In accordance with the goals of the activity, which includes the processes of memorization, there are two main types of memorization: involuntary and arbitrary.

Involuntary memorization is a product and condition for the implementation of cognitive and practical actions. Since memorization itself is not our goal, then about everything that is remembered involuntarily, we usually say:

"I remember it myself." In fact, this is a strictly natural process, determined by the peculiarities of our activity. Studies show that for the productivity of involuntary memorization, the place that this material occupies in the activity is important. If the material is included in the content new goal of the activity, it is remembered better than when it is included in the conditions, ways to achieve this goal.

In the experiments, schoolchildren of the 1st grade and students were given five simple arithmetic problems to solve. In both cases, unexpectedly for the subjects, they were asked to recall the conditions and number of tasks. Schoolchildren of the 1st grade memorized numbers almost three times more than students. This is explained by the fact that the ability of first-graders to add and subtract has not yet become a skill. It is a meaningful goal-directed action for students of Grade I.

Numerical manipulation constituted the content goals this action, while for students it was part of the content way, not the purpose of the action.

Material that occupies a different place in the activity acquires a different meaning. Therefore, it requires a different orientation and is reinforced in different ways. The content of the main goal requires a more active orientation and receives effective reinforcement as an achieved result of the activity and therefore is better remembered than what concerns the conditions for achieving the goal.

The facts of special studies show that material that takes the place of the main goal in activity is remembered the better, the more meaningful connections are established in it.

In a study that studied the involuntary memory of text that students needed to understand, they found that very easy text was remembered worse than text of average difficulty. A difficult text was remembered better with such a more active way of working with it as drawing up a plan than with using a ready-made plan of the same text.

Consequently, the material that causes active mental work on it is involuntarily remembered better.

It is known that we involuntarily remember completely and firmly, sometimes for the rest of our lives, what has special meaning for us. vital importance, what makes us interest and emotion. Not random memorization will be the more productive, the more interested we are in the content of the task being performed. So, if the student is interested in the lesson, he remembers its content better than when the student listens only “for order”. A special study of the conditions for high productivity of involuntary memorization of knowledge in learning showed that one of these most important conditions is the creation of internal, proper cognitive motivation. learning activities. This is achieved through a special organization systems of learning tasks, at which each result obtained becomes necessary means for each subsequent one.

Arbitrary memorization - it is a product of special mnemonic actions, i.e., such actions, the main purpose of which will be memorization itself. The productivity of such an action is also related to the characteristics of its goals, motives and methods of implementation. At the same time, as special studies have shown, one of the main conditions for arbitrary memorization is a clear statement of the problem of memorizing the material accurately, completely and consistently. Various mnemonic goals affect the nature of the memorization process itself, the choice of its various methods, and, in connection with this, its result.

In one study, students were asked to memorize two stories. The test of the first one was scheduled for the next day, with regard to the second, it was said that it should be remembered for a long time. The memory test for both stories was actually done four weeks later. At the same time, it turned out that the second story was remembered much better than the first. It is known how quickly material is forgotten that is remembered only for exams, without setting for a strong, long-term consolidation.

Thus, the role of the mnemonic task cannot be reduced to the action of the memorization intention itself. Different mnemonic tasks cause a different orientation in the material, in its content, structure, in its linguistic form, etc., causing the choice of appropriate methods of memorization. Therefore, in academic work important to give students differentiated tasks: what and how to remember.

An important role in voluntary memorization is played by motives that encourage memorization. The reported information can be understood and memorized, but, without acquiring sustainable significance for the student, it can be quickly forgotten. People who have not been sufficiently raised a sense of duty and responsibility often forget much of what needs to be remembered.

Among the conditions for the productivity of arbitrary memorization, the central place is occupied by using rational memory techniques. Knowledge is made up of a certain system of facts, concepts, judgments. To memorize them, it is necessary to isolate certain semantic units, to establish connections between them, to apply logical techniques associated with more or less developed processes of thinking. Understanding is a necessary condition for logical, meaningful memorization. The concept is remembered faster and stronger because it is meaningfully associated with the knowledge already acquired earlier, with the past experience of a person. On the contrary, what is misunderstood or poorly understood always appears in the mind of a person as something separate, meaningfully not connected with past experience. Incomprehensible material usually does not arouse interest in itself.

