"Rule Britannia by the seas," proclaims the refrain of a famous 1740 English patriotic song, which is already perceived as the second, unofficial anthem of this country, and the title "Lady of the Seas" seems to have forever become synonymous with the second name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain. A contemporary of Nelson, the English admiral St. Vincent stated: “I do not say that the enemy cannot come here. I only say that he cannot come by sea.” Narrow strip sea water, separating the British Isles from the continent, became an insurmountable barrier for the Catholic kings of Spain, Napoleon and Hitler. But it was not always so. In 43 AD the Romans came to Britain, who remained there until 409. They were replaced Germanic tribes, which, having pressed indigenous people, settled entire provinces: the Angles settled in the northern and eastern territories of modern England, the Saxons settled in the south (the kingdoms of Wessex, Sussex and Essex), the Jutes occupied the lands around Kent. In the north, two mixed kingdoms appeared - Mercia and Northumbria. The Britons retreated west into the highlands, which the Saxons called Wales (Wales - the land of strangers) or went to Scotland. Since the end of the 8th century, these small and permanent warring kingdoms have become easy prey for new, even more terrible enemies- Norwegian and Danish Vikings, who divided Britain into spheres of influence. The Norwegians got northern Scotland, Ireland and northwestern England, the Danes got Yorkshire, Lincolnshire, East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. The successes of the Danes were so great that the vast region in the east of England began to be called Denlo, or "area of Danish law." Wessex survived only thanks to the treaty concluded with the Danes by King Alfred the Great, but the price of independence was very high: for a very long time war taxes in England were called "Danish money". Alfred's wise policy, nevertheless, gave results, and his successors eventually managed to subjugate Denlo and even the Scots (it is from this precedent that England's claims to Scotland originate). Everything changed under King Ethelred the Unreasonable (978-1016), who was forced to cede the throne to the Danish king Sven Forkbeard. In 1042, the Danish dynasty was interrupted, and the last representative of the Wessex dynasty, who entered under the name Edward the Confessor, was elected to the English throne. The desire for legitimacy played a cruel joke on the British: it seems impossible to imagine a more unsuitable candidate for the post of king. In his personal qualities, Edward was similar to our Tsar Fyodor Ivanovich, his reign was marked by the weakening of royal power in the country and the omnipotence of magnates, the disintegration of Anglo-Saxon society and the weakening of the state's defense capability. The founding and urgent needs of Westminster Abbey interested Edward much more than the problems of the country he suddenly inherited. He was the eldest son English kingÆthelred II and Emma of Normandy, sister of Richard II, Duke of Normandy. As a child, his mother took him to Normandy, where he lived for 25 years. Edward practically did not know the country of his ancestors and at first relied on immigrants from Normandy, to whom he granted lands and church positions (including the Archbishop of Canterbury), which, naturally, caused sharp discontent among the Anglo-Saxon nobility. In 1050, Edward made the fateful decision to disband the English fleet and abolish the defense tax - "Danish money". It was this circumstance that became one of the reasons for the collapse of the Anglo-Saxon monarchy in 1066. But let's not get ahead of ourselves.
Wilgelm the conqueror
In the meantime, the military service nobility of Anglo-Danish origin gradually united around Earl Wessex Godwin, who was expelled from England at the beginning of Edward's reign, but returned in triumph to his homeland in 1052. The rulers of other provinces refused to give Edward troops, the “council of the wise” (witenagemot) completely justified Godwin, the Norman courtiers of the king were expelled from England, and Robert of Jumièges, Archbishop of Canterbury, was removed from his post. Since that time, King Edward has completely withdrawn from participation in politics, devoting himself to the church. After the death of Godwin (1053), the power in the country actually belonged to his son Harold, who also managed to annex East Anglia and Northumberland (transferred to his brother Tostig) to his possessions. Meanwhile, another dynastic crisis was brewing in England: Edward had no children, but there were more than enough applicants for his throne. The official heir, according to the will, was the Duke of Normandy William, whose candidacy, however, was absolutely unacceptable to the vast majority of the British. Harold and his brother Tostig claimed the throne as the queen's brothers, their rivalry ended with Tostig's expulsion from the country. It was Harold Godwinson, who proved to be a wise and just ruler and was very popular among the people, who was unanimously elected the new king of the country. On January 7, 1066, he was anointed, having received from the hands of the Archbishop of Canterbury a golden crown, a scepter and a heavy battle axe. The offended Tostig went to another pretender - the Danish king Sven Estridsson, the nephew of the last English king of the Danish dynasty, but he did not show any interest in English affairs. After the failure in Denmark, Tostig turned for help to the king of Norway, Harald the Severe, the son-in-law of Yaroslav the Wise, the famous commander and famous skald. Harald quickly got his bearings in the situation: taking with him his wife, son Olaf and two daughters on 300 ships, he set off for the shores of England. He didn't seem to want to go back home. And to cede the conquered country to Tostig was hardly part of his plans. And in Normandy, meanwhile, Duke William, offended by the "treachery" of Harold Godwinson, was gathering troops. The fact is that once Harold was captured by William, who held him until he forced him to swear allegiance to himself as the legitimate heir to the English crown. The chronicles say that William ordered the relics and relics from all the monasteries and churches of Normandy to be collected together and placed them under the breviary on which his captive was to swear. Upon completion of the procedure, Wilhelm tore off the cover from the box with the holy relics, and only then Harold realized what an oath he had just taken: "and many saw how gloomy he became after that." Now Harold declared that he did not recognize his bonded promise, and that he could not give up power against the will of the country. Wilhelm began to prepare for war. Wanting to give legitimacy to his claims, he secured the verdict of the Pope that England should belong to him. In this way, conquest took on the character of a crusade, and quite a few knights of France and neighboring countries joined William's army, hoping to save their souls, glorify themselves with exploits and gain unheard of wealth, generously promised to them by the Duke of Normandy. It is interesting that, despite the verdict of the pope, in the surrounding countries, it seems, Harold was still considered the legitimate ruler: on the famous tapestry from Bayeux (Southern England, 1066-1082), which displayed official version events, Harold's title is rex, that is, the king.
