The Roman calendar was one of the least accurate. At first, it generally had 304 days and included only 10 months, starting from the first month of spring (March) and ending with the onset of winter (Dekember - the “tenth” month); In winter, time was simply not kept. King Numa Pompilius is credited with introducing two winter months (January and February). An additional month - mercedonia - was inserted by the pontiffs at their own discretion, quite arbitrarily and in accordance with various momentary interests. In 46 BC. e. Julius Caesar reformed the calendar, according to the development of the Alexandrian astronomer Sosigen, taking the Egyptian solar calendar as a basis.
In order to correct the accumulated errors, by his power of the great pontiff, he inserted in the transitional year, in addition to mercedony, two additional months between November and December; and from January 1, 45, a Julian year of 365 days was established, with leap years every 4 years. At the same time, an extra day was inserted between February 23 and 24, as earlier mercedony; and since, according to the Roman system of reckoning, the day of February 24 was called “the sixth (sextus) from the March calends,” the intercalary day was also called “twice the sixth (bis sextus) from the March calends” and the year, respectively, annus bissextus - from here, through Greek language, our word is "leap year". At the same time, the month of quintiles (in Julius) was renamed in honor of Caesar.
In the 4th-6th centuries, in most Christian countries, unified Easter tables were established, made on the basis of julian calendar; thus, the Julian calendar spread to the whole of Christendom. In these tables, March 21 was taken as the day of the vernal equinox.
However, as the error accumulated (1 day in 128 years), the discrepancy between the astronomical spring equinox and the calendar became more and more pronounced, and many in Catholic Europe believed that it could no longer be ignored. This was noted by the Castilian king of the 13th century Alphonse X the Wise, in the next century the Byzantine scholar Nicephorus Gregory even proposed a reform of the calendar. In reality, such a reform was carried out by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, based on the project of the mathematician and physician Luigi Lilio. in 1582: the day after October 4th was October 15th. Secondly, a new, more precise rule about a leap year began to operate in it.
Julian calendar was developed by a group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sosigenes and introduced by Julius Caesar in 45 BC. uh..
The Julian calendar was based on the culture of ancient Egyptian chronology. In Ancient Russia, the calendar was known as the "Peaceful Circle", "Church Circle" and "Great Indiction".
The year according to the Julian calendar begins on January 1, since it was on this day from 153 BC. e. newly elected consuls took office. In the Julian calendar, a regular year has 365 days and is divided into 12 months. Once every 4 years, a leap year is declared, to which one day is added - February 29 (previously a similar system was adopted in the zodiac calendar according to Dionysius). Thus, the Julian year has an average duration of 365.25 days, which is 11 minutes different from the tropical year.
The Julian calendar is commonly referred to as the old style.
The calendar was based on static monthly holidays. Kalends were the first holiday with which the month began. The next holiday, falling on the 7th (in March, May, July and October) and on the 5th of the remaining months, were nons. The third holiday, falling on the 15th (in March, May, July and October) and the 13th of the remaining months, was the Ides.
Removal by the Gregorian calendar
In Catholic countries, the Julian calendar was replaced by a decree of Pope Gregory XIII with Gregorian calendar in 1582: the day after October 4th was October 15th. The Protestant countries abandoned the Julian calendar gradually, over the course of the 17th-18th centuries (the last were Great Britain from 1752 and Sweden). In Russia, the Gregorian calendar has been used since 1918 (it is usually called the new style), in Orthodox Greece - since 1923.
In the Julian calendar, a year was a leap year if it ended in 00. 325 AD. The Council of Nicaea decreed this calendar for all Christian countries. 325 g is the day of the spring equinox.
Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII on October 4, 1582 to replace the old Julian: the day after Thursday, October 4 became Friday, October 15 (there are no days from October 5 to October 14, 1582 in the Gregorian calendar).
In the Gregorian calendar, the length of the tropical year is 365.2425 days. The length of a non-leap year is 365 days, a leap year is 366.
Story
The reason for the adoption of the new calendar was the shift of the vernal equinox, which determined the date of Easter. Before Gregory XIII, Popes Paul III and Pius IV tried to implement the project, but they did not achieve success. The preparation of the reform at the direction of Gregory XIII was carried out by the astronomers Christopher Clavius and Luigi Lilio (aka Aloysius Lily). The results of their work were recorded in a papal bull, named after the first line of lat. Inter gravissimas ("Among the most important").
