered it, so to speak, by accident: observing the peculiarities of the movement of the planets closest to it and their satellites, they concluded that there must be another large celestial body beyond the orbit of Uranus. After discovery and research, it turned out interesting features this planet:

• due to the presence of a large amount of methane in the atmosphere, the color of the planet from space appears blue-green;
• Neptune's orbit is almost perfectly circular;
• the planet rotates very slowly - it completes one circle in 165 years;
• Neptune is 4 times larger than the Earth and 17 times heavier, but the force of attraction is almost the same as on our planet;
• the largest of the 13 moons of this giant is Triton. It is always turned to the planet on one side and slowly approaches it. Based on these signs, scientists have suggested that it was captured by Neptune's gravity.

All over the galaxy Milky Way- about a hundred billion planets. So far, scientists cannot even study some of them. But the number of planets in the solar system is known to almost all people on Earth. True, in the 21st century, interest in astronomy has faded a little, but even children know the name of the planets of the solar system.

The fifth planet from the Sun, classified as a giant planet. In terms of brightness, it occupies the fourth position among celestial objects, behind the sun, moon and venus. The mass exceeds the total mass of other planets by more than twice! The earth's mass exceeds 318 times! If we compare the Jupiter's gravity with the earth's, then Jupiter has it more: the earth's 100 kg there will be equivalent in weight to the earth's 240 kg.
Galileo, observing him in the sky through a telescope in 1610, discovered four, as is now known, large moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. The first visit to Jupiter took place in 1973, the visitor was called Pioneer 10, then there were Pioneer 11, Voyagers. Apparatus Galileo served in orbit around Jupiter eight years.
Gas planets do not have solid surfaces. All we see when we look at them is just a dense layer of clouds in their atmosphere. The composition of Jupiter is a mixture of ninety percent hydrogen and ten percent helium with traces of water, ammonia, methane. Very similar to the composition of the original solar nebula, from which the solar system was theoretically formed.

Our understanding of the internal structure of gas planets is very indirect.n s, and will probably remain so for some time to come. The data from the Galileo probe does not go deeper than 150 km below the clouds. According to the theory, Jupiter has a core of rocky material. Surrounding the core is a mass of liquid metallic hydrogen, the main constituent of the planet. Next comes the outer layer of hydrogen and helium. The atmosphere we see is only the tip of this deep layer.

Water, carbon dioxide and small amounts of others simple elements are also present. There are no clear boundaries between the layers of the internal structure of the planet. Galileo's data indicate that there is much less water on Jupiter than expected. Also surprising is the high temperature and density of the upper atmosphere. The presence of winds with tremendous speeds up to six hundred kilometers per hour was detected. Jupiter gives off more energy than it receives from the sun.

The appearance of Jupiter is characterized by stripes, about the origin of which various hypotheses are put forward. The Great Red Spot (discovered in 1664 by Robert Hooke) is a unique phenomenon - it is a long-lived hurricane in which rotation occurs in the opposite direction to the clockwise direction. One complete rotation of the hurricane takes six Earth days.

Jupiter has radiation belts powerful magnetic field, and rings, like those of Saturn. But his rings do not contain ice and are also dark. They probably consist of very small grains of rocks.

As of January of this year Jupiter is fixed sixty-seven satellites, which are divided into internal, which includes eight (four Galilean and four non-Galilean) satellites, and external, which includes fifty-five satellites, also divided into two groups, and thus we have four varieties of satellites.

When the planet Jupiter is in the night sky(as mentioned above, this planet is bright), then you can see its four Galilean satellites with binoculars, and with an amateur telescope you can even admire the Great Red Spot and some Jupiterian bands.