The first blow to England was still delivered by Harald the Severe: the northeast wind, which drove his ships to the British Isles, prevented the Norman fleet from going to sea. Having visited the Orkney Islands along the way, where many local residents, in mid-September 1066, the drakkars anchored on the small river Ouse, north of York and the ferocious Norwegian berserkers set foot on English soil for the last time. After the Battle of Fulford (September 20, 1066), where the Norwegians defeated the militia of the northern English counties, Northumbria recognized the authority of Harald, and part of the local thegns joined his army. Meanwhile, Harold and his army were in the south of the country, where they were waiting for the Normans to land. The invasion of the Norwegians confused all his plans and forced him to leave his positions on the coast and oppose the Scandinavians. Harald by that time had moved too far from his ships, and his army was divided into two parts. Raising the "danger on land" flag and quickly drawing up his troops, Harald entered the battle. The battle at Stamford Bridge lasted all day. The set of sagas “The Circle of the Earth” says that in that battle Harald fought like a berserker: “coming out of the ranks forward, he chopped with a sword, holding it with both hands. Neither helmets nor chainmail were a defense against him. Everyone who stood in his way, otpryad. The British were close to taking flight." But “an arrow hit King Harald, the son of Sigurd, in the throat. The wound was fatal. He fell, and with him all who went ahead with him. After that, the British offered the Norwegians to sail home, but they said that "all of them would rather die one by one." The battle was resumed two more times. Following Harald, Tostig and Eystein Teterev, who approached with help, died. “Eystein and his men dispersed from the ships so quickly that they were exhausted to the limit and hardly capable of combat; but soon they were seized with such rage that they stopped hiding behind shields while they were able to stand on their feet ... Thus, almost all the main people among the Norwegians died, ”wrote Snorri Sturlson about these events. The Norwegians were defeated, the Anglo-Saxons pursued them on the way to 20 km. In the manuscript "C" of the Anglo-Saxon chronicle of the XII century. the feat of the last hero of the Viking Age is described: “The Norwegians fled from the Angles, but a certain Norwegian stood alone against the entire English army, so that the British could not cross the bridge and win. One of the Angles fired an arrow at him, but missed. Then another climbed under the bridge and hit the Norwegian from below, where he was not covered by chain mail. Of the almost 300 Norwegian ships, 24 returned to their homeland, on one of them were Elizabeth with her children.
The victory of the British was brilliant, but it had to be paid for by the death of many soldiers and commanders. In addition, it was at this time that the wind changed and on September 28 (just three days after the bloody battle at Stamford Bridge) William was able to land his army without hindrance in Pevensey Bay, Sussex, between Pevensey Castle and Hastings. It is said that the duke slipped while stepping off the ship and fell forward on both hands. Standing up quickly, he exclaimed, “Look! By the grace of God, I grabbed England with both hands. Now she is mine, and therefore yours.
William ascended the throne at the age of 7 or 8, and by the time of the invasion of England had a reputation as a very skillful and experienced ruler and commander. Preparing for the main campaign of his life, he created a magnificent army of about 12,000 people (which, on the scale of that time, was a very formidable force), which, it must be admitted, under his leadership acted very harmoniously and in the highest degree organized. The disembarkation took place in exemplary order: Norman archers dressed in light armor conducted reconnaissance of the area and subsequently covered the unloading of horses, equipment and cargo. The carpenters who were in William's army in one day assembled a wooden castle delivered on ships (the first Norman castle in England!), Which became the base of the invasion. Two more castles were soon collected from Hastings. Mounted knights moved deep into enemy territory, ruining everything in their path. Having learned about the landing of the Normans, Harold hastily moved his troops towards the new enemy. In London, he decided to replenish the troops at the expense of the soldiers of the southern and central counties, but after six days, having learned about the atrocities perpetrated by the invaders on the coast of his country, in a rage, without waiting for the approach of all units loyal to him, he went out to meet William. Many considered this a mistake, but the victory over the Norwegians gave Harold confidence. Hopes to catch the Normans by surprise did not materialize: his army stumbled upon one of the enemy's cavalry units, which warned William about the British troops advancing on him. Therefore, Harold changed tactics, and stopped at a hill about 12 km from the Norman army. He was advised to retreat to London, devastating the lands on his way, and a number of historians consider this tactic to be the only correct one. The prepared supplies of the Normans were to run out very soon, and in London, suffering from hunger and having lost some of the horses, the invaders would have to meet with the rested and replenished with new troops army of the British. However, Harold "decided not to set fire to houses and villages and not to withdraw his troops."
Together with Harold, his brothers came to Hastings, one of whom (Girth) on the eve of the battle turned to him with the words: “My brother! You cannot deny that, albeit by force, and not by free will, you swore an oath to Duke Wilhelm on holy relics. Why risk the outcome of the battle by breaking this oath? For us, who did not take any oaths, this is a holy and just war for our country. Let us alone fight the enemy, and may the battle be won by the one on whose side the truth is." However, Harold stated that he "has no intention of watching others risk their lives for him. The soldiers will consider him a coward and will accuse him of sending his best friends where he did not dare to go himself.
Modern historians believe that the Norman and English armies were approximately equal in number, but they had very serious differences in composition and combat characteristics. William's troops were a typical feudal army, which was recruited on the basis of a military fief system and included a fairly large number of well-armed knights, both Norman and warriors from other countries who joined them. Another important feature of the Norman army was the large number of archers, who were almost absent from the ranks of the British. Most of the Anglo-Saxon army was made up of detachments of free peasant militia (fird), who were armed mainly with axes, pitchforks, and even clubs and "stones tied to sticks." The retinue of the king (the famous housecarls) and the detachments of the service nobility (then) were armed in the Scandinavian manner: heavy two-handed swords, traditional Viking battle axes, spears and chain mail. It was the “Danish axes”, which easily cut through Norman helmets and armor, that turned out to be the most terrible and effective of the British. In his memoirs, one of the chaplains of Wilhelm's army called them "deadly axes." However, these elite units had suffered heavy losses in the previous battle and were exhausted by the long marches from the south coast of England to York and back. The cavalry as a kind of troops in the English army did not exist: moving in campaigns on horseback, huscarls and thegns fought on foot. Given these circumstances, Harold chose a defensive tactic: he placed his troops on the top of a hill, in the rear of his troops there was a dense forest, which, in the event of a retreat, could serve as an obstacle to the enemy pursuing his army. Huscarls and thegns were in the forefront, followed by lightly armed infantry. In front of the formation, the British built barricades of wooden shields and logs and dug a ditch. The participants in the battle later recalled that "in no other area did so many foreign soldiers die as at the bottom of this ditch." The natives of Kent volunteered to be the first to meet the enemy and stood in the most dangerous direction. The people of London asked for the right to protect the king and his standard, and lined up around Harold. Subsequently, on the site where Harold's army stood, Battle Abbey was built, the ruins of which can be seen near the small town of the same name. The main altar was located where the royal standard was located during the battle. Now this place is marked with a memorial stone slab.
Wilhelm, apparently, was still not completely sure of the success of the upcoming battle. One way or another, it was he who on October 13 sent the monk Hugo Maigro to the English camp, who at first demanded Harold's abdication from the throne, and then, in exchange for a vassal oath, offered him the whole country above the Humber River, and his brother Girth - all the lands that belonged to Godwin. In case of refusal, Maigro had to threaten Harold and his army with excommunication, which is allegedly mentioned in the bull of the pope. The Norman chronicles state that this threat caused confusion among the ranks of the English commanders. However, after a moment of silence, one of them said: “We must fight, no matter what it threatens us ... The Norman has already divided our lands among his barons, knights and other people ... he will make them masters of our property, our wives and daughters. Everything is already divided. They came not just to defeat us, but to deprive our descendants of everything and take away the lands of our ancestors from us. And what will we do, where will we go, if we no longer have our country? After that, the British unanimously decided to fight the foreign invaders. The night before the battle, the Anglo-Saxons sang national songs, the Normans prayed in unison.