One of the most important methods of logical memorization is drawing up a plan for the material to be learned. It includes three points:

1. breakdown of the material into its component parts;

2. inventing titles for them or highlighting some strong point with which the entire content of this part of the material is easily associated;

3. linking parts by their titles or selected strong points into a single chain of associations.

Combining individual thoughts, sentences into semantic parts reduces the number of units that need to be remembered without reducing the amount of memorized material. Memorization is also facilitated because, as a result of drawing up a plan, the material acquires a clear, dissected and ordered form. Thanks to this, it is easier to grasp mentally in the process of reading itself.

Unlike plan for understanding material in terms of memory more and more fractional units are singled out, and the titles only indicate, remind of what should be reproduced, and therefore in their form they are often incomplete, fragmentary.

Of great importance comparison as a method of logical memorization. Emphasizing differences in objects is especially important. This ensures the specialization of links during memorization and directs the reproduction of object images along a certain path. Establishing only general, and even more so very broad connections between objects can make it difficult to remember them. This largely explains the difficulty in remembering (for example, the names of Ovsov in Chekhov's story "Horse Name").

Memorization of objects is carried out the faster and stronger, the sharper the differences between them are. Therefore, the comparison of objects must begin with clearly identified differences and only after that move on to less noticeable differences. As a result of experiments I. P. Pavlov came to the conclusion that the neural connection to a certain stimulus is carried out faster and is more durable not when the stimulus itself is repeatedly reinforced, but when its reinforcement is interspersed, opposed to an unreinforced other stimulus similar to the first.

Association by similarity and contrast is also the basis for such more complex methods of arbitrary memorization as classification, systematization material.

When the logical work on the material relies extensively on figurative connections, this increases the meaningfulness and strength of memorization. Therefore, where possible, it is necessary to evoke appropriate images in ourselves, to associate them with the content of the material that we remember.

One of the most important means of remembering playback, acting in the form of retelling to oneself the memorized content. However, it is useful to use this method only after preliminary understanding, awareness of the material, especially in cases where the material is complex, difficult to understand. Reproduction, especially in your own words, improves understanding of the material. Poorly understood material is usually associated with a "foreign" language form, while well-understood material is easily "translated" into "one's own language".

Reproduction speeds up, rationalizes memorization, especially when memorizing, since when retelling, we identify weak spots we exercise self-control. It is important that reproduction is not replaced by recognition. Knowing is easier than remembering. But only the possibility of reproduction, recall creates the necessary confidence in knowledge.

Educational material that requires multiple repetitions in its volume can be memorized in three ways: either in parts— partial way, or all at once - holistic way, or all and in parts - combined method. The most rational combined method, and the least rational - partial. With a partial method, there is no orientation towards the general content of the whole, therefore, individual parts are memorized in isolation from one another. This leads to a quick forgetting of the memorized. More productive is the holistic way, which uses the general content of the material, making it easier to understand and remember the individual parts in their relationship. But parts can vary in difficulty, besides, the middle of the material is always remembered worse than the beginning and end, especially with a large volume. Here, a combined method of memorization can be applied, when at first the whole material is comprehended, realized as a whole, in the process of which its individual parts are also distinguished, then individual parts are memorized, especially the more difficult ones, and finally, the material is repeated again as a whole.

This method of memorization is most suited to the characteristics the structure of the mnemonic action, which includes the following operations: orientation in the entire material, the selection of groups of its elements, the establishment of intra-group relations, the establishment of inter-group connections.

The ability to reproduce is not necessarily an indicator of the strength of memorization. Therefore, the teacher should always worry about how, through repetition, to achieve a more solid consolidation of knowledge by students. According to K. D-Ushinsky, a teacher who does not care about repetition, about the strength of knowledge, can be likened to a drunk driver with poorly tied luggage: he drives everything forward without looking back, and brings an empty cart, boasting only that he has come a long way.