Firstly, the new calendar immediately at the time of adoption shifted the current date by 10 days due to accumulated errors.
Secondly, a new, more precise rule about a leap year began to operate in it.
A leap year has 366 days if:
Its number is divisible by 4 without a remainder and is not divisible by 100 or
Its number is evenly divisible by 400.
Thus, over time, the Julian and Gregorian calendars diverge more and more: by 1 day per century, if the number previous century is not divisible by 4. The Gregorian calendar reflects the true state of affairs much more accurately than the Julian. It gives a much better approximation to the tropical year.
In 1583, Gregory XIII sent an embassy to Patriarch Jeremiah II of Constantinople with a proposal to switch to a new calendar. At the end of 1583, at a council in Constantinople, the proposal was rejected as not in accordance with the canonical rules for celebrating Easter.
In Russia, the Gregorian calendar was introduced in 1918 by a decree of the Council of People's Commissars, according to which, in 1918, January 31 was followed by February 14.
Since 1923, most of the local Orthodox churches, with the exception of the Russian, Jerusalem, Georgian, Serbian and Athos, have adopted a similar to the Gregorian New Julian calendar, coinciding with it until 2800. It was also formally introduced by Patriarch Tikhon for use in the Russian Orthodox Church on October 15, 1923. However, this innovation, although it was accepted by almost all Moscow parishes, generally caused disagreement in the Church, so already on November 8, 1923, Patriarch Tikhon ordered "the universal and mandatory introduction of the new style into church use be temporarily postponed." Thus, the new style was valid in the Russian Orthodox Church for only 24 days.
In 1948, at the Moscow Conference of Orthodox Churches, it was decided that Easter, like all passing holidays, should be calculated according to the Alexandrian Paschalia (Julian calendar), and non-passing according to the calendar according to which the Local Church lives. The Finnish Orthodox Church celebrates Easter according to the Gregorian calendar.
07.12.2015
Gregorian calendar - modern system calculus, based on astronomical phenomena, namely, on the cyclic revolution of our planet around the Sun. The length of the year in this system is 365 days, while every fourth year becomes a leap year and is equal to 364 days.
History of occurrence
The date of approval of the Gregorian calendar is 10/4/1582. This calendar replaced the current Julian calendar. Most modern countries live exactly according to the new calendar: look at any calendar and you will get a visual representation of the Gregorian system. According to the Gregorian calculus, the year is divided into 12 months, the duration of which is 28, 29, 30 and 31 days. The calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII.
The transition to a new calculus led to the following changes:
- At the time of adoption, the Gregorian calendar immediately shifted the current date by 10 days and corrected the errors accumulated by the previous system;
- In the new calculus, a more correct rule for determining the leap year began to operate;
- The rules for calculating the day of Christian Easter have been modified.
In the year the new system was adopted, Spain, Italy, France, Portugal joined the chronology, a couple of years later other European countries joined them. In Russia, the transition to the Gregorian calendar took place only in the 20th century - in 1918. In the territory that was under the control of Soviet power, it was announced that after 01/31/1918, February 14 will immediately follow. For a long time, the citizens of the new country could not get used to the new system: the introduction of the Gregorian calendar in Russia caused confusion in documents and minds. In official papers, dates of birth and other significant events were indicated for a long time in a stromal and new style.
By the way, Orthodox Church still lives according to the Julian calendar (unlike the Catholic one), so the days of church holidays (Easter, Christmas) in Catholic countries do not coincide with Russian ones. According to the highest clergy of the Orthodox Church, the transition to the Gregorian system will lead to canonical violations: the rules of the Apostles do not allow the celebration of Holy Pascha to begin on the same day as the Jewish pagan holiday.
Later than all new system China has passed the countdown. This happened in 1949 after the proclamation of the People's Republic of China. In the same year, the world-wide calculus of years was established in China - from the Nativity of Christ.
At the time of the approval of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between the two systems of calculation was 10 days. By now, due to different quantity leap years discrepancies increased to 13 days. By March 1, 2100, the difference will already be 14 days.
Compared to the Julian calendar, the Gregorian calendar is more accurate from an astronomical point of view: it is as close as possible to the tropical year. The reason for the change of systems was the gradual shift of the day of the equinox in the Julian calendar: this caused the divergence of the Easter full moons from the astronomical ones.