The battle that decided the fate of England began on the morning of October 14, 1066. The chronicles of that time brought us the words addressed by the leaders of the opposing sides to their armies. Duke Wilhelm urged his soldiers not to be distracted by the collection of trophies, assuring that the booty would be shared and enough for everyone. “We will not find salvation if we stop or run from the battlefield,” he said, “the English will never agree to live in peace and share power with the Normans ... Have no mercy on them, because they will not spare you. They will make no distinction between those who ran cowardly from the battlefield and those who fought bravely. Everyone will be treated the same. You can try to retreat to the sea, but there will be nowhere to run, there will be no ships, no crossing to your homeland. Sailors will not wait for you. The English will seize you on the shore and give you a shameful death. More people die in flight than in battle. And since running won't save your life, fight and you'll win." Putting on armor, he put on chain mail back to front and, noticing how dark the faces of his comrades-in-arms, said: “I never believed and do not believe in signs. I believe in God, who determines the course of events by his will. And everything that happens will be His will. I have never believed soothsayers and fortune tellers. I entrust myself to the will of the Mother of God. And don't let this mistake of mine bother you. My disguise means that we are all on the threshold of change. You yourself will be witnesses of how I will turn from a duke into a king. Harold, in turn, urged the soldiers to stand in battle, defending their land, and urged them to stick together, protecting each other in the ranks. “The Normans,” he said, “are loyal vassals and brave warriors, both on foot and on horseback. Their mounted knights have already participated in battles more than once. If they succeed in infiltrating our ranks, then everything will be lost for us. They fight with long spear and sword. But we also have spears and axes. And I don't think their weapons will hold up against ours. Hit where you can strike, do not spare your strength and weapons.
Tapestry from Bayo. Attack of the Norman knights
The battle was started by the Norman archers, who showered the ranks of the British with their arrows, but they could not inflict heavy losses on the enemy soldiers hiding behind wide shields. Having shot the ammunition, the arrows retreated behind the line of spearmen, who went on the offensive, but were driven back by the British. The cavalry attack also bogged down, and the Bretons on the left flank turned to flight. Forgetting about Harold's order to keep the line, the Anglo-Saxons, leaving the hill, rushed in pursuit of the retreating enemy and came under attack from the knightly cavalry. Historians disagree on the intentional retreat of the Bretons: some consider this maneuver a military trick, others, referring to the testimony of one of the chroniclers, explain it by the panic that seized part of the Normans at the news of William's death. Other participants in the events report that at that moment the squires, who were in the rear of the fighting army, guarding the property of the knights, almost rushed to run, and were stopped by the brother of Duke William, Bishop Bayo Odo. Wilhelm had to take off his helmet and gallop along the ranks of his army. One way or another, part of the English army, which recklessly left the hill, was surrounded and destroyed at its foot, but others continued to stand, holding back the enemy. For several more hours, the Normans alternated between bow and crossbow attacks with foot and horse attacks. The archers changed tactics: now they fired in a cantilevered trajectory, so that the arrows fell on their opponents from above, hitting them in the face. This resulted in significant casualties, but early in the evening Harold's army still held its position on the hill, although the British were so tired from constant bombardment and continuous attacks that many of them could hardly stand on their feet. It was at this point that a random arrow hit Harold in the eye. He pulled it out and broke it, but now, due to severe pain and blood flooding his face, the king could not control the course of the battle. The Anglo-Saxons, having lost command, broke the line, and the Norman cavalry crashed into their ranks. Wilhelm personally participated in the battle, and all contemporaries note the courage and outstanding military skill of the duke, under which two horses were killed. Norman chronicles report that the soldiers of Kent and Essex fought especially staunchly and bravely in the ranks of the English. The decisive attack on them was led by Duke Wilhelm: about a thousand horsemen in close formation fell on the British and scattered them. Many noble warriors on both sides died in that attack, but the Normans broke through to the royal banner, where King Harold fought to the end. During the last fight, he received so many wounds that only his wife, Edith Lebyazha Neck, could identify his body by some signs known only to her. Harold's brothers died along with him. After that, the militia units (fird) fled, but the housecarls still continued to stand around the body of the deceased king. By nightfall, the Normans had taken possession of the hill, but it was not the war that was lost, but only the battle. The tragedy of the British was that there was no one to gather the retreating troops and lead further resistance. But it was quite possible: the Normans lost at least a quarter of the army in battle, while the British, despite the losses suffered, could hope to replenish their ranks with soldiers who did not have time to approach the beginning of the battle. In the evening of the same day, Duke Wilhelm himself almost died in the forest while pursuing the retreating Huscarls. The surviving English earl Waltov that night, having lured about a hundred Normans into an oak grove, ordered to set it on fire, none of the invaders managed to get out of the burning forest. However, after the heroic death of Harold, the British were unable to choose a worthy leader, and when William's troops approached London, Harold's nephew, elected king, was the first to speak about the surrender of the capital. He himself appeared in the camp of the Normans and swore allegiance to William. Meanwhile, Harold's three sons and two daughters fled to the western family domain. Only in 1068, the city of Exeter, where they took refuge, after a three-month siege, was taken by William's army, but on the eve of the decisive assault, Harold's mother (who was 70 years old!), Edith, and her children went down the rope from the fortress wall and left England. Harold's sons went to Ireland and for another 10 years they harassed the Normans with raids. And one of Harold's daughters, Gita, ended up in Denmark, later she married Vladimir Monomakh (1074).
As the British feared, in addition to his inheritance, William divided England into 700 large and 60 small plots, which he gave to the Norman barons and ordinary soldiers, obliging them to bear for this military service and make a cash deposit. The Normans treated the inhabitants of the conquered country like slaves. No one, neither a noble earl, nor a simple tiller on his land and in his house could feel safe. Resistance was suppressed exceptionally cruelly: entire villages were burned, families were annihilated. To keep the population of the country in subjection, 78 castles were built during the reign of William, including the famous Tower. Only a few generations later, the differences between the Normans and the Anglo-Saxons were erased, and on the basis of the French language of the conquerors and the "northern" language of the indigenous population, the modern English language. Gradually, the conquerors and the conquered population closely intermingled with each other, subsequently creating one of the greatest empires in the history of world civilizations. “The English combine Anglo-Saxon practicality, Celtic daydreaming, Viking pirate courage and Norman discipline,” he said of modern English. national character Austrian writer Paul Cohen-Portheim.
Battle of Hastings
After the death in 1035 of the great Danish king Canute (Knut), the mighty northern empire he created, which included England, began to fall apart. Soon the struggle for the English throne ended with the victory of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty. In 1042, Edward the Confessor, eldest son of Æthelred II, became king of England. The entire period of Danish rule, that is, twenty-eight years, Edward spent in Normandy with his uncle Richard II, Duke of Normandy, and then with his successor and only son, William the Bastard. Having no children himself, he, already a king, promised the English throne to William around 1051 in gratitude for the asylum provided to him by the rulers of Normandy. However, after the death of Edward in early January 1066, the Anglo-Saxon assembly of the nobility (witenagemot) elected Harold Godwinson, the second person in the state, the brother of Edith, the wife of King Edward, as the new king of England. Probably, this choice was influenced by the dying will of Edward the Confessor, and the support of the "Danish" party - Harold had a mixed, Anglo-Danish origin.