However, repetition is productive only when it is conscious, meaningful and active. Otherwise, it leads to rote memorization. That's why best view repetition is the inclusion of learned material in subsequent activities. The experience of experimental teaching has shown that when the program material is organized into a special strict system of tasks (so that each previous step is necessary for the assimilation of the next), then in the corresponding activity of the student, essential material is necessarily repeated each time at a new level and in new connections. Under these conditions, the necessary knowledge is firmly remembered even without memorization, that is, involuntarily. Previously acquired knowledge, being included in the context of new knowledge, is not only updated, but also qualitatively changed, rethought.

General characteristics of voluntary and involuntary memorization.

Being a mnemonic effect of mental processes that always occur during the performance of any activity, memorization, as was said, is not independent of the characteristics of this activity, but, on the contrary, is determined by them in the closest way.

Any activity of people is characterized, first of all, by orientation. It not only gives one or another result, but is always aimed at something, which may not coincide with the actual result of the activity, with what it actually leads to. The study of the dependence of memorization on the direction of the activity in which it is carried out is therefore part of a more common problem the impact of activity on memory.

In the most striking form, the direction of activity can be represented as conscious intention to solve a particular problem, to achieve a particular goal. The presence of this intention characterizes any conscious activity of a person. The latter is always the realization of some consciously set goal. "In what is given by nature," says Marx, "he (man. - A. S.) at the same time he realizes his conscious end, which, like a law, determines the mode and nature of his actions and to which he must subordinate his will" (1)

Being determined by a consciously set goal, by a conscious intention to achieve this goal, human activity in its direction is determined, however, not only by conscious intention. Along with it, an essential role is also played by unconscious sources of orientation, in particular, all kinds of installations***, often introducing a completely unconscious or, in any case, insufficiently conscious character.

Both conscious intention and unconscious attitudes are by no means, however, the primary source of human activity. The goals that a person sets for himself, and the direction of his actions unconscious by him, are based on those real conditions in which a person lives and acts. The true source of human activity is the reality that affects a person.

... The most important role in what determines human activity, its direction and character, is played by public relations people who develop differently depending on the material conditions of society. Human activity is socio-historically conditioned.

The direction of human activity is extremely diverse. The study of the dependence of memorization on the various content of the orientation of activity is a large and complex task. In this work, we do not set ourselves this goal, but restrict ourselves to a narrower problem. We want to trace how memory is affected by only one of the types of orientation, the most typical for learning activities human being and especially learning in the process of studying. We mean aiming at remember material to be mastered, i.e. the so-called mnemonic direction, or focus on memory.

In those cases where the direct source of the mnemonic orientation is the conscious intention to remember, memorization is a special kind of mental activity, often very complex, and by its very essence is arbitrary memorization. It is usually opposed to memorization involuntary which is carried out in those cases when the mnemonic task is not set, and the activity leading to memorization is aimed at achieving some other goals. When we decide math problem, we do not set ourselves the goal of remembering the numerical data that is available in the problem. Our goal - decide task, and not to memorize the numbers in it, and yet we remember them, even if only for a short time.

The difference between these types of memorization is quite legitimate. But at the same time, it would be wrong to understand it as an absolute opposition of one type of memorization to another. Between voluntary and involuntary memorization there are undoubtedly a number of transitions, a number of intermediate forms. One of them is exactly that memorization, which is carried out not due to a conscious intention to remember, not under the influence of a mnemonic task, but due to the presence of a mnemonic attitude. Such memorization is not arbitrary, since the latter must necessarily be intentional, but at the same time it is still characterized by a more or less pronounced mnemonic orientation, which is not the case with involuntary memorization. Therefore, it can in no way be considered a relatively random mnemonic effect of activity aimed at performing other tasks, as is typical for involuntary memorization. This, of course, is one of the transitional forms between voluntary and involuntary memorization.<...>

The mnemonic orientation is most pronounced, of course, with arbitrary memorization. Therefore, a comparison of this particular type of memorization with involuntary should provide the most valuable material for characterizing the action of a mnemonic orientation in its most vivid expression. In this regard, our experimental studies were carried out, with the aim of elucidating a number of questions concerning the dependence of memorization on the direction of activity.