All modern calendars have a form familiar to us precisely due to the transition of the leadership of the Catholic Church to a new temporal calculus. If the Julian calendar continued to function, the discrepancies between the real (astronomical) equinoxes and Easter holidays would increase even more, which would confuse the very principle of determining church holidays.
By the way, the Gregorian calendar itself is not 100% accurate from an astronomical point of view, but the error in it, according to astronomers, will accumulate only after 10,000 years of use.
People have been successfully using the new time system for more than 400 years. The calendar is still a useful and functional thing that everyone needs to coordinate dates, plan business and personal life.
Modern printing production has reached an unprecedented technological development. Any commercial or social organization can order calendars with their own symbols in the printing house: they will be produced quickly, efficiently, at an adequate price.
The converter converts dates to the Gregorian and Julian calendars and calculates the Julian date; for the Julian calendar, the Latin and Roman versions are displayed.
Notes
- Gregorian calendar("new style") introduced in 1582 AD. e. by Pope Gregory XIII so that the day of the vernal equinox corresponds to a certain day (March 21). Earlier dates are converted using the standard rules for Gregorian leap years. Can be converted up to 2400
- Julian calendar("old style") introduced in 46 BC. e. Julius Caesar and totaled 365 days; leap year was every third year. This error was corrected by Emperor Augustus: from 8 BC. e. and up to 8 AD e. extra days leap years were skipped. Earlier dates are converted using the standard rules for Julian leap years.
- Roman version the Julian calendar was introduced around 750 BC. e. Due to the fact that the number of days in the Roman calendar year changed, dates before 8 AD. e. are not accurate and are for demonstration purposes only. The reckoning was conducted from the founding of Rome ( ab Urbe condata) - 753/754 BC e. Dates prior to 753 BC e. not calculated.
- Month names of the Roman calendar are agreed definitions (adjectives) with a noun mensis'month':
- Numbers of the month determined by the phases of the moon. In different months, Kalends, Nonas and Ides fell on different dates:
The first days of the month are determined by counting the days from the upcoming Nons, after the Non - from the Eid, after the Eid - from the upcoming Kalends. It uses the preposition ante‘before’ with the accusative case (accusatīvus):
a. d. XI Kal. Sept. (abbreviated form);
ante diem undecĭmum Kalendas Septembres (full form).
The ordinal number is consistent with the form diem, that is, put in the accusative case of the singular male(accusativus singularis masculinum). Thus, numerals take the following forms:
tertium decimum |
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quartum decimum |
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quintum decimum |
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septimum decimum |
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If a day falls on the Kalends, Nonae, or Ides, then the name of that day (Kalendae, Nonae, Idūs) and the name of the month are put in the instrumental case plural female(ablativus plurālis feminīnum), for example:
The day immediately preceding the Kalends, Nonams, or Idams is denoted by the word pridie(‘on the eve’) with accusative feminine plural (accusatīvus plurālis feminīnum):
Thus, adjective-names of months can take the following forms:
form acc. pl. f |
Form abl. pl. f |
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- Julian date is the number of days that have passed since noon on January 1, 4713 BC. e. This date is arbitrary and was chosen only to harmonize various systems of chronology.
At times ancient rome It was accepted that debtors pay interest on the first days of the month. This day had a special name - the day of calends, and the Latin calendarium literally translates as "debt book". But the Greeks did not have such a date, so the Romans ironically said about inveterate debtors that they would return the loan before the Greek calends, that is, never. This expression subsequently became winged around the world. In our time, the Gregorian calendar is almost universally used to calculate large periods of time. What are its features and what is its principle of construction - this is exactly what will be discussed in our article.
How did the Gregorian calendar come about?
As you know, the basis for the modern chronology is the tropical year. So astronomers call the time interval between the spring equinoxes. It is equal to 365.2422196 mean earth solar days. Before the modern Gregorian calendar appeared, the Julian calendar, which was invented in the 45th century BC, was in use all over the world. In the old system, proposed by Julius Caesar, one year in the range of 4 years averaged 365.25 days. This value is 11 minutes and 14 seconds longer than the tropical year. Therefore, over time, the error of the Julian calendar constantly accumulated. Of particular displeasure was the constant shift in the day of the celebration of Easter, which was tied to the spring equinox. Later, during the Council of Nicaea (325), a special decree was even adopted, which determined a single date for Easter for all Christians. Many suggestions have been made to improve the calendar. But only the recommendations of the astronomer Aloysius Lily (Neapolitan astronomer) and Christopher Clavius (Bavarian Jesuit) were given the green light. It happened on February 24, 1582: the Pope, Gregory XIII, issued a special message, which introduced two significant additions to the Julian calendar. In order for March 21 to remain in the calendar as the date of the vernal equinox, from 1582, starting from October 4, 10 days were withdrawn immediately and followed by the 15th. The second addition concerned the introduction of a leap year - it came every three years and differed from the usual ones in that it was divided by 400. Thus, the new improved chronology system began its countdown from 1582, it received its name in honor of the pope, and among the people it became known as the new style.