However, as soon as Harold came to the English throne, William II of Normandy remembered both Edward's promise and the agreement with this promise that he had forced out of Harold in 1064. He immediately began to raise an army to win back his "legitimate" inheritance. Since for such a large-scale and prolonged military operation far beyond the borders of Normandy, he could not rely on the usual feudal militia, since the homage (oath of allegiance) meant only forty days of military service (at least in such circumstances), most of his army was made up of units of mercenaries or feudal lords brought under the banner of William by promises of lands and booty in England. The exact size of his army is unknown. Estimates vary from seven to fifty thousand people in various sources. The upper bound seems to be absolutely unrealistic, because it was required lump sum the transfer of the army through a wide sea strait. And this would require hundreds of large ships, which was hardly in the economic possibilities of Normandy. So, an estimate of ten to fifteen thousand warriors seems more likely, and closer to ten. Indeed, even for such an army, a considerable fleet was needed, given that the main force of Wilhelm was mounted knights.
Wilhelm's army and fleet were ready by the middle of summer, but the sailing was delayed for a long time - either because of unfavorable winds, or in anticipation of favorable news. We are talking about the invasion of the troops of the Norwegian king Harald III the Severe, whose army landed in early September in the north of England. Naturally, in such a situation, Harold had to throw all his strength into repelling the Norwegian attack and thereby expose the southern coast. Today it is impossible to judge whether there was any agreement between William and the Norwegian king, but the situation seems very conducive to such an alliance. But events, in any case, have taken a course that makes it impossible for us to assume the existence of such a secret arrangement.
Eventually, on September 27, the wind changed; news from the north probably also came, and the next day the Norman army began to land on the south coast of England near Pevensey. Here William built a mighty log fort by the sea - a commendable precaution - and sent detachments of cavalry to ravage Sussex in order to gather more supplies. The main army, meanwhile, remained in place, waiting further development events.
Meanwhile, Harold managed to successfully solve one of his problems. The powerful Norwegian army, which had already captured York, was defeated by Harold's troops on September 25 in the hardest battle at Stamford Bridge. In this battle, both King Harald the Severe himself and Harold's brother Tostig, who supported him, died. It is worth noting that this battle summed up the two-hundred-year struggle between the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans - and what an evil irony of fate that only twenty days separate this outstanding victory from the greatest defeat. The Normans, having lost a century-long war, nevertheless won through the hands of their Frenchized great-grandchildren.
After the victory, Harold did not have time to rest. Directly from the battlefield, he and his battered army are rapidly moving south. Only for a few days, from October 6 to October 11, he stayed in London in order to recruit a militia and give his housecarls an opportunity to rest a little. Already on the afternoon of October 13, he arrived in the vicinity of Hastings, covering almost a hundred kilometers in less than two days. Choosing a hill thirteen kilometers northwest of the city, Harold took up a defensive position, since he was sure that Wilhelm would attack at the first opportunity. As with the Norman army, the exact size of Harold's Anglo-Saxon troops is unknown. According to indirect signs - the description of the battle itself, the width of the front of the Anglo-Saxon army, etc. - one can estimate Harold's army at seven to ten thousand people, including three thousand housecarls. More impressive figures are known from sources, but they are unlikely, given limited area battlefields. Later historians speculated that if Harold had waited a few more days, the Northumbrian and Mercian militias would have joined him from the north, and in addition to them they could have attracted the people of the south of England. True, there are serious reasons to doubt that the northern militias were recruited at all. As for the southern counties, Harold clearly considered his position, both politically and militarily, to be rather precarious, so that it was in his interests to achieve a solution as soon as possible.
Wilgelm the conqueror. Medieval miniature
Harold believed (and, apparently, correctly) that the enemy outnumbered him in manpower, and that, apart from the Huscarls, whose ranks had thinned considerably after the battle of Stamford Bridge, his army was much worse equipped and trained than the Norman mercenaries. Therefore, he decided not to attack, but to defend: he ordered his mounted housecarls to dismount, and they, together with the infantry housecarls, formed the center of his defensive line on the top of an elongated hill. The rest of the army - the fird, or militia, was set up in flanks on both sides of the Huscarls: three hundred or four hundred meters along the front, dense on foot, twenty people deep. Harold's army was expecting a Norman attack in the early hours of 14 October. Therefore, it can be assumed that already on the evening of October 13, the Anglo-Saxons hastily built a notch in front of their positions, or even a palisade-palisade - there is no exact data on this.
Shortly after dawn on October 14, the Norman army launched an offensive against the Anglo-Saxon positions. By tradition, the battle was started by archers (including a certain number of crossbowmen - by the way, the first documented use of crossbows in medieval Europe). But since they had to shoot from the bottom up, the arrows either did not reach, or were reflected by the shields of the Anglo-Saxons, and in the presence of a (probable) palisade, the effectiveness of direct shooting approached zero. Having shot the ammunition, the archers retreated behind the line of spearmen, and they, in turn, rushed to the offensive at a run, but were met by a rain of darts and stones, and after a short hand-to-hand fight they were driven back by housecarls armed with swords, spears and huge one and a half meter, with two blades, combat axes. After the infantry offensive had bogged down, Wilhelm threw into battle his main force - the cavalry - and with the same result. Terrible "Danish" axes, cutting, according to contemporaries, a rider with a horse, did their job. As a result, the attack did not give the expected result, moreover, the left wing of the Norman army, which consisted of less persistent Bretons, was crushed and put to flight. Fascinated by the sight of the retreating enemy (and from the description of the course of the battle it is clear that this was by no means a false retreat), the Anglo-Saxon militias of the right flank immediately rushed down the slope in pursuit.
At this time, a rumor spread through the ranks of the Norman army that William had been killed, and for a short time a general panic broke out. Then, removing his helmet so that everyone could see his face, Wilhelm galloped along his retreating army, and the cavalry again gathered strength. It was possible to stop the Bretons, who, turning around, hit the militias. Wilhelm also supported this attack on the right flank of the Anglo-Saxons. The cavalry quickly gained the upper hand over the pursuers, who scattered along the slope and did not expect such a turn of events, as a result of which almost all of them were killed.
However, this private success by no means decided the outcome of the battle. The main Anglo-Saxon forces continued active resistance. Wilhelm again led the cavalry into the center of the Anglo-Saxon army and was again repulsed with heavy losses. Then, hoping to lure some more of Harold's army out of their positions, William ordered the Normans to pretend that they were taking flight. Probably, such tactics were prompted to him by the previous episode with a genuine retreat of the Bretons. Despite Harold's strict orders not to leave their positions, only the housecarls followed him, and a significant part of the militia again fell into Wilhelm's trap - they were surrounded and destroyed at the foot of the hill when Wilhelm led a second counterattack. But the rest of the Anglo-Saxon army stood firm and repelled one Norman assault after another.