The presence of a mnemonic orientation is of great importance, first of all, for memory productivity. The low productivity of involuntary memorization has been noted in a number of works. (Stern, 1903-1904, 1904-1906, G. Myers, 1913 and others). It is well known that, other things being equal, voluntary memorization is much more effective than involuntary. The intention to remember should be considered one of the essential conditions memory success.

This position is well known to everyone. personal experience from life observations. At the same time, it has found its clear reflection in experimental practice. One of the most striking examples of its significance is the case described by the Serbian psychologist Radossavljevic (1907) and cited many times in the psychological literature. One of the subjects of this researcher did not understand, due to poor knowledge of the language spoken by the experimenter, the task that was set for him - to remember relatively small (but meaningless) material. As a result of this misunderstanding, it turned out that the memorization of even a small material could not be realized, despite the fact that the material was read aloud 46 times. However, once the task of remembering was clear to the subjects, he was able to reproduce the entire material with complete accuracy after only six exposures to it.

The same is also evidenced by the data of other works, in which the question of the action of the task of remembering was subjected to special study, in particular, the studies of Poppelreiter (1912), Wolgemuth (1915), Mazo (1929). The methodology of these works consisted in the fact that the subjects were asked, on the one hand, to perceive some material in order to memorize it, and on the other hand, to familiarize themselves with similar material in conditions where memorization was not required. In both cases, after this (in the second case, unexpectedly for the subjects), it was proposed to reproduce the perceived material. The results of the experiments showed that in the first case memorization was much more productive than in the second case. Quite indicative is the fact, well known to all those who conducted experimental studies of memory, that the experimenters do not memorize the material that they offer the subjects for memorization. All subjects memorize the material completely and accurately, while the experimenters themselves, who read this material to the subjects, at the end of the experiments can reproduce it extremely insufficiently, and this takes place, despite the fact that the experiments are carried out with several subjects, due to which the material is perceived by the experimenters significantly. more times than for each subject individually.<...>

Not only involuntary, but also random memorization has its reserves. Studies show that for successful memorization it is necessary that in the mind of the student there is a kind of internal setting for mandatory memorization. At the time of working with the material, he must give himself the order: "Comprehend and remember!".

The process of such arbitrary memorization consists of two interrelated stages.

The first stage of arbitrary memorization

At the first stage, the student performs the first part of the self-order, that is, comprehends the material. To do this, he slowly reads the given text, trying to understand its general idea.

Three points play a decisive role here, which must be taught to students. Usually they reach this when they become adults, and not everyone uses it. It's a pity, the "train" of the school has already left.

1. The continuous presence in the mind of the student of an arbitrary setting for the maximum activation of the imagination so that the described objects, phenomena, events are reflected in his images as brightly as possible. Imagination helps the student to memorize not mechanically, but by understanding the semantic connections between words. "In order to remember better, I read and at the same time imagine what I read" - unfortunately, In a similar way very few do.
2. Continuous comparison of the perceived information with the knowledge that the student already has in this area, with his life experience. On this basis, individual elements, parts of the material are classified according to the degree of novelty for the student. Here it is necessary to proceed as follows. While reading, the student notes to himself along the way: "I already know this"; "This fact is partly already familiar, I met him there and there..."; "And this is completely unfamiliar material, it will need to be read on purpose, more thoughtfully." You can read with a pencil in your hands, making appropriate notes. Thus, the material is perceived as partially familiar, which greatly facilitates arbitrary memorization.
3. Continuous comparison of the content of individual sentences and thus highlighting the main and secondary (auxiliary) in the text; definition of the main idea of ​​the memorized material.