Switching to the Gregorian calendar
It should be noted that not all countries immediately adopted such innovations. Spain, Poland, Italy, Portugal, Holland, France and Luxembourg were the first to adopt the new timekeeping system (1582). A little later they were joined by Switzerland, Austria and Hungary. In Denmark, Norway and Germany, the Gregorian calendar was introduced in the 17th century, in Finland, Sweden, Great Britain and the Northern Netherlands in the 18th century, in Japan in the 19th century. And at the beginning of the 20th century, Bulgaria, China, Romania, Serbia, Egypt, Greece and Turkey joined them. The Gregorian calendar came into force in Russia a year later, after the 1917 revolution. However, the Orthodox Russian Church decided to preserve the traditions and still lives according to the old style.
prospects
Despite the fact that the Gregorian calendar is very accurate, it is still not perfect and accumulates an error of 3 days in ten thousand years. In addition, it does not take into account the slowdown in the rotation of our planet, which leads to a lengthening of the day by 0.6 seconds every century. The variability of the number of weeks and days in half-years, quarters and months is another drawback. Today, new projects exist and are being developed. The first discussions regarding the new calendar took place as early as 1954 at the UN level. However, at that time they could not come to a decision and this question was postponed.
The solar calendar takes into account the apparent movement of the Sun across the sky and the positions of the stars. It was invented by the Egyptians, observing the appearance of the star Sirius in the sky. But their year lasted exactly 365 days, and the true solar or tropical year is longer (today it is 365.2421897 days). Therefore, over the centuries, an error has accumulated. The Roman calendar was even less accurate, and the dates of religious holidays shifted greatly.
Julius Caesar had the right to introduce a new calendar, since he had the power of the great pontiff - the high priest
A group of Alexandrian astronomers led by Sosigen created a new calendar based on the Egyptian one - Julian. It is named after Julius Caesar, by whose decree this calendar was introduced in Rome from January 1, 45 BC. e.
The year consisted of 365 days, but every fourth was a leap year - 1 day longer. With this amendment, the duration of the Julian year was 365.25 days. It was much more accurate, but a 1-day error accumulated in it every 128 years. And by the 16th century the spring equinox, which is used to determine the day of Easter, came about 10 days earlier than March 21.
In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII reformed the calendar by reducing the number of leap years. Previously, all the so-called age-old years that completed each century were considered as such. Now only those secular years have become leap years, in which the number of hundreds of years is divided without a remainder by four (1600,2000,2400), and the rest (1700,1800,1900,2100) remained simple. New calendar was named Gregorian. The Gregorian year is 365.2425 days long, and an error of 1 day accumulates over about 10,000 years. Often there is another estimate - about 3 thousand years. This number is obtained if we do not take into account changes in the number of days in a tropical year and the relationship between the lengths of the seasons.
Pope Gregory XIII reformed the calendar. After October 4, 1582, October 15 came. Today, the Gregorian calendar is used in most countries of the world.
Old and new styles
The Gregorian calendar, or, as they say, the new style, came into practice gradually. If the Catholic countries accepted it immediately, then the Protestant and Orthodox continued to live according to the old style. The states of Northern Germany, Denmark and Norway switched to the new style in 1700, Great Britain - in 1752, Sweden - in 1753, Bulgaria - in 1916, Russia - in 1918, Serbia and Romania - in 1919 city, Greece - in 1924
The difference between the calendars is increasing all the time and today is 13 days. The Russian Orthodox Church still adheres to the Julian calendar, so we celebrate Christmas not on December 25, but on January 7. And not only church holidays are reminiscent of the old style: it is not for nothing that on the night of January 13-14, it is customary in Russia to celebrate the old New Year.