In such a situation, Wilhelm temporarily abandoned continuous cavalry attacks in the forehead. For the next few hours, the Normans alternated between bow and crossbow attacks and attacks on foot and on horseback. Wilhelm ordered the archers to shoot from a canopy and at high angles so that arrows from bows and crossbows fell on the Anglo-Saxon army from above. This led to significant losses in the most combat-ready part of the Anglo-Saxon army, but even at the beginning of the evening, Harold's army still firmly held its positions on the hill, although, unable to rest from constant shelling and attacks, the English soldiers almost collapsed from fatigue. But just at this moment of the battle, a random arrow hit Harold in the eye and mortally wounded the king. The Normans immediately went on a decisive attack, and the Anglo-Saxons, who lost their command, broke the line. The less reliable militia fled, and soon only housecarls remained on the hill, closing ranks around the body of their dead king. But their situation was now completely hopeless - the Normans surrounded them on all sides and, in the end, crushed them. By nightfall, the Normans had finally taken possession of the hill. The Battle of Hastings is over.
No battle was won with greater difficulty than the battle of Hastings, and no victory had more global consequences. It would seem that this was just the final battle in the war for the throne of a small island kingdom. In reality, this battle served as a turning point: it is from it that history begins the countdown of a whole series of events that will end with the creation of the Anglo-Saxon-Norman power of the Plantagenets.
Immediately after the battle, William captured Dover and marched on London. At first, the capital rejected his demand for surrender. Then William began to ravage the nearby countryside, and London quickly capitulated. William's claim to the throne was recognized, and on Christmas Day 1066 he was crowned in Westminster Abbey as William I, King of England. AT world history this bastard duke entered as King William the Conqueror.
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The Norman view of the conquest of England is represented by the following chronicles:
A valuable source of information, both about the battle and about the events preceding the battle, is the Bayeux Tapestry, a tapestry embroidered on linen measuring 50 cm by 70 m. It depicts scenes of the preparations for the Norman conquest of England and the Battle of Hastings. It was created by 1077, possibly commissioned by Bishop Odo of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror. The Bayeux Tapestry expresses the Norman view of the conquest of England. Part of the tapestry, which probably depicted the events after the Battle of Hastings and William's coronation, is now lost.
A detailed account of the Norman conquest of England is contained in the so-called "D" manuscript of 1066 in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. This source reflected the Anglo-Saxon point of view on the conquest of 1066.
The story of the battle is also contained in the writings of later English historians, who used both known in the original and non-surviving documents and chronicles:
There is much more recent research on the battle. The description of the battle and the events that preceded it is contained in biographical studies dedicated to William the Conqueror:
There are also studies on the battle itself:
Since 1978, the annual conference “The Battle Conference on Anglo-Norman Studies” has been held, dedicated to English and Norman medieval history and culture. Until 2009, the conference was held at Pike House, a house located directly on the site of the Battle of Hastings. In the published collections of this conference, many articles were published on the battle and preparations for it.
background
The Norman version of the events leading up to the conquest of England is recounted, for example, in the Acts of Duke William by William de Poitiers, and tells of what happened in this way: in 1064, Edward, sensing the approach of death, sent his most powerful vassal, Earl Harold Godwinson, to William to swear allegiance to William as heir to the English throne. However, on the way, Harold was captured by Count Guy I de Ponthieu, from where he was released by William. After that, Harold voluntarily swore on the holy relics in the presence of witnesses, recognizing William as the heir to the English crown and undertaking to take all measures to support him. These events are depicted in the famous Bayeux Tapestry. However, later British historians strongly doubted the reliability of this news, considering the fact that Harold came to Wilhelm as an unfortunate accident, and also pointing out the extreme doubtfulness of both the terms of the contract and the homage allegedly brought by Harold. Unfortunately, no other descriptions of this event are known. But this oath later justified the actions of Wilhelm.
Upon learning of the election of Harold, William refused to recognize him as king and declared his own claims to the English throne. Harold's oath, made on holy relics during a trip to Normandy, was widely publicized in Europe, and it was also stated that Edward recognized William as his heir.
The new king of England, Harold II, found himself between two fires: on the one hand, William put forward claims to the throne, on the other, the army of the king of Norway Harald the Severe, another contender for the English crown, who was supported by his own brother Harold Tostig, invaded the country. But Harold managed to cope with one of his rivals - in the battle of Stamford Bridge on September 25, Harold's Anglo-Saxon troops utterly defeated the Norwegians, and King Harald and Tostig died. After that, Harold returned to York, where he received news of the army of William of Normandy that had landed on the coast of England.
Forces and dispositions of opponents
Wilhelm's army
Troop organization
Norman horse knight. Reconstruction
In Normandy there was a huge mass of petty knights, over whom the dukes had no effective power before William, and whose militancy found an outlet in campaigns in Italy, where the Norman county of Aversa and the duchy of Apulia had already formed. Wilhelm was able to gather and recruit these knights into his service. In addition, he was well acquainted with all aspects of modern military art and enjoyed a reputation as an excellent knight and military leader, which attracted the manpower of all Northern France to his army.
In plotting the invasion, William enlisted the support of the barons of his duchy, and his fame ensured the influx into his army of a large number of knights from neighboring northern French principalities. The Normans had a solid experience of military operations with small detachments of cavalry from fortress castles, which were quickly erected in the occupied territory, as strongholds, in order to further control it. The wars with the kings of France and the counts of Anjou allowed the Normans to improve their tactics against large enemy formations and establish clear interaction between the branches of the military.
The Duke of Normandy managed to form a large army, numbering more than 7 thousand people, which was mainly feudal knightly troops, staffed on the basis of a military fief system that ensured professionalism and well-armed soldiers. The core of the army was the highly effective Norman cavalry, which also included archers and lightly armed infantry. To transport people across the English Channel, Wilhelm organized the mass construction of ships, in addition, in one go, he requisitioned and hired as many ships as possible.
The Norman invasion of Britain was also supported by Pope Alexander II, who sought to extend the Cluniac reform to England and depose Archbishop Stigand. The blessing of the pope ensured an influx to William of small knights from European states, counting on land holdings in England.
The Normans made up no more than a third of William's army, the rest of the soldiers came from different French regions - Maine, Aquitaine, Flanders, Brittany, Picardy, Artois, as well as mercenaries from other European states.
Commanders and Companions of Wilhelm
Wilhelm himself was the chief commander. However, the chronicles are very sparsely called actors. Based on a study of sources, primarily the Bayeux Tapestry, historians have been able to establish a number of names:
- Odo, Bishop of Bayeux, half-brother of William the Conqueror. He took part in the formation of the fleet. Before the battle, as a bishop, he admonished the army.
- Robert, Count of Mortain, half-brother of William the Conqueror, one of the Duke's closest associates.
- Hugues de Grandmesnil, Norman knight, one of the commanders of the Norman cavalry.
- William de Warenne, Norman knight, one of William the Conqueror's advisors
- Gauthier (Walter) Giffard, Norman knight, relative and one of William the Conqueror's advisors
- Eustachius II, Count of Boulogne. Was wounded in battle.
- Wilhelm, Count of Evreux, second cousin of William the Conqueror.
- Raoul II de Tosny, half-brother of William d'Evreux.
- Hugh de Montfort, Norman knight
- Heinrich de Ferrières, Norman knight
- William Fitz-Osbern, relative of William the Conqueror, Seneschal of Normandy
- Tusten Fitz-Roe, standard-bearer for William the Conqueror
- Ralph de Mortimer, Norman knight, relative of William the Conqueror
- Emery IV de Thouars, Viscount
- Robert de Beaumont, Norman knight, commanded an infantry unit on the right flank of the Norman troops
- Alain the Red, Breton knight, commanded one of the armies of William the Conqueror
Later, most of them received significant land holdings confiscated from the Anglo-Saxon nobility.