Only one implementation in this way of setting the mind to comprehend the text gives such a significant effect in terms of memorization that some students (especially high school students) stop working on mastering the given material at this point. You can understand them: after all, the execution of the second part of the self-order (that is, the actual memorization of the material) is associated with multiple monotonous repetitions, which, of course, cannot cause much interest. One of the tenth-graders wrote in the questionnaire about this: “I read and try to understand. If I don’t understand, I re-read it a second time, a third, until I understand.

The second stage of arbitrary memorization

And yet, if it is necessary to achieve deep and lasting memorization, it is necessary to carry out the second - "mnemonic" stage, in which a vital role belongs volitional qualities student.

At the "mnemonic" stage of arbitrary memorization, the material is actually worked out on separate sentences. After reading the next sentence, the student reproduces it at the level of inner speech ("to himself"), while performing self-control over the text.

Self-confidence and voluntary memorization

An important condition for successful voluntary memorization is the student's confidence that he will cope with the task. Psychologists have proven this in such an experiment.

Adolescents and high school students were given a text for arbitrary memorization. Then, regardless of the results, they were randomly divided into two groups.

1. One group was told that those who were gathered here had a very good memory, allowing them to solve the most difficult memory problems.
2. Students of the second group - on the contrary: that each of them has a memory of one or another weak link.

Then, the same control test was performed in both groups. In the second group, where the students' confidence in the ability to successfully cope with memory tasks was undermined to a certain extent, the results were 10% lower than in the first.

Hence the important conclusion for teachers and parents

All students, and especially those who have a weak memory, must be convinced in every possible way of the reality of achieving good results, subject to a diligent attitude towards completing memory tasks.

"Repetition is the mother of learning"

Considerable attention should be paid to the organization of repetitions. It must be remembered that the term "repetition" can mean:

1. repetition immediately after reading at the level of inner speech "to oneself",
2. reproduction of what is perceived in terms of loud speech (active repetition),
3. association (alternation of the first and second types).

According to research, the best results are obtained by such a ratio, when approximately 40% of the time spent on the overall assimilation of this material is devoted to active repetition.

It is important that the transition from repeated perceptions to active repetition is not premature, otherwise the student will be forced to constantly look into the text. Of course, in principle, this can and should be done, but only to make sure that the process being carried out is accurate (and therefore prepared). The signal for such a transition should be the appearance of a "sense of knowledge" in the student. The very first attempt at reproduction will show how accurate this feeling is. Most often, it fails those children whose mental activity is characterized by increased impulsivity (choleric and melancholic temperaments).

In order to instill in students self-confidence and improve the "sense of knowledge", they should be encouraged to use a variety of technical means more widely - from such elementary ones as cards for memorizing words foreign language(one side - foreign word, on the other hand, the equivalent on mother tongue), and up to more complex, say, audio recordings. “When memorizing poems and prose passages,” one of the seventh-graders reports, “I record my recitations on audio and immediately scroll through the recorded one.” And again, reports about the use of this technique are extremely rare in the questionnaires.

Fig.3.

FROM early childhood The process of development of the child's memory goes in several directions. First, mechanical memory is gradually supplemented and replaced by logical memory. Secondly, over time, direct memorization turns into indirect memorization, associated with the active and conscious use of various mnemonic techniques and means of memorizing and reproducing various mnemonic techniques and tools for memorization and reproduction. Thirdly, involuntary memorization, which dominates in childhood, in an adult turns into an arbitrary one.

Voluntary and involuntary memory

The original form of memorization is the so-called unintentional or involuntary memorization, i.e. memorization without a predetermined goal, without the use of any techniques. It is a mere imprint of what has acted, the preservation of some trace of excitation in the cerebral cortex.

Much of what a person encounters in life is involuntarily remembered: surrounding objects, phenomena, events of everyday life, people's actions, the content of films, books read without any educational purpose, etc., although not all of them are remembered equally well. It is best to remember what is of vital importance for a person: everything that is connected with his interests and needs, with the goals and objectives of his activity. Even involuntary memorization is selective, determined by the attitude to the environment.

From involuntary memorization, it is necessary to distinguish voluntary memorization, which is characterized by the fact that a person sets himself a specific goal - to remember what is planned, and uses special memorization techniques. Voluntary memorization is a special and complex mental activity that is subordinate to the task of remembering and includes a variety of actions performed in order to better achieve this goal.

Often, arbitrary memorization takes the form of memorization, i.e. multiple repetition educational material to complete and unmistakable memorization. So, for example, memorizing verses, definitions, laws, formulas, historical dates etc. The set goal - to remember - plays an important role, determining the entire activity of memorization. Other things being equal, voluntary memorization is noticeably more productive than involuntary memorization.

The setting of special tasks has a significant impact on memorization; under its influence, its very process changes. However, according to S.L. Rubinshtein, the question of the dependence of memorization on the nature of the activity during which it is performed is of primary importance. He believes that in the problem of memorization there is no unambiguous relationship between voluntary and involuntary memorization. And the advantages of arbitrary memorization with their obviousness appear only at first glance.

P.I. Zinchenko in this convincingly proved that the setting for memorization, which makes it the direct goal of the subject's action, is not in itself decisive for the effectiveness of this process, involuntary memorization can be more effective than voluntary. In Zinchenko's experiments, the involuntary memorization of pictures in the course of activity, the purpose of which was their classification (without the task of remembering), turned out to be definitely higher than in the case when the subjects were given the task of remembering the pictures.

A study by A.A. Smirnova confirmed that involuntary memorization can be more productive than voluntary: what the subjects memorized involuntarily, along the way in the process of activity, the purpose of which was not memorization, was remembered more firmly than what they tried to remember on purpose. An analysis of the specific conditions under which involuntary memorization, i.e., in essence, memorization included in some kind of activity, turns out to be the most effective, reveals the nature of the dependence of memorization on the activity in which it is performed.

imprinting(memorization) - the process of memory, which results in the consolidation of new material, experience through connections with previously acquired experience.

The main conditions for the productivity of memorization are related to whether it proceeds in the form of an involuntary or arbitrary process.

Involuntary memorization- this is a natural memorization without setting specific goals. In involuntary memorization, a close connection between attention and memory is manifested. What gets into the field of attention is involuntarily remembered.

Involuntary memory is affected by:

1. Singularity of objects

2. Effective attitude to memorized material

3. Level of motivation

Rosenweig: there are times when motivation affects the degree of memory strength; sometimes, if the activity is completed, then the material is remembered as firmly (or stronger) as in the case of an unfinished activity.

4. The level of emotional coloring that accompanies the work with the material.

Experiments do not unequivocally confirm what is remembered more: with a positive or negative potential. The dynamics of emotional coloring is important, not the positive or negative coloring of emotion

Arbitrary memorization- a specific activity where there is a goal. Memorization here loses its meaning without further reproduction.

Present here voluntary attention, there is a selection, sorting of information essential and meaningful.

Arbitrary memorization is one of the latest mental processes that form in a person, because remembering here already requires awareness of what is being remembered.

Arbitrary memory can be divided into 2 types:

* direct memorization- simple mechanical imprinting, the material is remembered through repetition. The main mechanism here is associations by adjacency; as a result of repetition, material is imprinted, awareness is not present here. Ebbinghaus: it's "pure memory"

* mediated memorization- here thinking is connected, recoding and decoding occurs during playback. In this case, a system of various, in particular semantic, connections is built. With mediated memorization, insignificant connections can be established, in contrast to thinking. Insignificant connections during memorization are instrumental in nature, they help to reproduce the material. For example, experiments with double stimulation (Vygotsky, Leontiev): pictures and words were presented; "Knot for memory"

Factors that determine productivity, the strength of arbitrary memorization:

The amount of material (the amount of information to memorize). If the number of memorized elements exceeds the volume of perception, then the number of trials required to memorize information increases.

Homogeneity of the material. The degree of similarity reduces the strength of memorization of the material and increases the number of trials required for memorization. This is where the Restorf effect comes into play: regardless of the nature of the material