Harold's army
Troop organization
Anglo-Saxon infantryman. Reconstruction
In a clash with the Normans, Harold could only count on an army from his own county of Wessex, since most of the thanes refused to support him. Chronicler John of Worcester claims that Harold managed to gather about 8 thousand people. English army in terms of numbers, it approximately corresponded to the Norman one, but qualitatively differed in composition and combat characteristics. In other chronicles there are remarks about the numerical superiority of the British.
In the Anglo-Saxon army, cavalry as a branch of the army did not exist: although the Anglo-Saxons moved on campaigns on horseback, they dismounted to participate in the battle. Only the housecarls and thegns, who had two-handed swords, Viking battle axes, spears and chain mail, were well-armed, while the militia of the fird was armed only with clubs, pitchforks, axes and "stones tied to sticks", that is, with what was at hand. The British had practically no archers, who were an important part of the combat power of the Norman army. The recent battles with the Norwegians and the rapid march across the country had also greatly exhausted the British.
According to the images on the Bayeux Tapestry, the opposing knights practically did not differ in appearance. This also confirms the chronicler's remark: All had distinctive badges by which they recognized their own, so that the Norman could not hit the Norman, the franc - the franc» .
Warlords and associates of Harold
Little is known about who fought in King Harold's army. Earls Edwin and Morcar refused to support him. The chroniclers mention several relatives of the king who took part in the battle:
- Girt, Earl of Kent, brother of King Harold, one of the chief commanders of the English army.
- Leofwyn, Earl of Essex, brother of King Harold, one of the chief commanders of the English army.
- Harkon, nephew of King Harold
- Elwig, uncle of King Harold, abbot of Winchester
- Leofric, Abbot of Peterborough
- Godric, Sheriff of Fiefeld
- Ælfric, Thane of Huntingdonshire
- Esegar, Sheriff of Middlesex
- Turkuille from Berkshire
On the eve of the battle
Army maneuvers before the battle
Army maneuvers before the battle
Harold learned about the landing of the Normans in York, where he was after the victory over the troops of the Norwegians, on October 3 or 4, after which he immediately marched south with his army and was already in London on October 11. Harold's swift march prevented additional English troops from the counties from joining the king's army. When his troops left London on October 12, they consisted mainly of those who remained in the ranks of the battle against the Norwegians and the peasant militia of the outskirts of London.
Wilhelm's camp was located in the vicinity of Hastings - to the north of it. Having learned from the scouts about the approach of the enemy, Wilhelm at about 6 o'clock on October 14 gave the order to march. The bishops who were in the army preliminarily celebrated mass.
Position of troops before the battle
The English army took up a position on an elevated position 11 km north-west of Hastings, but the terrain did not allow for a full deployment of troops in battle formation. The Normans were just below the English - near the foot of the hill at an altitude of about 70 meters above sea level. The distance between the fronts of the armies was about 200 meters.
According to chroniclers, Wilhelm divided his army into three parts. The right wing, which was located in the northeast, was made up of the French and Flemings under the command of Guillaume Fitz-Osbern, Eustachius of Boulogne and the young Robert de Beaumont. In the center of the army were the Normans, commanded by William himself, and he was helped by two half-brothers - Count Robert de Morten and Bishop Bayeux Odo. The left wing, located in the southwest, was made up of the Bretons, commanded by Alain the Red, son of Ed I de Penthièvre. In front of each of the three armies, Wilhelm placed archers (mostly mercenaries), as well as crossbowmen. In the second line were infantrymen in chain mail, armed with spears and darts. The third line was made up of knights. Historians estimate the number of knights at 2 - 2.5 thousand, infantrymen - at 4 thousand, archers and crossbowmen - about a thousand. Wilhelm himself positioned himself on the hillside directly behind his troops.
The Anglo-Saxon army traditionally lined up as follows: in front were heavily armed huskerls on foot, armed with large axes and swords. Before battles, they tightly overlapped the shields, forming the so-called "wall of shields". Their number is estimated at 2,000. Behind the closed shields of which there were lightly armed infantry numbering about 6 thousand. The British had practically no archers.
The course of the battle
The battlefield of Hastings. View from the Norman positions
According to the "song about the battle of Hastings" (The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio), the battle was started by the Norman knight Thayefer, who, with a battle song about Roland, challenged a knight from the ranks of Harold, killed him and cut off his head as a trophy. Later chronicles of the 12th century report that Thayefer attacked the English formation and killed several knights before he himself fell heroically.
Norman archer. Reconstruction
Apparently, the Norman attack was unexpected for the Anglo-Saxons. This is evidenced by Florence of Worcester. Later authors report that Harold managed to build a palisade in front of his positions.
The general battle began with the shelling of the English ranks by Norman archers and crossbowmen, but the Anglo-Saxons felt safe enough behind a solid wall of large shields. In addition, the aim of the archers was higher. The archers began to shoot arrows almost vertically, then " many Englishmen were wounded in the head and face, lost their eyes, so that everyone became afraid to lift them and leave their faces open» .
However, in general, the actions of the archers were ineffective, the English battle formations suffered little. And after the supply of arrows came to an end, the heavy infantry went on the attack. Throwing weapons also proved to be ineffective. At the same time, the infantrymen had to climb up the slope, which went down to the southwest. Because of this, the Bretons were the first to reach the enemy, the Normans fell behind, because of which the Bretons had a flank exposed. The British tried to take advantage of this by trying to surround the enemy. Fearing encirclement, the Bretons were forced to retreat under a hail of projectile weapons, with the retreat becoming a flight. Due to the fact that the flank was exposed, the Normans were forced to retreat, and behind them the French and the Flemings.
In an effort to restore order among the Normans, William, along with several associates, including Odo of Bayeux and Eustachius of Boulogne, left their headquarters. According to the chronicler Guy of Amiens, a horse was killed near Wilhelm. Those who saw the fall of the duke shouted that Wilhelm had been killed. But the duke got up and found another horse. The Bayeux Tapestry depicts the moment when Wilhelm, refuting the news of his death, took off his helmet, and Eustache of Boulogne points to his face. This episode is also reported by the chronicler Guillaume of Poitiers. In this way a stampede of the infantry was avoided.
The Norman knightly cavalry went on the attack, but under the catastrophic hail of darts and arrows fired by the British, it was not possible to achieve a dense formation of the huskerls. In addition, according to contemporaries, "Danish axes" (a heavy blade on a handle up to 1.5 m long) cut through a knight and his horse with one blow. The attacking Normans shouted: Dex aye!" (with God's help), the British answered with shouts: " Olicrosse!" (holy cross) and "Ut, ut!" (out, out). Several attacks were unsuccessful. As a result, the knights were forced to retreat.
The Anglo-Saxons rushed after the retreating Norman cavalry, leaving a position that had previously been impregnable. Historians argue whether this attack was a manifestation of the indiscipline of the British, or whether King Harold himself ordered it, hoping for victory. The unprepared counterattack upset the British own ranks and became fatal for them, since the pursuing detachment, having left the dais, was surrounded by enemy attacks. The chroniclers William of Poitiers and Guy of Amiens, and after them several generations of English historians, considered the retreat to be false. In their opinion, Wilhelm was trying to lure the enemy in this way. However, modern historians consider this version unlikely. In any case, Wilhelm took advantage of the enemy's mistake by turning his knights around and slaughtering most of the pursuers.
In the future, the tactics of "false retreat" was already consciously used by Wilhelm: the Norman detachments attacking the positions of the British pretended to retreat, "pulling out" small units from the closed Anglo-Saxon ranks, and then, turning around, defeated them on the plain. By that time, Harold's army had already lost two main military leaders - the brothers Harold Girth and Leofvin. According to the chronology depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry, they died in the morning.
Successive attacks by the Normans weakened the British, but their resistance continued. By the end of the day, the center of the Anglo-Saxon army maintained combat positions and held the defense. William of Malmesbury describes the event as follows:
« They fought fiercely for most of the day, and neither side yielded. Convinced of this, Wilhelm gave the signal for an imaginary flight from the battlefield. As a result of this cunning, the fighting ranks of the Angles were upset, trying to exterminate the randomly retreating enemy, and thus their own death was hastened; for the Normans, turning sharply, attacked the disunited enemy, and put them to flight. So, deceived by cunning, they accepted a glorious death, avenging their homeland. But nevertheless, they avenged themselves with interest, and, stubbornly resisting, left piles of the dead from their pursuers. Having taken possession of the hill, they threw the Normans into the basin, when they, engulfed in flames [battles], stubbornly climbed to the heights, and exterminated every single one, without difficulty shooting arrows at the approaching from below and rolling stones on them..»
The fate of the battle was finally decided by the death of King Harold. There are two versions of his death.
The version that modern historians consider the most plausible is given in a source written shortly after the battle - "Song of the Battle of Hastings" by Guy of Amiens. According to her, at the end of the day, the Normans reached Harold's headquarters, which was defended by the huskerls who had retreated to it. Seeing that a fierce battle was going on there, William, accompanied by Eustache of Boulogne, Guy de Pontier and one of the sons of Gauthier Giffard, galloped to the rescue. With a blow of a spear, one of the Norman knights pierced Harold's shield and struck him in the chest, another knight cut off the king's head, a third plunged a spear into his stomach, and a fourth cut his thigh.
According to a poem by Baudry de Bourguey (written more than 30 years after the battle), Harold was killed by an accidental arrow to the eye. This version is also reported by William of Malmesbury: ... fell from an arrow that pierced his brain". It is likely that this version derives from the scene depicted on the Bayeux Tapestry, where an English warrior on foot with a spear and sword is supposedly trying to remove an arrow from an eye. Nearby is shown a Norman knight who kills another warrior armed with a large ax with a sword. Above them is an inscription in Latin: This is where King Harold was killed". Baudry de Bourgueil was familiar with The Bayeux Tapestry and may have misinterpreted the scene as the death of King Harold by an arrow.
The chronicle "Roman de Rou" combines both versions. She reports that King Harold was hit in the eye by an arrow, but tore the arrow out and continued to fight until he fell under the blows of the Norman knights.
The news of the king's death quickly spread. Left without leaders, the Anglo-Saxon army fled, although the king's squad continued to fight around the body of their overlord to the last. William's victory was complete. Several thousand Anglo-Saxons were left lying on the battlefield. The bodies of his brothers were also found next to Harold. According to William of Malmesbury, the chopped body of King Harold William later gave it to his mother Gita for burial.
Significance of the Battle of Hastings
Memorial plaque at the site of Harold's death
The Battle of Hastings is one of the few battles that has drastically changed the course of history. Although the battle was won by a small margin, the victory opened England to William. King Harold and his two brothers were killed, and several thousand selected English warriors were left lying on the battlefield. The exact losses of Wilhelm are not reported by the chroniclers. There was no leader left in the country capable of organizing resistance to the Normans. The Battle of Hastings was a turning point in the history of England. After a short resistance, London submitted, and the surviving Anglo-Saxon aristocracy recognized William's rights to the English throne.
Battle Abbey was founded on the site of the Battle of Hastings. (English) Russian (English) Battle- “battle”), and the altar of the main church of the monastery was located right on the site of the death of King Harold. The small town of Battle later grew up around the monastery.
Reflection of the battle in culture
In literatureA number of works are dedicated to the Battle of Hastings:
- Alexei Konstantinovich Tolstoy. . - 1869.
- Heinrich Heine. (German Schlachtfeld bei Hastings). - 1857.
see also
Comments
Notes
- Boyar Michel de. Wilgelm the conqueror. - S. 351-355.
- Gorelov M. M. Danish and Norman conquests of England in the 11th century. - St. Petersburg. : Eurasia, 2007. - S. 32-43. - 176 p. - ISBN 978-5-91419-018-4
- The Carmen de Hastingae Proelio of Guy Bishop of Amiens / edited and translated by Frank Barlow. - Clarendon Press, 1999. - 160 p. - ISBN 9780198207580
- Histoire des Normands / par Guillaume de Jumièges. Vie de Guillaume le Conquerant / par Guillaume de Poitiers / Traducteur F. Guizot. - Caen, 1826.(fr.)
September 28, 1066
At Westminster Abbey December 25, 1066
The Battle of Hastings took place
News & Events
William was crowned King of England
William was crowned King of England on 25 December 1066 at Westminster Abbey. As a result of the Norman Conquest, the ancient Anglo-Saxon state was destroyed, which was replaced by a centralized feudal monarchy with strong royal power, based on European chivalric culture and a vassal-fief system. The development of the country was given a new impetus, which allowed England to become one of the strongest powers in Europe in a short time.
Norman invasion of England begins
William's army embarked on ships at the mouth of the Somme and, having crossed the English Channel on a thousand ships, landed on September 28, 1066 on the English coast near the city of Pevensey. She then moved to the Hastings area, east of the marshy Pevensey. In Hastings, William's carpenters assembled a wooden castle, cut down in advance in Normandy, the soldiers set up camp.
The Battle of Hastings between the Anglo-Saxon army of King Harold Godwinson and the troops of Duke William of Normandy took place on October 14, 1066. It was far from the largest of all the famous battles. But the events that happened in England in 1066 had such a huge impact on the subsequent fate of Europe that the name of the small town got into school textbooks, and the very date of the bloody battle began to be considered one of the key in world history.
The cause for a serious dynastic conflict was the death of the childless English king Edward the Confessor. Three contenders immediately declared their rights to the throne of England. Harold Godwinson, being the most powerful nobleman in Britain, considered himself quite worthy of the crown. Firstly, he was the brother of the wife of Edward the Confessor, and secondly, he was supported by representatives of the English nobility and clergy. In addition, Harold assured that the deceased king left a will in which he transferred the throne to his brother-in-law.
In turn, Duke William of Normandy was a cousin of Edward the Confessor. And, accordingly, he did not doubt his rights to power in England. Another contender for the throne was the King of Norway, Harald III the Severe. He was also a relative of Edward the Confessor, albeit a distant one. And most importantly, the younger brother of Harold II named Tostig, the former earl of Northumbria, who was expelled from his native lands and harbored a grudge, promised his support to him.
In mid-September, a large fleet of Norwegians arrived at the shores of England. But Harold II was ready to invade. He managed to gather an army of loyal people and met with the soldiers of Harald III near York. In the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the Norwegians suffered a crushing defeat. Both Harald III and Tostig were killed. Only a few intruders managed to escape. This battle, among other things, ended two hundred years of Viking invasions of England. Just a few days after the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the army of the Duke of Normandy landed on the south coast of Britain.
Wilhelm's army embarked on ships at the mouth of the Somme and, having crossed the English Channel on a thousand ships, landed September 28, 1066 on the English coast near the town of Pevensey. She then moved to the Hastings area, east of the marshy Pevensey. In Hastings, William's carpenters assembled a wooden castle, cut down in advance in Normandy, the soldiers set up camp.
Having received news of this, Harold II immediately set off with his troops to the south. His people were exhausted by the rapid three-week march, while William's warriors calmly rested and gained strength. Both armies met at the town of Hastings, located off the southern coast of the island.
Harold Godwinson was the son of the most powerful magnate in England and rose to prominence through the talents of a military leader. He had the richest military experience and high authority among the soldiers. But overconfidence, perhaps, was his weak side. Harold's opponent, the Duke of Normandy, was not only a brave knight. It is much more important that he knew how to make competent decisions right in the course of the battle, which came in handy under Hastings.
Unlike the Anglo-Saxons, the Normans gave great importance cavalry. Warriors from noble families from childhood were trained in horseback riding, possession of edged weapons and combat skills on horseback. Ordinary British foot soldiers could hardly withstand the blow of the Norman horsemen, armed with long, heavy spears.
The Anglo-Saxon army consisted mainly of foot soldiers. And even those who had horses preferred to fight on foot. The Anglo-Saxon warriors were distinguished by their courage, but did not have the skills of quick rebuilding and maneuverable combat. For decades, they fought in close formation on foot with the same foot units of the Vikings.
King Harold II managed to take an advantageous position on one of the hills. The foot soldiers formed a dense wall of shields and prepared to repulse the Norman attack. The king himself saw the surrounding space well and was sure of victory. Wilhelm II ordered his crossbowmen and archers to open fire on the Anglo-Saxons. However, this shelling did not cause serious damage to the enemy.
Wilhelm II sent his infantry, consisting of Normans, Flemings and Bretons, to attack. However, a hail of English arrows fell upon these warriors. The attack turned out to be a failure. Moreover, the retreat of the Bretons was more like a flight than an organized retreat.
The Duke of Normandy, wishing to support the infantry, approached the ranks of the enemy. Soon Wilhelm's horse was killed, and he himself fell to the ground. Someone shouted: "The Duke is killed!". Panic began in the ranks of the Normans. But Wilhelm quickly mounted another horse, took off his helmet so that the soldiers could see his face, and galloped among his soldiers, inspiring them to continue the battle.
Believing that the Normans had been defeated, many of the Anglo-Saxons left the formation and ran down the hill, wanting to quickly capture the booty. It was a fatal mistake. Out of formation, these warriors were easy prey for the cavalry. Wilhelm II quickly assessed the changed situation. He ordered the infantrymen to feign retreat, and the cavalrymen to prepare for the attack.
Due to the Anglo-Saxon warriors who left the line, significant gaps appeared in the shield wall built by Harold. During these intervals, the Duke of Normandy sent his horsemen to attack. Bypassing the ranks of the British from the flank, a detachment of Normans was behind the backs of Harold's warriors and began to surround them.
The organized resistance of the Anglo-Saxons ceased. The battle turned into many scattered skirmishes. Many of Harold's warriors fought bravely. But without a dense formation of a shield wall, they could not offer serious resistance to the Norman knights. Soon, King Harold himself was killed in hand-to-hand combat. The death of the king broke the will of the Anglo-Saxons. Many of them took to flight. The battle turned into a massacre of the fleeing English.
At Westminster Abbey December 25, 1066 William was crowned king of England. As a result of the Norman Conquest, the ancient Anglo-Saxon state was destroyed, which was replaced by a centralized feudal monarchy with strong royal power, based on European chivalric culture and a vassal-fief system. The development of the country was given a new impetus, which allowed England to become one of the strongest powers in Europe in a short time.
The battle that took place and the death of Harold II led not only to the accession of William the Conqueror and the subjugation of the Anglo-Saxons by the Normans. In the longer term, all this became one of the causes of the Hundred Years War. After all, subsequent English monarchs remained dukes of Normandy. So, they had to take the vassal oath to the king of France. Avoidance of this humiliating procedure became an important reason for the conflict.
... read more >On October 14, 1066, near the town of Hastings (East Sussex, Great Britain), a battle took place between the Anglo-Saxon army of King Harold and the troops of the Norman Duke William. After winning this battle, William (the Conqueror) became the English king.
The autumn of 1066 was a real test for the Anglo-Saxon dynasty. Earl of Wessex Harold Godwinson, who became the English king (after the death of Edward the Confessor), was not recognized by his main competitors - the Norwegian king Harald Severe and the Duke of Normandy William.
Both rivals gathered armies, embarked on ships and moved to the shores of England. The Norwegians were the first to land on the English coast. Harold gathered an army and at the end of September, with an unexpected rush, intercepted the enemy forces. At the Battle of Stamford Bridge, the Norwegian army was defeated and their king killed. This defeat ended the era of Viking raids on England.
Not having time to catch their breath after a hard victory, the British learned that William of Normandy with his army had already landed on the coast near the city of Pevensey. On October 3, Harold from York with his army hurriedly moved towards a new enemy and by October 13 reached Hastings, where the enemy army was already located.
Harold managed to lead the army under the cover of the forest or at night and take a very advantageous position - on a hill that is now called Battle Hill, the top of which is located at an altitude of about 85 meters above sea level. There was a swamp to the north and south of the hill.
Wilhelm's camp was located in the vicinity of Hastings - to the north of it. Having learned from the scouts about the approach of the enemy, Wilhelm at about 6 o'clock on October 14 gave the order to march. Soon the battle began.
At first, nothing foretold victory for the Normans. Their archers and crossbowmen shot through their entire supply of arrows without causing any noticeable damage to Harold's foot soldiers. Attacks by infantry and knightly cavalry were repulsed with losses. The Normans were advancing up the hillside, unable to break through the dense defenses of the British, who stood on top in an advantageous position. In one of the attacks, the duke himself almost died - a horse was killed under him.
Already believing in victory, the Saxons opened their ranks and rushed in pursuit of the retreating enemy. However, unexpectedly, Wilhelm deployed his troops - the British, who had lost their formation, were defenseless against heavy cavalry and were killed.
After that, the Normans surrounded the hill, and from all sides attacked the remnants of Harold's army. In a brutal slaughter, almost all the Saxon warriors were killed, including the king himself and his two brothers.
This victory opened England to William. Since King Harold and his two brothers were killed, there was no leader left in the country who could organize a rebuff to the conquerors. After a short resistance, London submitted, and the surviving Anglo-Saxon aristocracy recognized William's rights to the English throne.
